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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"530",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Convection and Conduction Heat Transfer",title:"Convection and Conduction Heat Transfer",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The convection and conduction heat transfer, thermal conductivity, and phase transformations are significant issues in a design of wide range of industrial processes and devices. This book includes 18 advanced and revised contributions, and it covers mainly (1) heat convection, (2) heat conduction, and (3) heat transfer analysis. The first section introduces mixed convection studies on inclined channels, double diffusive coupling, and on lid driven trapezoidal cavity, forced natural convection through a roof, convection on non-isothermal jet oscillations, unsteady pulsed flow, and hydromagnetic flow with thermal radiation. The second section covers heat conduction in capillary porous bodies and in structures made of functionally graded materials, integral transforms for heat conduction problems, non-linear radiative-conductive heat transfer, thermal conductivity of gas diffusion layers and multi-component natural systems, thermal behavior of the ink, primer and paint, heating in biothermal systems, and RBF finite difference approach in heat conduction. The third section includes heat transfer analysis of reinforced concrete beam, modeling of heat transfer and phase transformations, boundary conditions-surface heat flux and temperature, simulation of phase change materials, and finite element methods of factorial design. The advanced idea and information described here will be fruitful for the readers to find a sustainable solution in an industrialized society.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-582-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6066-3",doi:"10.5772/1041",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"convection-and-conduction-heat-transfer",numberOfPages:408,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d7473a9763ff4ee9a4f8bb5a1ba9cd5e",bookSignature:"Amimul Ahsan",publishedDate:"October 21st 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/530.jpg",numberOfDownloads:60785,numberOfWosCitations:70,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:87,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:193,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 14th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36782",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amimul",middleName:null,surname:"Ahsan",slug:"amimul-ahsan",fullName:"Amimul Ahsan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36782/images/system/36782.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amimul Ahsan was born in Netrokona, Bangladesh. He received a PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Fukui, Japan. He has nearly 15 years’ research, teaching, and industry experience. He has published extensively on water and environmental engineering, including nine books, 16 book chapters, and over 131 journal articles. He has received 14 international awards, including 'Who\\'s Who in the World 2015,” 'Leading Engineers of the World 2013,” and the 'Vice Chancellor Fellowship Award (Science and Technology)” from Sultan Selangor (Chancellor, UPM), Malaysia, in 2015. He is editor-in-chief of five journals in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Malaysia, and founder of the Journal of Desalination and Water Purification and the Journal of Advanced Civil Engineering Practice and Research. He is involved with several collaborative research projects globally and has a Scopus h-index of 22. 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In urban areas, large concentrations of chemical compounds are emitted into the atmosphere by industries, vehicles and other human activities. Nearly 3000 different compounds, mostly organic, resulting from human activity have been identified in the atmosphere. This complex mixture of pollutants can have impacts on health and the environment. Thus, the systematic determination of air quality should be, for practical reasons, limited to a restricted number of pollutants, defined in terms of their importance and the human and material resources available to identify and measure them. Generally, pollutants chosen to serve as indicators of air quality are the currently regulated and universally occurring compounds: sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). They are chosen due to their frequency of occurrence and adverse effects on the environment. Thus, the effects of air pollution can be characterized by a deterioration of good quality environmental conditions and the exacerbation of existing problems, which can manifest themselves in health, population welfare, vegetation, fauna, and urban structures. The attention of regulatory authorities and researchers must not only look to the standards of air quality. There are compounds that despite being unregulated deserve attention because of the damage they cause to the environment and, especially, to human health.
The search for alternative fuels to reduce dependence on petroleum and emission of pollutants into the atmosphere has stimulated many scientific studies. The goal is to develop fuels that can be used in existing vehicles without the need for major changes in their engines. A term often used for fuel derived from renewable sources is \'biofuel\', which has strong links with the concept of sustainability, whereby the use of natural resources to meet current needs should not compromise the needs of future generations. In this way, the purpose of this chapter is to answer the question about vehicle emissions: what will change with use of biofuel?
Air quality in urban atmospheres depends on several related factors: primary pollutant’s emissions (emitted directly from sources to the atmosphere), secondary pollutant’s emissions (resulting from the chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere and which involve some primary pollutants) and consumption, geographical and meteorological factors.
Primary pollutants can be emitted by natural and anthropogenic sources. The pollutants emitted from both sources may be in two physical states: adsorbed in the particulate or in the gas phase. In this context, the primary particles emitted by many natural and anthropogenic sources include combustion processes, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, fumes created by certain industrial activities and roadways, the "marine spray" and some biological materials [1]. The pollutants frequently found in the atmosphere are: CO, NOx, sulfate oxides (SOx), PM, volatile organic compounds (VOC), O3 and; some Greenhouse Gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) andnitric acid (HNO3).
In many areas of the developed and developing world, the concentration of tropospheric pollutants has increased to levels significantly affecting various aspects of the environment. Reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching the ground has the potential for important effects on climate by reducing ground temperature, and increasing cloud albedo and stability, which result in global cooling. Increased pollutants in the atmosphere reduce visibility, and have important effects on human health leading to respiratory diseases by inhalation and to rickets due to inadequate sunlight for the production of vitamin D. Reduced solar radiation and changes in atmospheric stability have important effects on atmospheric photochemistry and modeling [2].
In recent decades, there have been concerns with the increase of anthropogenic pollution that can be seen through the initiation of programs aimed at improving air quality in cities around the world. One of the strategic actions to reduce the emission of pollutants in urban environments is the displacement of local industries from urban to non-urban areas [3]. Thus, the improved control of industrial emissions resulted in the current situation, where in large cities vehicles are the main source of emissions of air pollutants, especially CO, hydrocarbons (HC), NOx, aldehydes and metals [4-7]. Although there are actions and programs that encourage the reduction and control of air pollutants, there are cities where some of these pollutants routinely exceed local air quality standards. Table 1 shows some general pollutants emitted and their sources such as human activity, industrial uses and transportation systems.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
CO | \n\t\t\tTraffic (especially vehicles without catalytic converters) and Industries. | \n\t\t
NOx\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTraffic and General industry (resulting from the combustion of the higher or lower temperatures). | \n\t\t
SOx\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTraffic (vehicles using fuel with high sulfur content) and Industry (chemical industry, pulp and paper, refineries and boilers using fuel with high sulfur content, for example, fuel oil). | \n\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\tTraffic, Industries (cement, refineries, steel, paper pulp, chemical industry, inter alia), Construction work and agricultural practices. | \n\t\t
Pb (Lead) | \n\t\t\tTraffic (Leaded fuels) and Industries (manufacturing process from raw materials that integrate Pb). | \n\t\t
VOC | \n\t\t\tChemical Industry, traffic, Storage of Fuel and petrol stations, Car workshops, Construction Materials, and other activities, involving handling of solvents. | \n\t\t
O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIs formed at ground level as a result of chemical reactions established between some primary pollutants, such as NOx, VOC or CO. These reactions occur in the presence of light sunlight, so that higher levels of ozone occur during the emission of primary pollutants in the summer. The sources of primary pollutants that have influence on atmospheric ozone concentration are: Traffic; Industries, Landfills, Paints and solvents (VOC); forests; and Other sources (gas stations, equipment that uses this fuel, etc.). | \n\t\t
CO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tUse of fóssil fuels, deforestation and Change of land use. | \n\t\t
CH4\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tProduction and consumption of energy, Farming and livestock, Landfills and wastewater. | \n\t\t
N2O | \n\t\t\tFertilizer use, Production of acids and Burning of biomass and fossil fuels . | \n\t\t
CFC | \n\t\t\tIndustry, refrigeration, aerosols, propellants, Expanded foams and Solvents. | \n\t\t
HNO3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCombustion of wood, Fossil fuels, the chemical composition of fertilizersand microbes. | \n\t\t
Main sources of air pollutants.
