\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5398",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Photomedicine - Advances in Clinical Practice",title:"Photomedicine",subtitle:"Advances in Clinical Practice",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Photomedicine is one of the most inspiring and interdisciplinary fields in medicine that involves the research and application of photobiology with respect to health and disease. Photomedicine has contributed to the clinical practice of a variety of medical fields, including dermatology, surgery, radiology, diagnostics, cardiology, and anticancer therapy. Furthermore, expansion of its scope and contribution can be expected. This book covers a wide range of aspects and issues related to photomedicine, which brings together researchers from many countries. These include the basic science of photodynamic therapy, clinical applications in various kinds of medical fields, photochemotherapy, laser therapy for musculoskeletal pain, intense pulsed light therapy for photorejuvenation, biological function of low-level laser therapy, and photobiology for skin rejuvenation. Not only will this be beneficial for readers, but it will also contribute to scientists making further breakthroughs in photomedicine.",isbn:"978-953-51-3156-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3155-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4838-8",doi:"10.5772/62699",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"photomedicine-advances-in-clinical-practice",numberOfPages:262,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8ff7fc03a661c7b031e0ce44d1ec4824",bookSignature:"Yohei Tanaka",publishedDate:"May 17th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5398.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19076,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:65,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 14th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 19th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 17th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 16th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36633",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohei",middleName:null,surname:"Tanaka",slug:"yohei-tanaka",fullName:"Yohei Tanaka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36633/images/1764_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yohei Tanaka is a board certified plastic surgeon who is dedicated to his patients as well as an enthusiastic researcher. He received his MD from Shinshu University School of Medicine in 2000., followed by a Ph.D. from Shinshu University Graduate School of Medicine in 2010. \nIn addition to being a lecturer, Department of Dermatology, Tokyo Women’s Medical University, and visiting professor, Department of Applied Life Sciences, Niigata University of Pharmacy and Applied Life Sciences, he is also the founder of the Clinica Tanaka Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and Anti-aging Center, and the Society for Near-infrared rays Research.\nDr. Yohei Tanaka enthusiastically performs various researches at several prestigious universities, his own clinic, and internatinally well-known companies. He now specializes in blepharoplasty, filler injection, and the biological investigation of near-infrared radiation.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1008",title:"Radiology Diagnosis",slug:"radiology-diagnosis"}],chapters:[{id:"53978",title:"Photosensitizers Imprinting Intracellular Signaling Pathways in Dermato-Oncology Therapy",doi:"10.5772/65979",slug:"photosensitizers-imprinting-intracellular-signaling-pathways-in-dermato-oncology-therapy",totalDownloads:1497,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the main deregulated intracellular pathways at both genetic and proteomic levels that are found in three main skin cancers: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma. In basal cell carcinoma, the main intracellular signaling pathways is the Sonic Hedgehog pathway, while in squamous cell carcinoma, it is the p53 pathway. However, in both nonmelanoma skin cancers, these major pathways trigger cross-activation with other important ones. In melanoma, mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and PI3K/Akt pathways are deeply deregulated, and moreover due to the disease complexity, BRAF, RAS (N/H/K), NF1 and Triple-WT melanoma subtypes need additional molecular stratification. The stage in which photodynamic therapies’ clinical application is in the treatment of these diseases is another subject tackled by the chapter. Thus, if basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma possess in their therapeutical armamentarium photodynamic therapies approach, melanoma, with its particularities, still needs thorough molecular investigations to adapt this particular therapy. Based on the accumulated knowledge on pathological intracellular pathways, the chapter describes the molecular details that reside in applying photodynamic therapy. In vivo and in vitro models of cutaneous malignancy and photodynamic therapies’ molecular events are further detailed.",signatures:"Carolina Constantin and Monica Neagu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53978",authors:[{id:"52215",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica",surname:"Teodora Neagu",slug:"monica-teodora-neagu",fullName:"Monica Teodora Neagu"},{id:"52218",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Constantin",slug:"carolina-constantin",fullName:"Carolina Constantin"}],corrections:null},{id:"55081",title:"Pleural Photodynamic Therapy and Surgery in Thoracic Cancer Patients with Pleural Spread",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68722",slug:"pleural-photodynamic-therapy-and-surgery-in-thoracic-cancer-patients-with-pleural-spread",totalDownloads:1098,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pleural spread from non-small cell lung cancer is a difficult situation. The average survival in the situation is about 6–9 months. We investigate the current management of this challenging condition. Although, there is no much evidence found in the literature, we do see the pleural photodynamic therapy giving some promising light in the dark night. However, the patients still require complete neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapies, as well as radical tumor resection. Pleural PDT is one of the multi-modality treatments, which combined can achieve satisfactory oncological results. The long-term survival can be achieved in more than half the patients. However, the side effects of pleural PDT include skin hypersensitivity, trachea and esophageal perforation, and ARDS, which we should keep in mind.",signatures:"Ke-Cheng Chen and Jang-Ming Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55081",authors:[{id:"189104",title:"Prof.",name:"Jang-Ming",surname:"Lee",slug:"jang-ming-lee",fullName:"Jang-Ming Lee"},{id:"198027",title:"M.D.",name:"Ke-Cheng",surname:"Chen",slug:"ke-cheng-chen",fullName:"Ke-Cheng Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"54041",title:"Photodynamic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/66420",slug:"photodynamic-therapy",totalDownloads:1339,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Photodynamic therapy (PDT) employs light activation of tissue‐localized photosensitizer in an oxygen‐dependent process which initiates oxidative stress, inflammation, and cell death. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves the activation of a previously administered photosensitizing agent by visible light to induce tumor necrosis. Photosensitizers are topically applied in the treatment of skin tumors to avoid systemic side effects. The main dermatology indications for topical PDT are superficial nonmelanoma skin cancer and dysplasia, notably superficial basal carcinoma (BCC), Bowen's disease (BD), and actinic keratosis (AK). In this chapter, we evaluated the feasibility and efficacy of aminolevulinic acid (ALA) as a photosensitizer (ALA‐PDT) in combination with CO2 laser in the treatment of dermatological disease from basics to clinic research.",signatures:"Wei Liu and Hong Cai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54041",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54041",authors:[{id:"187769",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei",surname:"Liu",slug:"wei-liu",fullName:"Wei Liu"},{id:"194515",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong",surname:"Cai",slug:"hong-cai",fullName:"Hong Cai"}],corrections:null},{id:"52781",title:"Can Nanotechnology Shine a New Light on Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapies?",doi:"10.5772/65974",slug:"can-nanotechnology-shine-a-new-light-on-antimicrobial-photodynamic-therapies-",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent developments in light‐controlled therapies (e.g., photodynamic and photothermal therapies) provide promising strategies to prevent and suppress bacterial infections, which are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Antibacterial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) has drawn increasing attention from the scientific society for its potential to kill multidrug‐resistant pathogenic bacteria