The transportation sector can be considered the major source of atmospheric pollutants. In the evaluations of the vehicular emission impacts, measurements have been limited to regulated pollutants such as suspended PM, HC, CO, NOx and O3, with this last one being an important secondary product formed by photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. However, some specific compounds, which are not regulated by law to be monitored, have a significant toxic potential. Thus, one can highlight the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), Nitro PAHs and the VOC, which result from incomplete combustion, as having a double influence on air quality. These molecules can act as primary toxic pollutants and play a role of precursor in the formation of photochemical oxidant species.
Emission studies of controlled substances have already been done extensively. However, there is a current need for the study of non-regulated emissions. Some studies on unregulated substances, such PAHs, nitro HPAs, carbonyl compounds (CC) and both vapor and particulate of light aromatic hydrocarbons, showed a lower amount of mutagenic compounds being emitted when using biofuels [8]. However, there are some contradictory results [9], which point to the need for further studies of such substances.
In the last three decades CC, aldehydes and ketones, have received a great deal of attention due to their strong influence on photochemical smog formation and their recognized adverse human health effects. Carbonyl compounds are directly emitted into the atmosphere by combustion sources and also produced from photochemical oxidation of hydrocarbons and other organic compounds.
The transportation sector has an active role in rising pollution levels, especially in large urban centers in regions where transport is based on roads, i. e., much of the transportation of goods is done by trucks, and transportation of people is primarily done by bus or car. The gases resulting from complete combustion of fuel used in vehicles are CO2, H2O (usually in gaseous state) and nitrogen (N2). In this reaction, the only product that has concern from environmentalists is the CO2, due to impacts on the greenhouse effect and global warming. However, as seen before, the reactions that occur in vehicle engines emit other compounds into the atmosphere. Due this fact, the combustion process of vehicles is considered incomplete. Moreover, it is important to note that vehicle emissions are not only those emitted during the combustion process. Emissions of pollutants arising from the use of vehicles can be divided into the following categories [10]:
Emissions of gaseous and particulates by tailpipe of the vehicle (byproducts released to the atmosphere by combustion exhaust pipe);
Fuel evaporative emissions (released into the atmosphere through evaporation of the hydrocarbon fuel);
Emissions of gases from the crankcase of the engine (combustion by products that passing through the piston rings of the engine and the oil vapors lubricant);
Particulate emissions from wear of tires, brakes and clutch;
Resuspension of dust and soil;
Evaporative emissions in the fuel transfer operations fuel (associated with storage and fuel supply).
The main pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by the vehicles are from the process of incomplete combustion in which fuel injected into the cylinder doesn´t find the required amount of air for its burning. So, these primary pollutants are emitted directly by the automotive exhaust (CO, NOx, SOx, alcohols, CC, HC, PAHs and PM). These pollutants can interact with each other or with the aid of light to form secondary pollutants (O3, nitrates peroxiacetila - PAN, among others). The latter may be much more harmful to the environment than the primary pollutants.
The PM from engines has three major components: soot formed during combustion, heavy hydrocarbon condensed or absorbed on the soot, and sulfates. Particle size is also an important variation in terms of vehicular emissions, as it has been associated with an increase in health conditions. Ultrafine particles (< 0.01 μm), generated in great amounts mainly by diesel exhaust, have special toxicity due to their ability to penetrate into the cardiovascular system and other organs [11-13].
Even with the technological evolution of vehicle exhaust systems, these emissions remain a serious air pollution problem in many regions. Several reasons can be highlighted [14]:
Significant increase in size of vehicle fleet and its use;
High fuel consumption because of lower prices in some countries, the characteristics of the vehicles and driving conditions;
Malfunction of emission control systems reducing the effectiveness of control;
Accelerated degradation of components of the car that has a direct impact on increasing the emissions such as design flaw and / or use of inappropriate materials, or also by misuse of the vehicle;
Lack of care in the maintenance of the vehicles by their owners;
Lack of preparedness in a considerable number of vehicle repairshops to offer technically appropriate maintenance services;
Deliberate withdrawal of emissions control devices by the owners of vehicles or inadequate repair services;
Adulteration of fuel;
Existence of old vehicles in circulation or vehicles in poor condition, with very high levels of emissions;
Lack of measures to popularize and encourage the use of public transport, to contain the increasing use of automobiles as a means of individual transportation.
In this context, the factors mentioned above have contributed to overtake the air quality standards in major metropolitan areas. They should be prioritized over the effects of other sources of pollutant emissions such as power plants and industries. Vehicle emissions are an important contributor to the formation of photochemical smog and overall emissions.
Light vehicles (Otto cycle) are becoming more numerous in large urban centers with the main regulated pollutants emitted from these vehicles being: CO, HC and NOx. On the other hand, diesel vehicles emit the largest amount of the regulated pollutants: PM and NOx (Table 2).
Among unregulated pollutants, several authors study the emission of individual HC [15,16] and especially those of methane, a gas with a strong greenhouse effect. However, the total contribution of light vehicles (Otto cycle) to global methane emissions is estimated to be very low, not more than 0.3-0.4% of the total methane emissions[17].
\n\t\t\t | |||||||
\n\t\t\t | |||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | Gasoline | \n\t\t\t46.65 | \n\t\t\t14.47 | \n\t\t\t5.72 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|
Light vehicles | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Ethanol | \n\t\t\t8.60 | \n\t\t\t4.13 | \n\t\t\t1.37 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|
(cars, etc) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Flex (Gasoline/Ethanol) | \n\t\t\t13.27 | \n\t\t\t6.81 | \n\t\t\t2.46 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|
Commercial vehicles | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Gasoline | \n\t\t\t5.42 | \n\t\t\t1.76 | \n\t\t\t0.72 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | Ethanol | \n\t\t\t0.78 | \n\t\t\t0.38 | \n\t\t\t0.13 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t | Flex (Gasoline/Ethanol) | \n\t\t\t0.60 | \n\t\t\t0.30 | \n\t\t\t0.11 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t | Diesel | \n\t\t\t0.29 | \n\t\t\t0.34 | \n\t\t\t2.84 | \n\t\t\t1.42 | \n\t\t||
Trucks | \n\t\t\tLight | \n\t\t\tDiesel | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t\t1.77 | \n\t\t\t1.35 | \n\t\t|
Medium | \n\t\t\t0.81 | \n\t\t\t1.15 | \n\t\t\t8.74 | \n\t\t\t6.55 | \n\t\t|||
Heavy | \n\t\t\t2.92 | \n\t\t\t3.36 | \n\t\t\t32.00 | \n\t\t\t15.90 | \n\t\t|||
Buses | \n\t\t\tUrban | \n\t\t\tDiesel | \n\t\t\t1.87 | \n\t\t\t2.30 | \n\t\t\t19.94 | \n\t\t\t12.01 | \n\t\t|
Road | \n\t\t\t0.43 | \n\t\t\t0.53 | \n\t\t\t4.72 | \n\t\t\t2.77 | \n\t\t|||
Motorcycles | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Gasoline | \n\t\t\t15.56 | \n\t\t\t12.92 | \n\t\t\t1.15 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | Flex (Gasoline/Ethanol) | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t\t0.01 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t
Estimation of emission sources of air pollution in a Brazilian urban center (São Paulo) in 2010 [10].
aContribution study as a model recipient for inhalable particles (< 10 μm).
Studies have shown that amongst the total gas phase non-methane hydrocarbons emitted for gasoline burning, 75–93% are aromatics species, 6–18% linear and substituted alkanes, 1.2–4.3% alkenes and alkynes, and 0.1–2% CC. The analysis for a diesel engine showed 54–75% of species analyzed are aromatics, 18–31% linear and substituted alkanes, 3–6% alkenes and 2–6.4% CC.In the case of vehicles with diesel engines, the abundance of CC is more significant than Otto cycle engines; and should be related to the composition of the fuel[18].