and for its low tendency to induce drug resistance. In this chapter, we summarize the mechanism of action of aPDT, the photosensitizers, as well the current developments in terms of treating Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria. The chapter also describes the recent progress relating to photomedicine for preventing bacterial infections and biofilm formation. We focus on the laser device used in aPDT and on the light‐treatment parameters that may have a strong impact on the results of aPDT experiments. In the last part of this chapter, we survey on the various nanoparticles delivering photoactive molecules, and photoactive‐nanoparticles that can potentially enhance the antimicrobial action of aPDT.",signatures:"Nora Bloise, Paolo Minzioni, Marcello Imbriani and Livia Visai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52781",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52781",authors:[{id:"188428",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora",surname:"Bloise",slug:"nora-bloise",fullName:"Nora Bloise"},{id:"194755",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Minzoni",slug:"paolo-minzoni",fullName:"Paolo Minzoni"},{id:"194756",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",surname:"Imbriani",slug:"marcello-imbriani",fullName:"Marcello Imbriani"},{id:"194757",title:"Prof.",name:"Livia",surname:"Visai",slug:"livia-visai",fullName:"Livia Visai"}],corrections:null},{id:"54273",title:"Low Level Energy Photodynamic Therapy for Skin Processes and Regeneration",doi:"10.5772/65344",slug:"low-level-energy-photodynamic-therapy-for-skin-processes-and-regeneration",totalDownloads:1474,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Skin is the largest human organ and displays multiple functions involving structure and protection against external agents that may affect the body. Solar radiation accelerates the normal aging process and may even cause great damage leading to many different cutaneous diseases and skin cancer. Moreover, a wound in the skin may be an open channel for the access of pathogens usually exposing blood vessels for infections and causing serious complications. For many reasons, regulatory skin processes are of great deal in different approaches: basic antiaging, wound healing, and skin cancer. In a good way, photoprocesses with specific wavelength at low energy levels associated with photoactive compounds are known to cause the opposite effect, promoting the healing of cutaneous diseases and leading to well-defined outcomes in rejuvenation and antiaging. This chapter will discuss the most relevant topics in photo skin regeneration using low energy levels associated with photodynamic therapy (PDT), which emerged as a combination to potentialize molecules with the already known effects of PDT and low level laser therapy (LLLT) in the treatment of skin pathologies, known as a photobiomodulation process.",signatures:"Antonio Tedesco and Priscila Jesus",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54273",authors:[{id:"189288",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Priscila",surname:"Jesus",slug:"priscila-jesus",fullName:"Priscila Jesus"},{id:"189363",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Tedesco",slug:"antonio-tedesco",fullName:"Antonio Tedesco"}],corrections:null},{id:"52261",title:"Light-Emitting Woven Fabric for Treatment with Photodynamic Therapy and Monitoring of Actinic Keratosis",doi:"10.5772/64997",slug:"light-emitting-woven-fabric-for-treatment-with-photodynamic-therapy-and-monitoring-of-actinic-kerato",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A successful photodynamic therapy (PDT) requires a specific photosensitizer, oxygen and light of a specific wavelength and power. Today photodynamic therapy (PDT) is administered to patients with light-emitting diode (LED) panels. These panels deliver a non-uniform light distribution on the human body parts, as the complex human anatomy is not a flat surface (head vertex, hand, shoulder, etc.). For an efficient photodynamic therapy (PDT), a light-emitting fabric (LEF) was woven from plastic optical fibers (POF) aiming at the treatment of dermatologic diseases such as actinic keratosis (AK). Plastic optical fibers (POF) (Toray, PGR-FB250) have been woven in textile in order to create macro-bendings, and thus emit out the injected light directly to the skin. The light intensity and light-emitting homogeneity of the LEF were improved thanks to Doehlert Experimental Design. During the treatment with PDT, the photosensitizers were activated in the cancerous cells. These cells may be visualized, as they show a characteristic fluorescence under UV light, which is called fluorescence diagnosis (FD). Therefore, it is proposed to modify the developed LEF for PDT to measure the fluorescence amount. For this aim, a part of POFs was cut out to observe the quantity of light that could be collected while the LEF was connected to a light source. The first prototypes showed the possibility of the illumination with the same LEF without losing the efficiency but also imaging the collected light.",signatures:"Yesim Oguz, Vladan Koncar, Cedric Cochrane and Serge Mordon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52261",authors:[{id:"30935",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladan",surname:"Koncar",slug:"vladan-koncar",fullName:"Vladan Koncar"},{id:"46034",title:"Mr.",name:"Cedric",surname:"Cochrane",slug:"cedric-cochrane",fullName:"Cedric Cochrane"},{id:"187875",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yesim",surname:"Oguz",slug:"yesim-oguz",fullName:"Yesim Oguz"},{id:"194310",title:"Prof.",name:"Serge",surname:"Mordon",slug:"serge-mordon",fullName:"Serge Mordon"}],corrections:null},{id:"53592",title:"Nurses and Pharmacists in Interdisciplinary Team of Health Care Providers in Photodynamic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/65975",slug:"nurses-and-pharmacists-in-interdisciplinary-team-of-health-care-providers-in-photodynamic-therapy",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Background: The modern treatment is based on wide cooperation between diverse representatives of medical professions. The photodynamic therapy is a noninvasive method of treatment both neoplastic diseases and miscellaneous noncancerous illnesses. It is complementary and competitive in some way to various traditional treatment techniques, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery. This review emphasizes the significance of collaboration between specialists engaged in research, development, and practical use of photodynamic therapy.",signatures:"Tomasz Kocki, Beata Czarczynska-Goslinska, Katarzyna Kocka,\nMagdalena Stolarska, Daria Wachowska, Sebastian Lijewski,\nTomasz Koczorowski and Tomasz Goslinski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53592",authors:[{id:"189472",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Kocki",slug:"tomasz-kocki",fullName:"Tomasz Kocki"},{id:"194381",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Goslinski",slug:"tomasz-goslinski",fullName:"Tomasz Goslinski"},{id:"196554",title:"MSc.",name:"Beata",surname:"Czarczynska-Goslinska",slug:"beata-czarczynska-goslinska",fullName:"Beata Czarczynska-Goslinska"},{id:"196555",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Kocka",slug:"katarzyna-kocka",fullName:"Katarzyna Kocka"},{id:"196556",title:"MSc.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Stolarska",slug:"magdalena-stolarska",fullName:"Magdalena Stolarska"},{id:"196558",title:"MSc.",name:"Sebastian",surname:"Lijewski",slug:"sebastian-lijewski",fullName:"Sebastian Lijewski"},{id:"196559",title:"MSc.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Koczorowski",slug:"tomasz-koczorowski",fullName:"Tomasz Koczorowski"},{id:"196562",title:"MSc.",name:"Daria",surname:"Wachowska",slug:"daria-wachowska",fullName:"Daria Wachowska"}],corrections:null},{id:"52537",title:"Effectiveness and Safety of Topical Phototherapy in the Treatment of Dermatological Diseases",doi:"10.5772/65712",slug:"effectiveness-and-safety-of-topical-phototherapy-in-the-treatment-of-dermatological-diseases",totalDownloads:1639,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phototherapy consists in the use of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from artificial sources for therapeutic purposes. Despite the introduction of new and powerful drugs (including biological and target therapies), phototherapy remains an established, lower cost, and effective option for the treatment of many common skin diseases.",signatures:"Giorgio Delrosso and Paola Savoia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52537",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52537",authors:[{id:"187787",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola",surname:"Savoia",slug:"paola-savoia",fullName:"Paola Savoia"},{id:"188619",title:"Dr.",name:"Giorgio",surname:"Delrosso",slug:"giorgio-delrosso",fullName:"Giorgio Delrosso"}],corrections:null},{id:"53270",title:"The Use of Photomedicine in Musculoskeletal Pain",doi:"10.5772/65748",slug:"the-use-of-photomedicine-in-musculoskeletal-pain",totalDownloads:1727,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Musculoskeletal pain is a major cause of