An important global emission, VOC, is observed at different levels in light vehicles (Otto cycle) compared to diesel vehicles. Generally, depending on vehicle technology and vehicle year, make and model, aromatics compounds are the major species but with a somewhat weaker contribution for diesel cars. Saturated hydrocarbons with weaker percentages which are about 20% for diesel cars are the second most common and 12% for gasoline cars. The CC displayed very low concentration (0.5% for gasoline and 10% for diesel)[18].
Biofuels are derived from biomass, the name given to the organic matter in an ecosystem or a plant or animal population. Because plants and animals can reproduce continuously, one can assume that they are renewable sources of energy. Plants, through photosynthesis, convert solar energy they receive into biomass, and animals generate energy by eating organic matter (plants or other animals). There are several types of biofuels that can be produced from biomass, such as alcohol (ethanol and methanol), biodiesel, biokerosene, H2 and others. The sources for its production can be through animal (for example, tallow fat or chicken), vegetable (e.g., vegetable oils and cane sugar) and biomass materials [19].
All biomass materials can be converted to energy via thermochemical and biological processes. Biomass gasification attracts the reactive and forms stable chemical structures, and consequently the activation energy increases as the conversion level of biomass increases [20]. Biomass gasification can be considered as a form of pyrolysis, which takes place in higher temperatures and produces a mixture of gases with H2 content ranging 6–6.5% [21]. Hydrogen may be an alternative to gasoline, gas-oil and biofuels for the automotive sector. Hydrogen can be used in internal combustion engines or in fuel cells. However, this chapter will discuss more about biodiesel and ethanol biofuels emission profiles.
Ethanol can be produced from a number of crops including sugarcane, corn (maze), wheat and sugar beet. In general, ethanol is produced through fermentation of sugar derived from corn or cellulosic biomass. Moreover, technically speaking, biodiesel is the alkyl ester from fatty acids, made by the transesterification of oils or fats, from plants or animals, with short chain alcohols such as methanol and ethanol. Glycerine is, consequently, a by-product from biodiesel production [22].
The ethanol obtained from sugar cane is the biofuel with the most energy efficiency: each joule (unit of energy) used in its production allows the return of about seven joules. Brazil developed technologies for producing ethanol and gasoline engines adapted to it, but alcohol is considered by many a luxury fuel, being used only in light vehicles. One great challenge is to develop technologies that enable the use of ethanol as fuel in large vehicles (buses and trucks) and aviation [19].
Over the past 10 years, the number of scientific and technological studies on biofuels has grown exponentially. A refined search done in a scientific database [23] using as keywords: “biodiesel emission” and “ethanol emission”, revealed that interest in research on biofuel emissions has increased each year and studies of emissions from burning of ethanol and biodiesel have similar trends, although there was a greater interest for research on ethanol (Figure 1). This fact is justified because ethanol is a biofuel that has been used in the energy matrix since the 70\'s and biodiesel in the last 10 years. For this reason (Figure 2) the production of ethanol is roughly more than four times the world production of biodiesel.
In this context, there are several reasons for biofuels to be considered a relevant technology for both developing and industrialized countries. They include energy security reasons, environmental concerns, foreign exchange savings, and socioeconomic issues related to the rural sector. The following sections will discuss the results obtained from research evaluating the emission of pollutants when biofuels are used.
Publication numbers of research about both biodiesel and ethanol emission topics from 2002 to 2012 [
World Ethanol (a) and Biodiesel (b) Production from 2004 to 2009 [
In general, biofuels are considered climate friendly, even when based on a life-cycle analysis. Ethanol use in gasoline has tremendous potential for a net reduction in atmospheric CO2 levels. CO2 is released into the atmosphere when ethanol (like other fuels) is burned in an engine and is also recycled into organic tissues during plant growth [25].
A study was done about the direct vehicle emission impact on the future use of ethanol as a fuel for gasoline cars in Denmark arising from the vehicle specific fuel consumption and emission differences between neat gasoline (E0) and E5/E85 gasoline-ethanol fuel blends derived from emission tests. For vehicles using E5 rather than E0, the average fuel consumption and emission differences are small. For CO, VOC and NOx the derived average differences are 0.5%, -5% and 7%, respectively. For using E85 rather than E5, the emission differences become even smaller for VOC and NOx, but greater for CO. The derived average emission differences are in this case 18%, -1% and 5% for CO, VOC and NOx, respectively [26].
Already, in field studies conducted regarding the use of 10% ethanol additions to gasoline on pollutant formation concluded that PM and CO emissions are significantly reduced. For some of the vehicles tested, CO2 emissions were also significantly reduced and overall it led to a small deterioration in fuel economy (although this was not significant at 95% confidence level). NOx emissions were not significantly influenced. However, for some of the vehicles tested, acetaldehyde emissions significantly increased [27].
CO, formed by the incomplete combustion of fuels, is produced most readily from petroleum fuels, which contain no oxygen in their molecular structure. Since ethanol and other ‘‘oxygenated’’ compounds contain oxygen, their combustion in automobile engines is more complete. The result is a substantial reduction in CO emissions. Research shows that reductions range up to 30%, depending on type and age of engine/vehicle, the emission control system used, and the atmospheric conditions in which the vehicle operates [27].
Because of its high octane rating, adding ethanol to gasoline leads to reduction or removal of aromatic HC’s (such as benzene), and other hazardous high-octane additives commonly used to replace tetra ethyl lead in gasoline [28]. Adding ethanol to gasoline can potentially increase the volatility of gasoline. However, some studies have identified divergent results about NOx emissions, showing the ethanol concentration in the fuel increased anywhere from 0% to 20%. So, the ethanol addition can reduce CO and HC, aldehydes and unburned ethanol emissions. NOX results can vary depending on the operating condition, spark advance timing and other parameters [29].
Adding ethanol to gasoline does emit slightly greater amount of aldehydes during combustion. However, the resulting concentrations are extremely small and are effectively reduced by the three-way catalytic converter in the exhaust systems of all modern vehicles. Generally, benzene and toluene emissions decrease by ethanol addition to gasoline, although this beneficial effect of ethanol was eliminated after the operation of the catalyst. Acetic acid was detected in exhaust gases in some cases only for the base and the 3% ethanol blend fuel [30,31].
There are other toxic emissions (unregulated), which should be considered to ascertain the impact of ethanol blended fuels, such as: acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, propionaldehyde and acrolein, benzene, ethylbenzene, 1-3 butadiene, hexane, toluene, xylene, and fine particulates. Studies indicate a reduction of benzene emission up to 50% with the ethanol-blended fuels. Emissions of 1,3-butadienes were also substantially decreased, with reduction ranging from 24% to 82%. Isolated trends were noted for certain PAHs. There was a decrease in 1-nitrobenzene with use of ethanol in all cases. There was also a general increase in the proportion of heavy PAHs in the particulate phase with ethanol use, and although less pronounced, general decreases in light PAHs in the particulate phase [32].
In summary, it can be said that ethanol produces generally less pollution than gasoline and diesel. Alcohol has a tolerance combustion with excess air, which allows a more complete burn with lower emissions of CO and PM. Moreover, there is an increase in the emission of aldehydes. Under certain conditions (cold start), alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes, especially formaldehyde (in the case of methanol) and acetaldehyde (in the case of ethanol) [33].
Among the biofuels discussed above, we can highlight the use of biodiesel and ethanol in vehicles with diesel engines. In the specific case of biodiesel, this has viscosity close to mineral diesel. These vegetable oil esters contain 10–11% oxygen by weight, which may encourage more combustion than hydrocarbon-based diesel in an engine. Furthermore, biodiesel can form blends with diesel in any ratio, and thus could replace partially, or even totally, diesel in combustion engines that could bring a number of environmental, economic and social advantages. However, biodiesel can be produced from different types of raw material and this can directly influence the final composition of the biofuel and consequently in the emission of pollutants.