disability. Myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) in particular are a common source of pain in a substantial number of patients presenting at a pain clinic. Many different invasive and non-invasive forms have been advocated to the treatment of MTrPs. However, favourable outcome rates are inconsistent and some of these treatment forms described are often painful and have potentially dangerous side effects. Photomedicine including the coherent light sources (lasers) and more recently, non-coherent light sources have been reported to be beneficial in soft tissue lesions including MTrPs. Their beneficial therapeutic effects can be obtained without undesired effects. The main intentions of this chapter are to bring the attention of the doctors and physical therapists to the scientific approach of photomedicine, in particular laser therapy for the relief of pain arising from MTrPs, and to demonstrate how this type of therapy can be utilized in a rational manner for the relief of musculoskeletal pain. In addition, it has been found necessary to include or to start with an overview of the recently recognized diagnostic and therapeutic importance of MTrPs. Attention will therefore first be drawn mainly to incidence, types, aetiology, clinical diagnostic criteria and conventional forms of MTrPs.",signatures:"Abdullah M. Al-Shenqiti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53270",authors:[{id:"187932",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",surname:"Al-Shenqiti",slug:"abdullah-al-shenqiti",fullName:"Abdullah Al-Shenqiti"}],corrections:null},{id:"54074",title:"Intense Pulsed Light Therapy",doi:"10.5772/65345",slug:"intense-pulsed-light-therapy",totalDownloads:1526,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Intense pulsed light (IPL) is one of the most effective nonablative approaches to treat skin photoaging. The broad range of wavelengths (500–1200 nm) emitted from IPL devices effectively target both melanin and hemoglobin in the skin. Numerous trials show the effectiveness and compatibility of IPL devices in a variety of skin conditions, especially in cosmetic indications such as hypertrichosis and telangiectasias. Compared with the wide clinical use of IPL, the biochemical and molecular mechanism is not clear. Both in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrate that IPL could increase the production of extracellular matrix, promote the proliferation of fibroblasts, and increase the secretion of TGF-β and matrix metalloproteinases, which play important roles in the photorejuvenation effects of IPL. However, investigations regarding the detailed underlying mechanism are necessary.",signatures:"Gu Weijie, Liu Hongmei and Liu Wei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54074",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54074",authors:[{id:"187769",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei",surname:"Liu",slug:"wei-liu",fullName:"Wei Liu"},{id:"194476",title:"Dr.",name:"Weijie",surname:"Gu",slug:"weijie-gu",fullName:"Weijie Gu"},{id:"194477",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongmei",surname:"Liu",slug:"hongmei-liu",fullName:"Hongmei Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"52884",title:"Biological Function of Low Reactive Level Laser Therapy (LLLT)",doi:"10.5772/65747",slug:"biological-function-of-low-reactive-level-laser-therapy-lllt-",totalDownloads:1760,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Low reactive level laser therapy (LLLT) and photobiomodulation are mainly focused on the activation of intracellular or extracellular photoabsorbable molecule (chromophore) and the initiation of cellular signaling using low power lasers and lights. Over the past 40 decades, a number of basic and clinical researches were reported that the laser therapy had the potential to improve wound healing and reduce pain and inflammation. In recent years, the term “LLLT” has become widely recognized. In this review, the mechanisms of action of LLLT at a cellular level are described. Finally, our recent research results that LLLT enhanced the cells differentiation are also described.",signatures:"Toshihiro Kushibiki and Miya Ishihara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52884",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52884",authors:[{id:"188512",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshihiro",surname:"Kushibiki",slug:"toshihiro-kushibiki",fullName:"Toshihiro Kushibiki"}],corrections:null},{id:"54924",title:"Photobiological Basics and Clinical Indications of Phototherapy for Skin Rejuvenation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68723",slug:"photobiological-basics-and-clinical-indications-of-phototherapy-for-skin-rejuvenation",totalDownloads:2403,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sunlight is essential to almost all forms of life for both light and heat. Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis, and man and animals alike need plants for many vital purposes. The sun featured many Millennia ago not only as a deity but also as a therapeutic source, so phototherapy is by no means a recent phenomenon. Niels Finsen’s therapeutic arc lamp system in the early 1900s replaced the sun as a therapeutic source. Since then, many light sources have been successfully applied for phototherapy, with laser diodes and light-emitting diodes the most efficient. This chapter will explore what phototherapy is, and examine its important role in the fast-developing indication of skin rejuvenation. Systems used in phototherapy will be discussed and compared. Photobiological basics and light/tissue interaction underlying the process will be examined, together with the importance of treatment parameters. The wound healing process, on which skin rejuvenation rests, will be dissected with a discussion of the optimum wavelengths to photoactivate the skin cells, leading to the clinical indications in photorejuvenation.",signatures:"Robert Glen Calderhead and Yohei Tanaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54924",authors:[{id:"36633",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohei",surname:"Tanaka",slug:"yohei-tanaka",fullName:"Yohei Tanaka"},{id:"190922",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Glen",surname:"Calderhead",slug:"r.-glen-calderhead",fullName:"R. 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Energy has been a fundamental need of a human society. On the other hand, energy consumption has increased exponentially due to rapid growth in population and modernization [1]. The population of world has grown after Second World War, from two billion to seven billion in the 21st century [2, 3]. Currently fossil fuels are the major source for the primary energy of the world (Figure 1) [4, 5].
Global energy consumption in 2013 [
According to the International Energy Outlook 2013 set by the U.S Energy Information Administration [6, 7], the total energy consumed in 2010 was 5.5282 × 1020 J, which is predicted to rise further to 8.6510 × 1020 J by 2040. Accordingly, the total world energy consumption will grow by 56% between 2010 and 2040; as given in Figure 2. The mismatch between the energy supply and energy demand has increased dramatically all over the world.
Total world energy consumption, history and projection [
The limited fossil fuelsand the associated problems such as energy security environmental issueshave emphasized the need for sustainable, reliable renewable energy sources.
In the view of the current energy scenario, renewable energy sources could be fantastic choice for the world to meet the increasing energy demand and socio economic development. Renewable energy sources are gaining much attention due to their non-toxicity, biodegradability and low emissions profile as compared to petro diesel [8, 9]. According to US energy information administration, there are seven countries (Paraguay (100), Iceland (100%), Costa Rica (99%) Norway (98.5%) Austria (80%), Brazil (75%) and Denmark (69.4%) in the World to have or very near to 100 percent renewable energy sources. Resources of renewable energy are available on large scale such as hydropower, solar, biomass, wind and geothermal energy Figure 1. The fossil fuels substitution with renewable energy sources will have very positive effect on greenhouse gases emissions. It has been reported that 2% replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources will result in 1.8% reduction of emissions of CO2 while replacement of 100% will lead to 90% reduction [10]. In the current energy scenario, renewable energy sources could be a fantastic choice for the World to meet the increasing energy demand. Among them, biodiesel is considered to be the most reliable and consistent source of renewable energy supply.
Biodiesel may be defined as an oxygenated, non-toxic, biodegradable, eco-friendly and sulfur-free alternative diesel oil. Chemically biodiesel may be defined as a fuel that is composed of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids obtained from renewable sources such as animal fats, vegetable oilsthat comply the ASTM and European quality standards. Different natural oils are used for the production of biodiesel such as coconut, rapeseeds, soybeans and waste cooking oil (Figure 3).
Advantages of biodiesel [
Several efforts have been made to produce derivatives of vegetable oil that can approximate the performance and properties of hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels. The problems associated with the vegetable oil to be used as diesel fuel are high viscosity, low stability against oxidation and the subsequent reactions of polymerization, low volatility due to which incomplete combustion occurs, resulting in the formation of high amount of ash [12]. Different process can be used in order to change these properties such as direct use or blending, micro emulsion, pyrolysis (thermal cracking) and the most conventional process is the transesterification.
In beginning of 1980, there was a considerable discussion about the use of vegetable oil as a fuel. The concept of using food as a fuel was explained in 1981 by Bartholomew, demonstrating that petroleum should be the alternative fuel for combustion rather than the vegetable oil. Direct use of vegetable oils has been considered impractical and not satisfactory for both direct and indirect diesel engines. The high viscosity, free fatty acid content, acid composition and the formation of gum due to polymerization and oxidation during storage and combustion are the obvious problems.
Ma et al. [13] highlighted two severe problems such as incomplete combustion and oil deterioration associated with the direct use of vegetable oil as a fuels. Therefore, it will be significant to dilute the vegetable oils with some materials such as diesel fuels, ethanol or solvents to reduce the density and viscosity of vegetable oils.
Bilgin et al. [14] reported that 4% ethanol addition to diesel fuel increased the brake torque, brake thermal efficiency and brake power while decreasing the consumption of brake specific fuel. As the ethanol boiling point is less than the diesel fuel, ethanol could assist the process of combustion through an unburned blend spray.
Generally, pyrolysis may be defined as the thermochemical decomposition of feedstock at medium (300–800℃) to high temperatures (800–1300℃) in an inert atmosphere. Pyrolysis means a chemical change that is caused by the application of thermal energy in the absence of oxygen or air or by the application of heat in the presence of catalyst that results in the bonds cleavage and formation of various small molecules [15]. Being a type of destructive distillation, it is performed in an inert atmosphere in the temperature range of 300–1300℃. Based on the operating conditions, pyrolysis may be classified into three subclasses such as conventional pyrolysis that occur in the temperature range of 550 K–900 K, (400–500℃) fast pyrolysis occurring in 850 K–1250 K (400–650℃) and the flash pyrolysis occurs in the 1050 K–1300 K (700–1000℃) range of temperature. Pyrolysis is the process used for the synthesis of fuel from triglycerides, vegetable oil, animal fats or natural fatty acids. Fast pyrolysis is used for the bio-oil production. Vegetable oils can be cracked to improve cetane number and reduce the viscosity. The products obtained as a result of cracking include carboxylic acids, alkanes, alkadienes, alkenes and aromatics in various proportions. Rape seed oil, cotton seed oil, soybean oil and other oils with the use of appropriate catalyst were successfully cracked to get biofuel.
Micro-emulsions are isotropic, translucent or clear, thermodynamically stable dispersion of water, oil, surfactants, co-surfactants (amphiphilic molecule) for stabilization. In micro-emulsions, the droplet diameters range from 100 to 1000 Å (10 nm–100 nm). A micro-emulsion can be made of vegetable oils with an ester and dispersant (co-solvent) or vegetable oil with alcohol and surfactant with or without diesel fuels [16].
Alcohols such as ethanol or methanol are frequently used as a viscosity lowering additives. Whereas higher alcohols are used as surfactants. The alkyl nitrates are also used as cetane improvers. It has been reported that micro-emulsion can results in the reduction of viscosity, increase in cetane number and good spray characters in the biodiesel. However, continuous use of micro-emulsified diesel causes problems in engine such as formation of carbon deposits, injector needle sticking and incomplete combustion.
Transesterification is a process that involves the reaction of triglycerides such as vegetable oil, with alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to produce 3 moles of fatty acid esters and one mole of glycerol [17]. Catalyst is used to increase the rate and yield of the reaction. The reaction is reversible. Excess alcohol is used to shift the equilibrium to the product side. Suitable alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol are used for the transesterification reaction. Among these methanol and ethanol are most frequently used because of their low cost and physical and chemical advantages (polar and shortest chain alcohol). The fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) obtained by this process can be used as an alternative fuel for diesel engines [18]. The catalyst used for transesterification may be acid or base (homogeneous or heterogeneous) and lipase enzymes. Transesterification reaction depends on various factors such as catalyst concentration, nature of the feedstock, molar ratio of alcohol-oil, agitation rate, temperature, reaction time, amount of free fatty acids and moisture content [19]. Transesterification is a reversible reaction and proceeds by mixing the reactants under heat. In this process, 1 mole of triglyceride react with 3 moles of alcohol gives 3 mole of fatty acid alkyl ester and 1 mole of glycerol in a sequence of three reversible reactions where the triglyceride are converted to diglycerides and then to monoglycerides as shown in Figure 4. From each step, one molecule of alkyl ester is produced (Figure 5).
Transesterification reaction [
Schematic representation of transesterification.
The catalysts used in the transesterification reaction, are extremely important to the group. The presence of a catalyst speeds up the reaction, increasing the yield of the final product. These catalysts are classified into two major categories: homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts, each of which can further be divided into subgroups. The classification is shown in Figure 6.
Catalysts used for biodiesel production.
The base catalysts used for the process of Transesterification include KOH, NaOH, carbonates and corresponding potassium and sodium alkoxides such as sodium ethoxide, sodium methoxide, sodium butoxide and sodium propoxide. The alkaline catalyzed Transesterification reactions are 4000 times faster than acid catalyzed Transesterification reactions. As compared to acidic catalyst, the base catalyst are less corrosive to industrial equipments, hence alkaline catalysts are mostly employed in commercial. However, the base catalysedTransesterification reaction is affected significantly by the presence of free fatty acid (FFA) and moisture content in the feedstock. Therefore, the glycerides and alcohol used for Transesterification must be substantially anhydrous. It has been recommended that the FFA contents should be less than 2%, whereas the moisture content below 0.5 wt%. As the value of FFA is inversely proportional to the conversion efficacy, therefore small amount of water and high FFA contents present in animal fats and vegetable oils results in the deactivation of the catalyst and cause saponification (soap formation), which consequently decrease the biodiesel yield and renders the separation of glycerol and ester [21]. So, low free fatty acid content in triglycerides is required for base catalyzed Transesterification. Homogeneous acid catalyst is then referred for Transesterification.
Generally, the mechanism of base-catalyzed Transesterification of animal fats or vegetable oils involves four steps [13, 21]. In the first step, the base react with the alcohol gives an alkoxide and protonated catalyst. In the second step, nucleophilic attack of the alkoxide at the carbonyl group of the triglycerides and generates a tetrahedral intermediate. In the third step, alkyl ester and corresponding anion of diglyceride is produced. The final step involves the deprotonation of the catalyst to regenerate the active species that is able to start another catalytic cycle by reacting with the second molecule of the alcohol. Same mechanism is followed by the diglycerides and monoglycerides to convert to a mixture of alkyl esters and glycerol. The mechanism is summarized in the Figure 7.