Thus, the investigation discovered that biodiesel impacts on emissions varied depending on the type of biodiesel (soybean, rapeseed, or animal fats) and on the type of conventional diesel to which the biodiesel was added. There is one minor exception: emission impacts of biodiesel did not appear to differ by engine model year [34].
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has conducted a comprehensive analysis of the emission impacts of biodiesel using publicly available data. This investigation made use of statistical regression analysis to correlate the concentration of biodiesel in conventional diesel fuel with changes in regulated and unregulated pollutants. The majority of available data was collected on heavy-duty highway engines and this data formed the basis of the analysis. The average effects are shown in Figure 3.
Average emission impacts of biodiesel for heavy-duty highway engines [
Increasing the level of biodiesel in the fuel blend increased NOx while reducing PM. Proportionally, the PM reduction was slightly more than the increase in NOx, on a percentage basis. The reduction in CO and HC was linear with the addition of biodiesel for the blends tested. These reductions indicate more complete combustion of the fuel. The presence of oxygen in the fuel was thought to promote complete combustion [35,36].
The NOx forms by oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen at sufficiently high temperatures. Kinetics of NOx formation is governed by Zeldovich mechanism, and its formation is highly dependent on temperature and availability of oxygen. There are several reported results of slight increase in NOx emissions for biodiesel [37]. It is quite obvious, that with biodiesel, due to improved combustion, the temperature in the combustion chamber can be expected to be higher and a higher amount of oxygen is also present, leading to formation of a higher quantity of NOx in biodiesel-fueled engines. However, biodiesel’s lower sulfur content allows the use of NOx control technologies that cannot be otherwise used with conventional diesel.
Biodiesel is free from sulfur, hence less sulfate emissions, and reduced PM is reported in the exhaust. Due to the near absence of sulfur in biodiesel, it helps reduce the problem of acid rain caused by emission of pollutant from fuels burning. The lack of aromatic hydrocarbon (benzene, toluene etc.) in biodiesel reduces unregulated emissions as well as ketone, benzene etc. Breathing particulate matter has been found to be hazardous for human health, especially in terms of respiratory system problems. PM consists of elemental carbon (~31%), sulfates and moisture (~14%), unburnt fuel (~7%), unburnt lubricating oil (~40%) and potential remaining metals and others substances [27].
Regarding environmental concerns, many studies have shown that pure biodiesel, biodiesel/diesel and biodiesel/ethanol/diesel blends may reduce emissions of regulated substances (CO, CO2, SOx, HC and PM) [38-40]. However, there is an increasing interestin studying emissions of some unregulated substances, such as carbonyl compounds, PAHs, nitro-PAHs and other toxics that are of concern from both environmental and human health standpoints [22]. Among CC, both formal dehyde and acetaldehyde were the major contributors to the observed total CC levels in diesel and diesel/biofuels blends emissions. Except for acrolein and formaldehyde, all CC showed a clear trend of reduction in emissions when using biodiesel/diesel blends [41].
In general, the addition of higher concentrations of biodiesel to diesel make an improvement in the carbonyl concentration profile at places with high circulation of heavy-duty vehicles, bringing profiles down to levels found at sites less impacted by these kind of vehicles [42].
However, concerning CC emissions, there are some divergences when considering the results obtained using pure diesel and biodiesel blends. Depending upon the author, biodiesel could contribute to increase or decrease in the CC emissions [43-47]. Furthermore, comparing these studies is not straightforward since different authors have used different biofuel sources, engines, and especially, different sampling methodologies or protocols.
Experimental results showed no significant difference in engine function, damage from deposits inside the chamber or the inferior condition of engine oil for 300 h (18,000 km) of engine operation when using biodiesel/diesel blends. The emissions of HC and CO increased with operation time but the emissions of NOx and PAHs decreased with operation time between 0 and 300 h (18,000 km). The use of biodiesel/diesel blends can reduce the emissions of total PAHs significantly [48]. Other studies on unregulated emissions with use of biodiesel/diesel blend found that, besides reducing PAH emission, there was also a reduction of nitro-PAHs, carbonyl compounds and light aromatic hydrocarbons when this mixture is compared with pure diesel results [44].
PAH concentrations in the samples from a bus station were associated with atmospheric PM, mass size distributions and major ions (fluorite, chloride, bromide, nitrate, phosphate, sulfate, nitrite, oxalate; fumarate, formate, succinate and acetate; lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium and ammonium). Results indicate that major ions represented 21.2% particulate matter mass. Nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium, respectively, presented the highest concentration levels, indicating that biodiesel may also be a significant source for these ions, especially nitrate. Dibenzo[a,h]anthraceneandindeno[1,2,3,-cd]pyrene were the main PAH found, and a higher fraction of PAH particles was found in diameters lower than 0.25 μm in a bus station. The fine and ultrafine particles were dominant among the PM evaluated, suggesting that biodiesel decreases the total PAH emission. However, it does increase the fraction of fine and ultrafine particles when compared to diesel [49].
The direct application of ethanol in diesel engines requires changes in the constitution of the engine and the use of additives to improve the ignition. However, diesel/ethanol blends are a more viable alternative and require little or no change in conventional engines. The use of ethanol combined with diesel can significantly reduce the emission of toxic gases and particulate matters when compared to pure diesel. However, there are critical barriers to commercial use of diesel/ethanol blends, as the addition of ethanol to diesel affects properties such as lubricity, viscosity, energy content, cetane number, and, mainly, stability and volatility. The solubility of ethanol in diesel depends, among other factors, on the composition of diesel, the water content in the mixture, and the temperature [50].
Despite the technical problems presented by the use of pure ethanol in diesel cycle vehicles, many studies have been developed using ethanol blended with diesel. Thus, no modification is required in the engines of these vehicles. E-diesels (blends of ethanol in diesel) are currently being used in fleet vehicles in the European Union and the United States. Studies carried out with E-diesel indicated significant reductions of PM, sometimes up to 40%, depending on the test methods and operating conditions. The CO and NOx emissions were significantly lower when a 20% blend of E-diesel was used in a constant-speed stationary diesel engine, as opposed to diesel fuel. The addition of ethanol to diesel may result in a volumetric reduction in sulphur, by as much as 20%, thus significantly reducing SO2 emissions [51]. The major drawback in E-diesel is that ethanol is immiscible in diesel over a wide range of temperatures [52].
The diesel/ethanol/biodiesel blends have also emerged as an alternative fuel to reduce emissions in diesel engines. The biodiesel can help the miscibility of ethanol in diesel fuel. Researches have shown that the use of these blends can substantially reduce emissions of CO, HC, and PM[53, 54]. The mixtures (v/v/v) were used in the emission study: diesel/ethanol – 90/10%, diesel/ethanol/soybean biodiesel – 80/15/5%, diesel/ethanol/castor biodiesel – 80/15/5%, diesel/ethanol/residual biodiesel – 80/15/5%, diesel/ethanol/soybean oil – 90/7/3%, and diesel/ethanol/castor oil – 90/7/3%. The diesel/ethanol fuel showed higher reduction of NOx emission when compared with pure diesel. The combustion efficiencies of the diesel can be enhanced by the addition of the oxygenate fuels, like ethanol and biodiesel/vegetable oil, resulting in a more complete combustion in terms of NOx emission. In the case of CO2 decreases were observed. Meanwhile, no differences were observed in CO emission. Among CC studied, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetone, and propionaldehyde showed the highest emission concentrations [50].