Mechanism for base-catalyzed transesterification [
Mineral acids such as H2SO4, HCl and H3PO4are widely used for the acid catalyzed transesterification reaction. Acid catalysts are recommended for the oils that have higher free fatty acid contents such as waste oil or palm oil [23]. Such types of oils are first treated with acid catalyst (esterification) before the basic transesterification in order to convert the free fatty acids to esters. In this case, the FFA is esterified until the free fatty acid content becomes lower than 0.5% [24] In acid catalysis the oil is treated with acid catalyst and gives biodiesel and water but the water must be removed immediately because it will results in the soap] formation in base catalyzed transesterification.
In the acid catalyzed transesterification, the protonation of carbonyl group of the ester results in the formation of carbocation, which after a nucleophilic attack of the alcohol produces a tetrahedral intermediate. This intermediate then eliminates the glycerol to form a new ester and to regenerate the catalyst. This mechanism is related to a monoglyceride. However, this reaction can be extended to di- and triglycerides (Figure 8).
Mechanism for acid-catalyzed transesterification [
In enzyme catalyzed Transesterification, the reaction is catalyzed by various lipases such as candida rugasa, candida Antarctica, immobilized lipase (lipozyme RMIM) pseudomonas cepacia, pseudomonas spp. Or rhizomucarmiehei. The yield of biodiesel greatly depends on the type of enzyme used [23]. 60% biodiesel yield was achieved from transesterification of soyabean oil using commercially avalaibleimobalized lipase (Lipozyme RMIM) [26, 27]. More importantly sufficient time is required for the enzyme catalyzed Transesterification as compared to base catalyzed Transesterification. However, the various parameters such as pH, temperature, solvent, type of micro-organism that generate enzyme etcmust be optimized to achieve the industrial goals. This process is highly selective, more efficient, produces less side products or waste i.e., environmentally favorable and involves less consumption of energy because reaction can be carried out in mild conditions [28].
Arumugam et al. [29] used the sardine oil (byproduct of fish industry) as a low cost feedstock for the production of biodiesel. The FFA content of the oil was high (32mgKOH/G of oil) and the lipase enzyme immobilized on activated carbon was used for the Transesterification. Various reaction conditions were optimized such as methano/oil ratio 9:1, water content 10 v/v% and temperature 30℃. Reusability of the catalyst was studies for 5 cycles and 13% drop in FAME yield occurred.
In heterogeneous catalysis, the phase of the catalyst is different from the phase of the reactants. Heterogeneous catalysts are very important in various fields such as industrial bulk chemical production, synthesis of selective chiral molecueles and energy [30]. Various process problems associated with homogeneous Transesterification, such as regeneration or separation of the catalyst, soap formation, disposal of byproducts, treatment of waste effluents and corrosion in case of acid catalyst have been solved by the use of heterogeneous Transesterification. Heterogeneous catalysts they are easily recovered at the end of the reaction by decantation or filteration, reusablility, show potential activity, selectivity, longer catalyst lifetimes and cost effective green process [31]. Interestingly heterogeneous catalysts could be used in certain harsh conditions such as high temperature and pressure. Heterogeneous catalysts may be solid base catalyst or solid acid catalyst.
Heterogeneous catalysts can be designed to bring out entrapment and grafting of the active molecules on the surface or inside the pores of the solid support such as alumina, silica or ceria. Mixed metal oxides [32], transition metal oxides [33], ion exchange resin [34], Alkali earth metal oxides [35] and alkali metal compounds supported on zeolite or alumina [36] have been used in different chemical reactions such as aldol condensation, isomerization, oxidation, Michael condensation, Knoevenagel condensation, and transesterification [37].
Heterogeneous base catalysts are used to overcome the constraints such as saponification that hinders the glycerol separation from the layer of methyl ester associated with the homogeneous base catalysts. These catalysts show superior catalytic activities under mild conditions and are non-corrosive, environmentally friendly, have less disposal problems and easily separated from the reaction mixture [38, 39]. Moreover, the properties of these catalysts can be tuned accordingly to enhance activity, selectivity and longer catalyst lifetime. Various metal-based oxides such as alkali metal, alkaline earth metals and transition metal oxides can be used as a base catalyst for the biodiesel production from oils by trans-esterification process. The structure of metal oxides consists of cations (positive metal ions) that possess Lewis acid characteristics and anions (negative oxygen ions) that possess Brønstedbase characteristics. The combination of Lewis acid and Bronsted base characteristics make them potential catalyst for transesterification reaction.
Alkaline earth metal oxides such as CaO, MgO, BaO, BeO and SrOhave successfully been used as a catalysts for biodiesel production by many researchers.
Calcium oxide is favored ecofriendly material that haslonger life time because it is cheap catalyst, moderate reaction conditions and high activity. Generally, calcium hydroxide and calcium nitrate are used as precursors for the CaO production. Recently, several calcium-rich waste materials such as mollusk shell and bones, chicken eggshells have been used for CaO synthesis to minimize the biodiesel production cost, problem of waste disposal.
Demirbas [40] described the supercritical conditions effect on the sunflower oil catalytic Transesterification in the presence of 3 wt% of CaO with 60–120 mesh size, 40: 1 of alcohol/oil molar ratio, at pressure of 24 MPa and 252℃ The author reported 98.9% yield of methyl ester in reaction time of 26 min.
Mixed metal oxides consist of two or more type of metal cations. Oxides may be binary, ternary and quaternary and so on with respect to the presence of the number of different metal cations [41]. Mixed metal-based oxides are mainly used as basic catalyst depending on the mixture of the catalyst. More importantly, the basicity of these catalysts can be tuned by changing their chemical composition and procedure for synthesis. Similarly, activation energy, type of synthesis method and structure of the catalyst have a strong impact on the final basicity of the mixed metal oxides.
It has been reported that, calcining MgO with ZrO2 gives a bimetallic oxide MgO-ZrO2having high basicity character and is almost unaffected by dissolution. Similarly, MnO, CuO and CuO supported on Al2O3 have been investigated in transesterification reaction at room temperature, yielded upto 97%. Al2O3-ZnO mixed oxide and rare earth oxides were studied but require high temperature for biodiesel production from vegetable oils. Calcium bimetallic oxides such as CaCeO3, CaZrO3, CaMnO3, CaTiO3 and Ca2Fe2O5 have also been investigated for the transesterification at 60℃, which displayed good activity and reusability [42, 43].
Xie et al. [44] used the Zinc aluminate catalyst (ZnAl2O4) in a batch processing for the biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. More than 95% ester yield was obtained at temperature greater than 150 C, alcohol to oil molar ratio 40:1, stirrer speed of 700 rpm, reaction time of 2 h and varying the catalyst amount in the range of 1–10 wt%. The catalyst was reused for 3 cycles and the yield reduced after the 3 run. The authors reported that the decrease may be due to the carbon deposition on the surface catalyst or loss of tiny particles of the catalyst during the process of recovery.
Basic catalyst may have several problems during the process of transesterification because they are sensitive to free fatty acid content. If the free fatty acid content is higher than 2 wt %, soap formation occurs resulting in decrease in the yield of biodiesel. The downstream purification process raises problems such as producing a large amount of wastewater [45].
Metal oxides such as FeTiO, ZrFeO, ZrFeTiO and Cesium-doped heteropolyacid have been used successfully as solid acid catalysts for the Transesterification of oil using ethanol and methanol as a solvent. Acid catalysts are insensitive to water content and free fatty acid (FFAs) present in the feedstock and is a are preferable method for cheaper feedstock [45].