There are a great number of previously published studies comparing diesel with biodiesel and ethanol blends. These biofuels have a good energy return because of the simplicity of its manufacturing process, and has significant benefits in emissions as well. It could also play an important role in the energy economy if higher crop productivities are attained.
Considerable populations are exposed to fuel exhaust in everyday life, whether through their occupation or through the ambient air. People are exposed not only to engine vehicle exhausts but also to exhausts from burning sources such as from other modes of transport (trains and ships) and from power generators.
Increasing environmental concerns over the past two decades have resulted in regulatory action in North America, Europe and elsewhere with successively tighter emission standards for both diesel and gasoline engines. There is a strong interplay between standards and technology – standards drive technology and new technology enables more stringent standards. For diesel engines, this required changes in the fuel such as marked decreases in sulfur content, changes in engine design to burn diesel fuel more efficiently, reductions in emissions through exhaust control technology with some countries investing in the use of biofuels [55].
However, while the amount of particulates and chemicals are reduced with these changes, it is not yet clear how the quantitative and qualitative changes may translate into altered health effects. In addition, existing fuels and vehicles without these modifications will take many years to be replaced, particularly in less developed countries, where regulatory measures are currently less stringent. It is notable that many parts of the developing world lack regulatory standards, and data on the occurrence and impact of diesel exhaust are limited.
Recently in June 12, 2012 after a week-long meeting of international experts, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), which is part of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified diesel engine exhaust as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence that exposure is associated with an increased risk for lung cancer. In this context, the biofuels can be an interesting alternative fuel to reduce health impact of petroleum fuel and pollutant emissions into the atmosphere. However, little is known about health impact and effects, and the air quality impacts of biofuels remain unclear. Significant concern exists regarding biofuel\'s production impacts on food security and nutrition for the poor [56].
The purpose of this section is to describe research that has been done on the toxicity of vehicular emissions, when fossil diesel is replaced by biofuel or when biofuels are added to petroleum fuel, and what happens in the chemical composition, size distribution and toxicity of the compounds emitted and their damages on health. This section will also discuss how the compounds can damage cells and organs and how the chemical composition and physical proprieties can influence the toxicity of pollutants that affect human health.
The most commonly found pollutants from burning fuel emissions are regulated by many countries around the world. These pollutants can harm health and the environment, and cause property damage. Among the pollutants, PM and O3 are the most widespread health threats. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) calls these pollutants "criteria" air pollutants because it regulates them by developing human health-based and/or environmentally-based criteria (science-based guidelines) for setting permissible levels. The main regulated pollutants emitted during burning fuel and their damages to human health are listed in Table 3.
There are many studies reporting the difference in pollutant emission when comparing fuels with biofuel as described above. In general they report a decrease, similarities or increases in emissions using biofuel comparing with fossil fuels. Studies have indicated a decrease release of CO, SOx, PM from the combustion process of biodiesel and ethanol. On the other hand, they indicated an increase of NOx from the combustion process [57,58]. These results are important in terms of human health but do not assume the real effects and damages caused because there are some other pollutants emitted that do not fall under regulated pollutants.
Importantly, there are some air pollutants not regulated that can cause damage to human health. The types of components in the gas and PM phases include single aromatic and PAH and your derived (alkylbenzenes, quinones, oxy and nitro- PAH), alkanes, alkenes, CC, metals, inorganic ions (e.g. sulfates, carbonates), among other chemicals. These compounds are related as potential mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds to humans. Some of these compounds, present in fuel and biofuel exhaust, can induce known toxicity in exposed human populations, even causing cellular effects.
An important group of chemical carcinogens is the PAH which are important in health for several reasons: some are known to be potent carcinogens in man; there is strong epidemiological evidence that exposed groups have increased risks of lung, urinary tract, brain and skin cancers. As heavy-duty vehicles are the main contributors to particle emissions, where this kind of compound is present, the large increase in internal combustion vehicles in big cities has intensified atmospheric pollution and consequently the harmful effects on human health. Studies have indicated a considerable decrease in PAH emission when burning biodiesel when compared to those from burning of diesel fuel [49,59-61]. In the same way, good results are found for ethanol emission when compared to gasoline fuel burning emissions [62]. On the other hand, as biodiesel use can increase NOx emissions, some of the derived PAH are supposedly increased, as Nitro-PAHs. The high emission of NO2 from burning of biofuel can lead to the nitration of the available PAH forming Nitro-PAH. Nitro-PAH is a potential worse chemical carcinogen than PAH; it is shown to induce mutations in bacterial and mammalian cells, sister chromatid exchanges and chromosomal aberrations in cultured mammalian cells [63]. In addition, there is evidence for carcinogenicity in rats [64]. However, some studies have shown discordant results about PAH emissions when biofuels are used compared with fossil fuels in vehicle engines. Some hypothesis to this result may be due the influence of biodiesel source material being particularly strong in the formation of these pollutants. Both increases and decreases can be observed in PAH, nitrated PAH and oxygenated PAH compounds with the use of biodiesel blends from different origin [62,65].
Another group of chemical carcinogens is the CC. Taking into account important concerns of CC for atmospheric chemistry and their negative impact on human health, the levels of carbonyls and their diurnal variability can be an effective indicator reflecting the status of local air pollution. In this sense, correlations between major aldehydes emitted by vehicles and the level of pollution of these compounds in sites impacted by this source are still relatively scarce [42]. The most observed toxic effects to human health by some CC are irritation of skin, eyes and nasopharyngeal membranes [66]. More seriously, formaldehyde, which is usually the most abundant carbonyl in the air, is also the one of more concern because it is classified as carcinogenic to humans by the IARC [67]. Epidemiological studies suggest a causal relationship between exposure to formaldehyde and occurrence of nasopharyngeal cancer, although this conclusion is based in a small number of observed and expected cases in the studies [67]. Indeed, studies about CC indicated a substantial increase in CC during the biofuel combustion process. Biodiesel emissions show an increase of formaldehyde and acrolein [41] and ethanol emissions are related to a large increase of acetaldehyde and formaldehyde [67]. These CC are shown to be a carcinogen, mugenic and can lead to onset of pulmonary edema, respiratory disturbance and asthma like symptoms [68]. Nonetheless CC is also a contributor to the formation of O3, and thus,of photochemical smog. However, observations of increased aldehydes released by biofuel combustion needs to be better understood for its contribution to any adverse health effects.
Moreover, several studies indicate there is a decrease in the concentration of transition metals in biofuels emission. Metals are more abundant in petroleum fuel combustion exhaust than biofuels and they have the ability to generate radicals which likely lead to depletion of antioxidants and increases in DNA and protein adducts. However, elemental metal composition analyzed in PM from biodiesel and diesel exhaust was found to have metal bound to the carbon core [69].
Additionally, some fuels have specific compounds that are emitted in their burning. Biodiesel exhaust composition presents a number of methyl ester, cyclic fatty acids and nitro fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered pulmonary irritants and present dual polarity that can play an important role tampering the membrane structures and lead to cell death [69]. This kind of compound can play an important role as a fuel emission marker.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
CO | \n\t\t\tCO can cause harmful health effects by reducing oxygen delivery to the body\'s organs (like the heart and brain) and tissues. At extremely high levels, CO can cause death. | \n\t\t
NOx | \n\t\t\tIn the group of NOx, NO2 is the component of greatest interest and the indicator for the larger group of nitrogen oxides. In addition to contributing to the formation of O3, and fine particle pollution, NO2 is linked with a number of adverse effects on the respiratory system as airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. | \n\t\t
SOx | \n\t\t\tSO2 is the main component and is linked with a number of adverse effects on the respiratory system such as bronchoconstriction and increased asthma symptoms, also short-term exposure increases visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory illnesses. | \n\t\t
O3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tEven relatively low levels of ozone can cause health effects. People with lung disease, children, older adults, and people who are active outdoors may be particularly sensitive to ozone. The exposure to ozone can make it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously, cause shortness of breath and pain when taking a deep breath, cause coughing and sore or scratchy throat, inflame and damage the airways, aggravate lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis, increase the frequency of asthma attacks, make the lungs more susceptible to infection and ozone can continue to damage the lungs even when the symptoms have disappeared. | \n\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\tExposure to such particles can affect both lungs and heart, especially fine particles - containing microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they can get deep into the lungs and cause serious health problems. Numerous scientific studies have linked particle pollution exposure to a variety of problems, including premature death in people with heart or lung disease, nonfatal heart attacks, irregular heartbeat, aggravated asthma, decreased lung function, and increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty breathing. | \n\t\t
Air pollutants and their damage to human health [34].
The PM emitted during fuel burning present some special characteristics. They are composed of a carbon core and organic compounds are adsorbed in their surface. The physical characteristic, especially the size of PM emitted during fuel burning is directly linked to their potential to cause health hazards. Small particles (PM10) less than 10 micrometers in diameter (Dp) pose the greatest problems, because they can get deep into the lungs, and some may even get into the bloodstream. EPA is concerned about particles that are 10 micrometers in diameter or smaller because those are the particles that generally pass through the throat and nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health effects. EPA groups regulated particle pollution into two categories: "Coarse particles," which are larger than 2.5 micrometers and “fine particles” which are smaller than 10 micrometers in diameter. These particles are deposited into the airways in the head region when inhaled. "Fine particles," are 2.5 micrometers (PM2,5) in diameter or smaller and when inhaled they are deposited into lung airways or the tracheobronchial region (Figure 4).
Represents the areas where particulate material from incomplete combustion processes is deposited in the body.
However, researchers consider two other categories as well: “Inhalable particles” are smaller than 1 μm, these particles can deposit into the pulmonary alveoli, and finally the “Ultrafine particles,” such as those found close to emissions source, mainly diesel emissions. These ultrafine particles are 100 nanometers in diameter and smaller. They present a high concentration of organic compounds in their composition and can be deposited in the alveolar region and also get into the bloodstream. So, the uses of biofuel can interfere on size distribution of particles emitted as well as chemical composition. Most of the studies published demonstrate a reduction in PM emissions with biodiesel as compared to diesel fuel. This reduction is mainly caused by reduced soot formation and enhanced soot oxidation [57]. In terms of toxicity this is a good gain for the human health. However, in terms of size distribution studies there are worries that the addition of biofuel to petroleum fuel or the use of pure biofuel will change the particle size distribution. These changes have potential implications for the health impacts of PM emissions from biofuel blends.
The addition of ethanol in gasoline fuel changes the particle size distribution, especially in the accumulation mode (30 nm <Dp< 2.5 μm), and decreases the black carbon and total particulate mass concentrations. The molecular weight distribution of the PAH was found to decrease with added ethanol [70, 71]. Generally these changes in the particle size distribution can happen when volatile materials are in excess, leaving insufficient solid area available for adsorption and condensation promoting the nucleation process.
The crucial aim of toxicology studies is to identify possible health effects induced by exposure of both the general population and sensitive or susceptible populations, inducing by determination of the exposure threshold, the level needed to induce health effects. The threshold should include not only a concentration but a duration metric, which could be acute or repeated exposures. The strategies to plan and realize the toxic studies should regard that possible health effects may take years of exposure to discern, e. g., lung cancer, fibrosis, emphysema, and mitigation of the exposure and/or effects may be too late for an individual [69].
There are many factors that influence emissions toxicity and the use of biofuel in recent years in some countries has shown a difference in emission contents reflected in the emission toxicity profile. It is important to understand how and what is changing to be able to identify means to improve human and environmental health. In terms of emission from vehicles, the main line of exposure and toxicity effect is on the respiratory system. This is the main point of human contact with the air pollutant and where the first contact and exposure to the pollutant happens. This system is composed of three main regions: the head airways region, lung airways or tracheobronchial region and the pulmonary or alveolar region. Each region differs markedly in structure, airflow patterns, function, retention time, and sensitivity to gases absorption and particle deposition. Inhaled air follows a flow that goes through a sequence of airway branchings as it travels from the trachea to the alveolar surfaces. The first branchings take place in the tracheobronchial region and the remainder in the gas exchange region (Figure 4). In this mechanism the gases are absorbed in the alveolar region and the particles’ contents deposited in the lung for varying time durations, depending on their physicochemical properties, their location within the lung, and the type of clearance mechanism involved [72]. Once the pollutant makes contact with the human tissue it starts a series of mechanisms in which the absorption process, the biotransformation and distribution, and lastly the excretion process occur. Thus, the air contents, the pollutants concentration and the physical proprieties are very important since they will determine the acceptable level of toxic exposure and what health effects and damages are caused.
Lung cancer is a serious health problem and is the main toxic health effect caused by air pollutants. According to WHO, lung cancer accounts for 1.2 million deaths yearly worldwide, exceeding mortality from any other cancer in developed countries. Though the vast majority is caused by tobacco smoking, environmental causes of lung cancer, including air pollution, have long been a concern as well [73]. WHO recognizes that the exhaust fumes from diesel engines do cause cancer. A panel of experts working from WHO concluded that the exhausts were definitely a cause of lung cancer and may also cause tumors in the bladder [74].
Studies verified that controlled exposures of humans to whole diesel exhaust typically results in lung inflammation as shown with neutrophils entering the lungs [75]; in which these studies are generally 1-2 hr at approximately 100-300 μg/m3 with healthy adults. In these same exposures, several soluble substances which mediate inflammation, e.g., interleukin-8 (IL-8) were shown to be increased by use of lung lavage or inducing sputum production to recover airways secretions. PM from diesel exhaust induced an adjutancy effect using nasal instillations of 300 μg particles in allergic subjects as common biomarkers of allergy (e.g., increased IgE production and histamine release) increased in nasal secretions [76]. Neutrophil influx into the lungs of healthy volunteers exposed to nearly 500 μg/m3 wood smoke for 2 hr was observed [77] suggesting a common outcome from different combusted fuel sources.
Epidemiologic evidence has shown gasoline fuel emissions as a potential lung cancer cause as well [78]. Studies have shown that the gasoline exhaust increased DNA single strand break, promoted lipid peroxidation andoxidative protein damage and decreased activities of superoxide dismutase in lungs and brains. Though, it decreased the activities of glutathione peroxidase in lungs but not in the brain. The present data suggested that gasoline exhaust exposure could cause oxidative damage to lungs and brains of rats. That is to say that gasoline is a toxin to brains of mammals, not only to lungs [79].
However, lung cancer studies on biofuels emissions are limited. In general the findings are for fossil fuels that showed an elevated risk for the development of lung cancers in those with greater exposure compared to workers with lower exposure.
Mutagenicity assays in general can detect the genotoxicity effect of either single chemical and physical agents or heterogeneous mixtures. The Ames mutagenicity test is a short-term
Studies about the mutagenicity of biofuel report a wide range of results. Studies about PM exhaust from burning of ethanol or methanol in gasoline blends submitted to the mutagenicity Ames test report that in all the ethanol blended fuel tests, the mass of PM associated to emitted organic compounds from the exhaust was lower than that observed during the control tests using pure gasoline. In the same way, others studies report that in most cases, estimates of the emission of mutagenic combustion products from the exhaust were lower using alcohol blend [83]. However, studies about the influence of ethanol–diesel blended fuels on mutagenic and genotoxic activities of particulate extracts showed higher mutagenicity for E20 (diesel with 20% v.v. of ethanol) compared to E15, E10 and DF (Diesel fuel). Additionally it was found that DF and E20 had a higher genotoxic potential than the other fuel blends [63].