Alhassan et al. [46] developed Ferric-manganese-based solid catalyst by impregnating the support material of sulfated zirconia with Fe2O3-MnO. The catalyst wascalcined for 3 h at 600℃. The synthesized catalyst was then used for the waste cooking oil Transesterification. The author found 96.5% yield of biodiesel under optimum reaction conditions of oil to alcohol molar ratio of 1:20, at 180℃ temperature and catalyst loading of 3 wt%. The yield of the catalyst remained the same (96.5%) for 6 runs but decreased upto 87% upon the seven run. They reported that the decrease may be due to blockage of the energetic centers as a result of the accumulation of triglycerides in the pores of the catalyst.
Heteropolyacids and their salts are also used as solid acid catalysts for the biodiesel production. HPAs withKeggin structure can be prepared very easily as compared to other HPAs. They possess high thermal stability and are preferably used for production of biodiesel from different feedstocks. Keggin-type HPA has a low specific surface area, which can be overcome using appropriate supportive material. Similarly, HPAs supported on the carriers are used in biodiesel production because of their structural mobility and superacidity.
Sakthivel et al. [47] used the tungstophosphoric acid (HPW) and MCM-48-supported HPW catalysts for the esterification of long chain fatty acids and alcohol in supercritical CO2 (sc-CO2) medium. High yield was obtained in the supercritical CO2 medium due to the rapid diffusion of reactants and products in the MCM-48 channels and high contact of the reactants with the catalyst.
Acidic catalyst may have several problems such as very slow reaction rate, corrosive to reactors and pipelines. Normally, high reaction temperature, high oil to methanol molar ratio and long reaction time are required [45].
As the alkali catalyzed transesterification of the feedstock with higher FFA contents can produce low yield of biodiesel, because the FFA reacts with the alkali catalyst and produce the foam that results in separation and emulsification problems [48]. To solve this problem, a two steps catalytic process for the biodiesel production is recommended. In the first step, the free fatty acid contents of the feedstock are esterified using the acidic catalyst such as ferric sulfate or sulfuric acid. In the second step, biodiesel are produced by the transesterification using the basic catalyst such as CaO or ZnO. The problem of the catalyst removal in the first step can be avoided by neutralizing the acid catalyst by using the extra alkaline catalyst in the second step. But the use of extra catalyst can increase the overall cost of the biodiesel production. The residues of the acidic or alkaline catalyst in the products of biodiesel can cause the engine problems because the acidic catalyst can attack the metallic parts of the engine. On the other hand, basic catalyst can produce higher level of incombustible ash. Therefore, both the catalyst must be removed properly from the biodiesel to avoid the aforementioned problems [49, 50]. Further, it can be concluded that there is substantial room for the development of an efficient and effective catalyst for profitable biodiesel technology (Figure 9).
Schematic representation of operating principle of bifunctional catalyst [
Recently, bifunctional heterogeneous catalysts has been introduced to solve the drawbacks adhere with the solid base/acid catalyst and develop more economical biodiesel technology. The bifunctional heterogeneous solid catalyst can be used as an alternative for the biodiesel production that can promote both esterification and Transesterification simultaneously [52].
In recent years, bifunctional heterogeneous catalysts have been used widely for the production of industrial fine chemicals. The bifunctionality concept has been designed to drive complex reactions through the advance approach of combining two hostile functions, such as acid and base, with cooperative interactions between their active sites precisely positioned functional groups [53]. Therefore, bifunctional heterogeneous catalyst can perform simultaneous esterification and transeseterification of free fatty acids and triglycerides respectively without being affected by the water content present or produced during the formation of biodiesel [54].
Generally, heterogeneous reactions involve three steps such as adsorption, surface reaction and desorption [55]. In the first step, carbonyl group of free fatty acids (FFA) adsorbs on acid sites while methanol adsorb on the basic site of the catalyst to produce carbocation and oxygen anion for esterification and transesterification respectively. In the second step, at the surface of the catalyst, nucleophilic attacked carbocation and oxygen anion at each methanol hydroxyl group and triglyceride carbonyl group for esterification and transesterification reactions, respectively. The nucleophilic attack would generate tetrahedral intermediate. Finally, the product (FAME) is formed from desorption of hydroxyl group and alkyl triglycerides from catalyst surface after breaking the -OH and -C-O- bond respectively, while the deprotonated catalyst regenerated the active species for starting another catalytic cycle. Glycerol, H2O, are produced as by-product during esterification and transesterification reactions (Figure 10).
Mechanism for esterification and transesterification reactions on a bifunctional heterogeneous catalyst [
Transition metals such as Ni, Fe and Co based compounds have been extensively investigated as bifunctional heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production. The TiO and MnO have shown good catalytic activity for biodiesel production. These catalysts have been used for the simultaneous esterification of FFAs and transesterification of triglycerides under continuous flow conditions by using low grade feedstock with high fatty acids contents ofupto 15%.
Cannilla et al. [57] used a novel MnCeOx system for the transesterification of refined sunflower with the methanol. The performance of such catalyst was compared with that of common acid supported catalyst. The results showed that MnCeOx system have a superior activity especially by operating at low temperature i.e., ≤120°C. The catalytic performance was the result of synergic role played by the presence of both base/acid character and textural porosity.
Mixed metal oxides have shown potential applicationsin terms of their catalytic activity in various reactions due to their increased active acidic or basic sites and large surface area. As a result of these characteristic, the mixed metal oxides can simultaneously catalyze the esterification and transesterification and increases the yield of reaction under mild reaction condition [32].
Many researchers have investigated the catalytic activity of mixed metal oxide for biodiesel production. Furata et al. [58] prepared the Al2O3/ZrO2/WO3 solid catalyst by co-precipitation method for biodiesel production from soybean oil. The catalyst was compatible for both esterification and transesterification at 250℃ temperature and alcohol to oil molar ratio of 40:1, provided 90% methyl ester yield.
The feedstock is one of the key factor that plays vital role in the economics of the biodiesel technology. More than 350 oil-bearing crops have been identified as a potential feedstock for the production of biodiesel. The feedstock should fulfill two main requirements (i) large production scale (ii) low production cost [59]. The feedstock availability for the production of biodiesel depends upon the geographical location, local soil conditions, regional climate and agricultural practices of any country. The suitability of feedstock depends upon various factors such as oil yield per hectare, production cost, oil content of the seeds and relevant product properties of the oil. It has been found that, the cost of the feedstock is about 75% of overall production cost of biodiesel [60]. Therefore, selection of cheapest feedstock is a major problem and high relevant to the biodiesel industry. Biodiesel feedstocks are generally categorized into four classes as shown (Figure 11).
Feedstocks used for biodiesel production [
Resources of edible oil such as peanut [62], soybeans [63], sunflower [64], rapeseed [65], safflower, coconut and palm oil are extensively utilized for biodiesel production and are classified as first generation biofuels because these were the first crops used for production of biodiesel [66]. Many countries of the World such as USA, Malaysia and Germany, have well off plantations of these vegetable oils. Currently, more than 95% of the world biodiesels are produced from the edible oils where rapeseed oil contributes 84%, sunflower 13%, 1% palm oil, 2% soybean and others. However, economic and social problems such as food versus fuel crisis and various environmental issues (such as destruction of vital soil resources), usage and deforestation of the available arable land are adhere with use of edible oils.
Due to the presence of some toxic components in the non-edible vegetable oils, they are not suitable to be used for human food. The use of non-edible vegetable oil for the production of biodiesel would pave the ways to overcome the economic, social and environmental problems and tackle the energy crises worldwide [60]. Non-edible vegetable crops are grown on the lands that are largely unproductive, located in poverty-stricken areas and in degraded forests. These plants can also be planted on fallow lands, cultivator’s field boundaries and in public land such as roads, railways and irrigation canals. Plants of non-edible feedstocks are well adapted to arid, semi-arid conditions require low moisture and fertility. Moreover, these plants can grow and propagated through cutting or seeds [67]. As these plants oilsdo not compete with food therefore the seed cake may be used as fertilizers for soil enrichment. Therefore, from economic and social prospective, edible oils must be replaced by some suitable feedstock for biodiesel production. Hence, non-edible feedstocks for biodiesel production could be considered as sustainable and alternative fuels.
Mazari is the local name for dwarf palm (
Mazari palm seeds.
Mazarifibres are widely used for making ornamental products, ropes, mates, banns, different commodities for mosques, trays, baskets, grain bins, brooms, cupboards, hand fans and decoration pieces etc. (shown in Figure 13) [68, 69].
Different products of mazari palm.
Fresh and dried leaves both are used for making products. Raw mazari production in the Pakistan is about 37,315 tons. Baluchistan is the biggest producer of the mazari with an average annual production of 27,265 tons [70]. In 1991, the total exports of the products prepared from mazari by rural people were 126 milion rupees. Main buyer of these products are the local people because most of the products are used for domestic purposes and also these fascinating products attract both domestics and international tourists. Figure 14 shows the main buyer of the products.
Main buyer of mazari palm products [
The fruits of
Jatropha curcas is the bionomical name of Jatropha, belongs to spurge family. It is commonly known as Barbados, Purging or Physic nut. The height of Jatropha plant is about 6 m and is a flowering plant. The plant matures in 9–10 months and yield 2–3 times per year. On maturation, green rounded shaped seeds appeared on the plants and then turn into light blue or purple colored hard shells. The oil bearing mass located inside the shells known as meat or kernels. Oil content in the seeds varies from 20–60% by weight [74, 75]. J. curcas oil could be a valuable feedstock for the production of biodiesel in Pakistan (Figure 15).
Jatropha curcas [
Jatropha is a multipurpose drought resistant plant that is widely distributed in the wild or semi-cultivated areas in South East Asia, Pakistan, India and Central and South America. It is well adapted to arid and semi-arid conditions [76]. Jatropha is rich source of hydrocarbons. Therefore, it is considered as commercial source for biofuel production all over the world. Jatropha oil contains 42% oleic, 35% linoleic, 14% palmatic and 6% stearic acid by composition [77].
In Pakistan, certain institutions are promoting Jatropha cultivation at the nursery level in various locations across Baluchistan, Punjab, and Sindh. In nurseries, these cultivated plants ranged in age from a few weeks to 18 months [78]. However, after three years of private sector efforts in2008, oil bearing crop cultivation increased from 2 acres to over 400 acres. PSO (Pakistan State Oil) took a step in this direction in 2008, planting 20,000 saplings in farms. They’ve recently increased the number of samples taken for each transplantation, up to 20,000 or more. PSO’s initiatives aimed to plant more than 6 million trees produce 24 million kg of oil bearing seeds, and produce 7.2 million L of biodiesel worth 345 million PKR at a unit price of PKR 48 L−1 [79].
Other interested parties, such as the Karachi Forest Department and the Pakistan Army, have also successfully planted Jatropha plants in Sindh [80]. So far, the Forest Department has been successful in cultivating 3000 samples on a trial basis in Malir Cantonment in 2010 for the cultivation of Jatropha seeds supplied by PS [81]. Similarly, the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) and KijaniEnergy, a Canadian company, are interested in establishing large-scale Jatropha cultivation for the production of biodiesel on marginal lands [79]. Kijani Energy invested approximately US$ 150 million in2009, resulting in the use of 200,000 acres of land for Jatropha cultivation in Umerkot, Khairpur, Tharparker, Cholistan, and Sanghar.
Date or date palm is a flowering plant species belongs to the palm family Arecaceae cultivated for its edible sweet fruit. It is a dioecious having separate male and female plants. It is a source of human nutrition rich with dietary fibers, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, some vitamins and mineral matter [86]. For millennia, the date palm tree has been cultivated in the Middle East and North Africa, and it is thought to be the world’s oldest domesticated fruit tree. Because of the variety of resources it provides, it has traditionally been the most valuable fruit crop in harsh arid or desert environments where water scarcity and extreme temperatures are common. Date palm trees are now grown in semi-arid climates and other parts of the world, including southern Europe, Australia and America. There are now over 100 million date palm trees in the world with around 2000 cultivars [87, 88]. A palm tree produces 500 kg of fresh dates per year on average, with production beginning at 5 years and lasting up to 60 years. Date production and consumption have increased rapidly, from 1.88 million t in 1965 to 3.43 million tons in 1990 and 8.46 million tons in 2016, with Middle Eastern and African countries dominating production [89]. It’s a pitted fruit with a seed in the centre surrounded by a fleshy pericarp as shown in Figure 17.
Date fruit and seeds [
The date seeds are very hard ranging from 5 to 15 mm in length with oblong shape with a ventral groove. The weight is about 11–18% of the total fruit mass and contain 4–13% of oil. Based on these digits, an estimated 1.3 million tons of date seeds and 127,000metric tons of date seed oil (similar amount of biodiesel) could be annually produced. In 2015, the total annual production of biodiesel was 38,700 tons in the Middle East and Africa [90, 91]. Date production in the world reached 9.07 million metric tons in 2019, up from 8.4 million metric tons in 2017. Similarly, date palm is widely distributed in different areas of Baluchistan, Sindh, KPK and Punjab. It has been reported that the annual production of date seed is around 600,000 metric ton per year in Pakistan [92]. These seeds are used as feed for animals in some areas. However, most of these seeds degrade without any proper utilization. Therefore, the use of date seeds as biodiesel feedstock could be a promising to concern energy solution (Figure 18).
Top 10 global date-producing countries [
Karanja (
Karanja (
Many researchers have utilized karanja oil as feedstock for biodiesel production. It has been reported that the biodiesel obtained from karanja shows excellent properties such as low acid value, lower viscosity and higher flash point. Naik et al. [95] followed two steps process for the production of biodiesel from karanja oil with 20% free fatty acid. First, acid-catalyzed esterfication was applied using 0.5% (w/w) H2SO4, 6:1 methanol to oil ratio at 65℃. The acid treated oil was later transesterifiued with KOH using 1% (w/w) potassium hydroxide, 6:1 methanol to oil ratio to lower the FFA content. The yield of biodiesel obtained by dual step process from karanja oil was 96.6–97% at 65℃.
Neem (
Muthu et al. [97] produced the neem methyl ester from the neem oil in the presence of catalysts by two steps process of esterfication and Transesterification. Sulfated Zirconia was used as solid acid catalyst for esterfication, while alkali catalyst i.e., KOH was used for Transesterification. Optimum conversion of free fatty acid was achieved with 1 wt% of sulfated zirconia (acid) catalyst, at 65℃ temperature, 9:1 methanol/oil ratio and 2 h reaction time. The acid value of the raw oil was reduced by 94% (24.76 mg KOH/g) which show the successful conversion. The authors noted that when the pretreated oil was transesterified in the presence of KOH, 95% conversion efficiency was achieved (Figure 20).