In terms of biodiesel use, studies indicate that biodiesel exhaust is significantly less mutagenic in comparison with diesel fuel [82,84-88]. On the other hand, some studies reported no difference between diesel and biodiesel exhaust or nearly the same mutagenic effects [89, 90]. Moreover, some studies reported increase in the mutagenic effects with the use of biodiesel added to diesel [91-94]. It is important to highlight that the studies found high mutagenicity considering that the biodiesel mutagenicity was generally high or similar compared to diesel and in some other studies were comparing biodiesel to low sulfur diesel.
The exposure to air pollutants promotes an event called oxidative stress. It can be defined as a disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. The hypothesis is that many of the adverse health effects promoted by air pollutants may derivate from oxidative stress, initiated by the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within affected cells [95]. In its simplest form then, oxidative stress is a potentially harmful process that occurs when there is an excess of free radicals, a decrease in antioxidant defenses, or a combination of these events [96].
After inhalation, PM deposited in the lung may stimulate the formation of ROS, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals. These ROS can be either directly derived from PM or endogenously produced by chemical components of PM, such as transition metals and quinone structures that undergo redox cycling. Furthermore, enhanced ROS formation in the lungs is likely involved in the activation of transcription factors and the induction of cytokines and chemotactic factors. Via these mechanisms, continuous exposure of the lungs to PM-induced ROS formation can cause pulmonary inflammation and eventually cause and/or aggravate impairment of lung development and lung diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis and asthma [80].
The assessment of radical generating capacity has been studied by many methods. Oxygen radicals cannot be detected directly because of their short half-lives, and therefore several alternative methods have been developed. In one method, a molecular probe reacts with the radical species and forms a stable product that can be analyzed with analytical methods, e.g. spectrophotometric analysis of thiobarbituric-acid reactive substances or the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay. Another method is based on biological indicators to assess the formation of ROS by PM, such as the induction of strand breaks in fX174 RF plasmid DNA or the formation of oxidized DNA-bases like 8- oxo-7,8-dihydro-20-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG). A third method is based on the detection of free radicals by electron spin/paramagnetic resonance (ESR/ EPR) spectroscopy in combination with spin trapping compounds [80].
Studies carried out using Biodiesel and pure plant oil indicated significant reductions of the oxidative potential measured via DTT assay, about 95%, compared to diesel fuel [93]. However, studies measuring oxidative potential of ethanol exhaust are limited.
Cytotoxicity assessment is currently essential to evaluate the potential human and environmental health risks associated with chemical exposure, and to limit animal experimentation whenever possible. Several different methods have been used to establish the citotoxicity of air pollutants. Air pollutants have a high potential to damage cells in a concentration- and a time-dependent manner in which the reactive oxygen species play an important role inducing cytotoxicity to the cells [97]. The most important distinctions between these sets are the use of various cell types (lungs cells, macrophages cells, embryonic cells, endothelial cells, fibroclast cell, and others, in which it can be from human or animals) and the time of incubation, varying from 4 to 72h. Also, different fractions and extraction procedures have been used. These differences and variables should be taken into account when results from different studies are compared [80].
Fossil fuels have been studied for many years and a range of researches have shown that the air pollutants promote toxicity and in some case apoptosis (cell death) to animals and human cells [98]. The studies found that biofuel presents a variable cytotoxicity compared to fossil fuels. In general, biodiesel presents an increase in cytotoxicity effects when compared to diesel fuel [82, 93, 99] or no significant differences in cytotoxicity between biodiesel and diesel exhaust [84, 88]. A study carried out using ethanol added to gasoline fuel demonstrated a strong decrease of ethanol exhaust cytotoxicity potential compared to gasoline exhaust [100].
Biofuels are promoted in many parts of the world and concern of environmental and social problems have grown due to increased production of this fuels. Production of biofuels promises substantial improvement in air quality through reducing emission from burning of the fuel used in vehicle engines. Some of the developing countries have started biofuel production and utilization as transport fuel in local market. Thus, below are described some important conclusions that we can be done about the use of biofuels by vehicle engines.
Compared to fossil diesel, the emission of regulated and non-regulated compounds from biofuels burning are generally equal or lower. An exception is NOx emission, which is generally higher with use of the biofuels, more specifically of the biodiesel use. The amount of compounds emitted depends considerably of the type engine, its configuration, the load condition and the use of a catalyzer. In most cases, reducing the emission of unwanted compounds requires modification in the standard engines for the use of biodiesel and/or raw vegetable oil and ethanol.
The recent literature demonstrates an increase in research activities on biofuels, especially within recent years. Even with the massive amount of data available, it is still difficult to accurately assess the environmental and health effects of the use of biofuels such as ethanol, biodiesel or raw vegetable oils in vehicle engines. At present, is difficult to conclude what will change with biofuels in terms of toxicity. There are few research activities with the aim to study the toxicological effectiveness of biofuels or their emissions, even though this topic is of great relevance. Furthermore, the results of the available studies could fluctuate widely. Several findings on acute and mechanism-specific toxicity indicate less or comparable effects induced by biofuels in comparison to fossil fuels. However, indications for negative impacts that are induced both by the biofuels themselves and their emissions have been reported. Based on the data available, human health risks associated with spills or the use of biofuels currently cannot be ruled out. Therefore, additional experimental studies are necessary to provide a more comprehensive dataset for the identification of new alternative fuels which could have lower issue impacts for the environment.
The authors wish to thank the SENAI CIMATEC and Brazilian agencies: CNPq, FAPESB, CAPES, FINEP and INCT for Energy & Environment. In special to “Christina M. Batteate” proofread the English to ensure the accuracy and improve the language quality.
Advocacy and leadership have become increasingly recognized, in part, due to the growth of knowledge and awareness from leaders in the family counseling fields [1]. Leadership theories and types have evolved from a traditionally innate sense of personality to a now more explicitly learned set of competences that counselors and family therapists use with increased intentionality. Leadership, specifically, is now seen by helpers as not a single action, but rather an on-going dialog or a learned set of skills or behaviors [1, 2, 3]. Counselors and family therapists must focus on increasing their professional leadership, identity, and advocacy to best help all family types.
Definitions of leadership in family counseling have expanded to include cultural responsivity and social justice [4, 5]. Cultural responsivity includes cultural sensitivity, cultural knowledge, cultural empathy, cultural guidance, and, most recently, cultural humility [6, 7]. Similarly, social justice is increasingly being incorporated into counselor education, counseling psychology, and marriage and family counseling literature [8]. To date, however, there is still limited understanding, research, and enactment of social justice measures in all these related fields [9]. Of the knowledge currently enacted, scholars have identified multiple sub-constructs of social justice, including affirmative action, emphasis on equality, decolonization, and disruption of marginalization, oppression, and inequality [9]. In the below documentation, various aspects of leadership skills and ideas will be described as they relate to multiculturalism and inclusive advocacy. These types could also be applied to underrepresented clients and families, including BIPOC LGBTQIA+ families.
Various leadership theories drive different forms of advocacy in family counseling. Leadership theories efficacious for family therapists and counselors include: 1) Trait Theories, 2) Behavior Theories, 3) Contingency Theories, 4) Path-Goal Theory, 5) Leader-Membership Exchange Theory, and 6) Supervision Leadership models [10, 11]. Though each of these leadership theories is different, each theory can be effective depending on congruency to a counselor’s, family therapist’s, or leader’s personality and preferred leadership style. For example, Trait Leadership Theory includes various salient traits of a family counselor leader, such as extraversion and emotional intelligence. Comparatively, other Behavioral Theories focus on behaviors learned and used by effective leaders, rather than on personality or emotion-based traits, alone. Additionally, Contingency Theories focus on traits and behaviors, as well as context and other significant relational factors (e.g., sociocultural considerations) with those whom family counselors will serve and lead [10]. Additionally considered is Supervision Leadership, which uses culturally responsive leadership models and practices [11]. One of the greatest improvements in family counseling and other counseling fields includes the increase of educating colleagues and trainees about the need to incorporate all leadership models with culturally responsive and just components. Recently, leaders in the field have begun incorporating the Socially Just and Culturally Responsive Counseling Leadership Model (SJCRCLM) in addition to the recently described models [11]. This chapter will emphasize ideas congruent with the SJCRCLM designed for clients and families in the BIPOC LGBTQIA+ community.