Neem (
Microalgae are eukaryotic or prokaryotic photosynthetic micro-organism that can grow rapidly and live in harsh conditions due to their unicellular or simple multicellular structure [98]. Examples of eukaryotic micro-organisms are green algae i.e., chlorophytaand diatoms i.e., bacillariophyta and prokaryotic micro-organisms are cyanobacteria. Microalgae are present in all existing ecosystem of the earth, not only in aquatic but also terrestrial ecosystem that lives in a wide range of environmental conditions [99]. Interestingly, it is observed in small ponds and ditches in the villages and towns become fully green within a week during the rainy season in Pakistan. Although in Pakistan, the cultivation of oleaginous microalgae is in its infancy, however several species of algae are reported in the literature that can further process or cultivated for the production of oil [100]. Microalgae can provide feedstock for several types of renewable fuels such as methane, biodiesel, ethanol and hydrogen. Biodiesel produced from algae contains no sulfur, reduce emissions of particulate matter, hydrocarbons, CO and SOx. However, NOx emissions may be higher in some types of engine.
Furthermore, a Pakistani researcher at Japan’s Mie University claims that the country could benefit from using its 27–28 million acre saline lands for algal farming, which would create jobs and benefit the rural community [101]. Four algae strains suitable for cultivation in Pakistan’s deserts have been identified by other researchers. Other researchers have identified four strains of algae that are suitable for cultivation in Pakistan’s deserts and produce acceptable lipid yields, i.e. 40% by weight
To produce biodiesel, researchers at the National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST) cultivated Chlorella vulgaris in a closed photo-bioreactor (20 L) in a controlled environment and characterized its properties. At 5000 and 9000 psi and 50 and 80°C, the highest biodiesel yield (more than 99%) was achieved. The biodiesel produced was found to be of ASTM D6751 quality [102].
The term waste cooking oil (WCO) refers to vegetable oil that has been used in production of food and no longer viable for its intended use. Sources of waste cooking oil are domestic, industrial and commercial products [103]. Waste cooking oils are problematic waste streams that need to manage properly because if WCO is disposed improperly, down streams of the kitchen, the oil solidifies and cause blockages of sewer pipes [98, 104]. Degraded waste cooking oil gets into sewage system and causes corrosion to metal and concrete elements [105]. Thus, the waste cooking oil can be used as an effective feedstock for the biodiesel production via Transesterification [99].
In Pakistan, waste cooking oil sources include hotel chains, confectioneries, restaurants and domestic cooking. Pakistan is basically an agricultural country and has diverse ecological conditions, so the people mainly depend upon the agricultural products. Plants and crops that yield edible oils for cooking purposes are cultivated on extensive scale in the country. These oils are used in local shops, hotels, huts and every home of Pakistan [80]. Pakistani people use meat of cows, buffaloes, camels, goats, poultry on large scale and use fats for cooking purposes. These all are the major sources for collection of waste cooking oil.
Animal fats and vegetable oils are of two types of biological lipid materials that are made up of mainly triacylglycerides (TAGs) and less diacyglycerides DAG and monoacylglycerides (MAGs) [106]. Fats and oil have similar physical properties and chemical structures such as hydrophobicity, water-insolubility and solubility in nonpolar organic solvents. However, the high fatty acids content in fats and their different distributions make it different from oil. Oils are generally liquid at room temperature while fats and greases are solids due to their high content of saturated fatty acids (SFA). Different waste animal fats such as tallow (mutton tallow from sheep and beef tallow from domestic cattle), pork lard (rendered pork fat), chicken fats and grease. Since, many animal meat processing facilities, rendering companies of collecting and processing of animal mortalities, large food service and processing facilities create large amount of waste animal fats (WAFs), that will be a great opportunity to produce biodiesel from these very cheap raw material [107]. The use of these waste animal fats as a feedstock for biodiesel production will eliminate the need of their disposal.
Pakistan is the world’s sixth largest country in terms of population, (213 million) and an annual growth rate of 2%.A significant portion (63%) of this population lives in rural areas, while 37 percent live in urban areas [108]. The recent economic growth and an ever-increasing population, has resulted in an increase in energy consumption. The country still depends on conventional resources of fossil oil.
Various initiatives to promote renewable energy in Pakistan have been taken over the years, but their outcomes are still pending due to a lack of sound policy [109]. Recently, Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB), was established in 2003 [78], in Pakistan to improve green technologies that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable technologies through a variety of projects that have been recognized on an international level by the International Solar Energy Society (ISES) and the World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) [110].
There is a significant gap between Pakistan’s energy production and energy demands, which is being bridged by the import of fossil fuels and requires substantial state revenue to be spent on these imports. Pakistan imported 13.57 Milliontons of oil equivalent (MTOE) of petroleum during fiscal year 2014–2015, ultimately putting tremendous pressure on the economy by increasing the import bills [111]. Transportation and power generation are the main fossil fuel consuming sectors in Pakistan. Fuel price increases frequently, leading to increases in transportation costs and utility bills for both public and private consumers and pose socioeconomic challenges for the country. At present, Pakistan’s indigenous resources account for only up to 15 percent of the country’s energy requirements [112]. Pakistan spends approximately 60% of its currency exchange on importing fuels to meet energy needs, and these import bills can be significantly reduced if indigenous alternative energy resources are used appropriately [110].
Pakistan’s government is searching for cost-effective, environmentally friendly alternative energy sources in order to address current energy crises and maintain economic stability [108].
The use of agricultural residues as a renewable energy resource in Pakistan can provide a sustainable way to enhance the country’s energy mix in order to meet ever-increasing energy needs. Energy production through suitable and efficient technologies can have multiple positive economic impacts on Pakistan, (1) by saving huge investments in energy imports, (2) by reducing harmful gas emissions in order to protect the environment and (3) by empowering the people of the country in terms of social aspects [111]. It can provide multiple job opportunities to people working in the agricultural, transportation and daily wagering sectors. Furthermore, public awareness campaigns emphasizing the importance of renewable energy resources, as well as basic education on how to effectively manage these resources, should be launched [113]. This can be achieved by distinct financial assistance programs should be made available to encourage business investments in the renewable energy production sector [114].
Various important steps and measures must be taken as soon as possible, such as the establishment of generous research and development programs at the Country’s Universities and research institutions, with a focus on research activities involving renewable resources in the country.
This review presents an extensive analysis of the potential of biomass for renewable energy production in Pakistan. It also emphasizes the availability of local biomass resources as well as state-of-the-art of biomass conversion technologies. Heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels and global climate change are key factors contributing to Pakistan’s economic problems. To address these issues, relying on locally available renewable energy sources is a promising and cost-effective financial solution. The transportation sector is a major importer of petroleum fuels, accounting for the majority of the total import bill. Biodiesel and bio-ethanol, can supplement HSD/petrol, transportation fuels. To overcome this issue biodiesel production with full utilization of its by-products can provide a sustainable and environmentally friendly replacement of mineral high speed diesel (HSD).
Moreover, comprehensive detail of the locally abundantly available feedstocks for biodiesel production has also been discussed in this chapter. Overall, this study further concludes that Pakistan has the immense potential to produce economical viable biodiesel from the locally available feedstocks.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. 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Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. 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He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). 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