To supplement professional identity and leadership modeling, leaders in family counseling and related fields must also understand and establish ethical and culturally relevant practices in those fields [12]. The American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT) Code of Ethics emphasizes inclusiveness and diversity in many ways, including diversity being listed as one of AAMFT’s main aspirational core values [13]. Furthermore, the International Association of Marriage and Family Counselors (IAMFC) and American Counseling Association (ACA) also explicitly mention valuing diversity and cultural competency [12]. Furthermore, the ACA’s Code of Ethics requires that counselors be continuously ethically and culturally competent. These competencies are specifically aligned in Standards A.2.c., B.1.a, C.2.f, E.5.b., E.8., F.2.b., F. 11.c. and H.5.d [12]. Culturally relevant history that need to be increasingly taught in family counseling programs include the development of the Association of Non-White Concerns (ANWC) in 1985, the development of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies and Standards (MCCS) published in 1992, the formation of the Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Counseling (i.e., SAIGE, then known as AGLBIC) in 1997, and others [10]. Family counselors must also recall the ACA Code of Ethics: Standard E.5.c, which is to “recognize historical and social prejudices….” While critical social justice efforts are gaining awareness, multiculturally competent advocacy for clients and professionals remain lacking. Thus, ultimately, family therapists and counselors must all embrace their organization’s professional identity, which each include to best serve clients of all cultures. As mentioned, infusing the SJCRCLM and adapting traditional leadership and service models to be increasingly inclusive is a need in all related mental health fields.
Both trainees as well as seasoned professionals should be encouraged to consistently create an affirming clinical environment by teaching about the effects of context, semantics, and positions of privilege [14]. Usage of assessments and group dialog in family work can be increasingly helpful to understand some of these systemic factors [15]. One such assessment that can be used in family counseling or individual counseling supervision is the Multicultural Competencies Self-Assessment Survey or related multicultural surveys [16]. Another professional advocacy assessment includes the Advocacy Competencies Self-Assessment Survey, which helps counseling trainees or counselors assess their capabilities of being advocates and culturally focused versus lacking in these areas [17]. Administration of the above assessments are two potential ways to address both client and professional advocacy using a systemic and cultural emphasis. Another culturally relevant and ethical practice needed by family counselors is the continued establishment and maintenance of ethical boundaries (ACA, 2014; CACREP, 2016). Specifically, per the 2014 ACA Code of Ethics, family and individual counselors are required to establish and maintain differentiated boundaries between their personal and professional roles, especially when implicit biases due to cultural differences may exist [12, 18]. In all family sessions, boundaries of the family counselor need to be distinguished, rather than left tacit and confusing. Sometimes, due to the systemic nature of families, dual roles may occur; however, all roles should be navigated with caution, consultation, and clear communication. Other culturally inclusive ethical strategies include modeling being an advocate for multicultural awareness, facilitating in-session activities about family and culture, and emphasizing the need for cultural awareness in supervision, class, and clinical practice [10, 19].
Client advocacy is another needed leadership skill for family counselors [10]. It is imperative that clinicians remember the term “multicultural” is inclusive of issues relating beyond outward differences alone [20]. With understanding that identity transcends beyond phenotype, family counselors must be advocates for all individuals of a family, especially those who are marginalized in larger society. For example, due to recent legislative policies, one demographic of people who are still marginalized in current society includes people identifying as, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questioning, Intersex, or Asexual (LGBTQIA+) [10, 20]. With same-sex marriage recently legalized in the United States, individuals often forget that discrimination toward LGBTQIA+ people has not ceased in America. One example that exemplifies how individuals in the LGBTQIA+ group are still unjustly marginalized, is the example of recent formation of discriminatory legislation, Florida House Bill 1557 or otherwise known as the “Don’t Say Gay Bill.” This Bill states that classroom instruction about sexual orientation or gender identity may not occur at all in Kindergarten through Grade Three [21]. Additionally, as of 2022, at least three states in America, including Georgia, Florida, and Alabama do not ban conversion therapy [22]. Not long ago, too, in 2016, former Governor, Bill Haslam of Tennessee, signed a law into place that allowed private practice family or individual counselors to not have to work with clients of whom they disagree with ideologically, religiously, or regarding sexual orientation, despite the client’s presenting issues or need [23, 24]. More specifically, counselors in Tennessee, who may be approached with clients who are gay and with a presenting issue, such as severe depression or suicidality, may refer out this counseling seeking client, only due to disagreeing with his, her, hir, or their lifestyle, sexuality and/or gender expression, alone [23, 24]. This Bill is denounced The American Counseling Association. However, despite professional advocacy, this Bill symbolizes the large margin of current advocacy work that is still needed in the counseling profession. Thus, in many areas of the United States, clients in the BIPOC and LGTBQIA+ population are still marginalized.
LGBTQIA+ individuals who are also racial/ethnic minorities are multi-marginalized and are often subject to microaggressions associated with the intersection of their two historically oppressed identities [25]. On average, sexual minority people of color experience less support, greater stress, and fewer resources than White LGBTQIA+ individuals [26]. BIPOC LGBTQIA+ members also experience increased family rejection [27] and have a greater tendency to conceal their sexual orientation [28]. These “double minority” individuals encounter mental health challenges linked to sexism, racism, cis-heteronormativity, and challenges related to oppression toward their intersecting identities. While culture and community connections (including the presence of role models and family/peer support) improve resiliency, fears of “losing face,” unwillingness to disclose ill health, and mental health providers’ lack of cultural competency, create barriers to effective mental health support for these individuals with these intersecting identities [10]. Considering the disparity of services provided to BIPOC LGBTQIA+ identifying individuals and their families, it is crucial that family counselors advocate. Additionally, family counselors need to continue to learn to adequately conceptualize the unique variation of overlapping identities when beginning work with any new client of family. Relatedly, sexual, and racial minorities make up a disproportionately large percentage of the United States’ incarcerated population. Black males make up approximately 13 percent of the population, yet account for 34 percent of the total male prison population [29]. In 2017, 9.3 percent of men and 35.7 percent of women in prison identified as sexual minorities, compared to less than 4 percent of incarcerated White women within the U.S. Additionally, gay Black men have twice the incarceration rate compared to their White, non-racial minority counterparts [29]. Since individuals who face the dual minority status of being both a racial and sexual minority face a significantly disproportionate risk of jail time, it is critical that family counselors recognize the disparity and advocate with these clients. Risk of incarceration is only one marginalization experienced for clients and families identifying within the BIPOC and LGBTQIA+ community. A growing body of evidence documents the negative effects of racism on the emotional, psychological, and physiological functioning of BIPOC families [30]. Psychological distress (e.g., anxiety, depressive symptoms) due to perceived racial discrimination is more prevalent among BIPOC students and families than their White peers and families [31]. Other barriers include, racial injustice, and discriminatory practices in schools, workplaces and [32, 33]. Additionally, Black mothers have higher rates of preterm births, indicating higher risks for health complications among Black children from the start of life [34]. Once born, Black children are also less frequently exposed to culturally appropriate childcare and are often racially profiled as aggressive in various arenas, which often escalates into more police-based discrimination as these children age [35, 36, 37]. Considering all these stressors and traumas, BIPOC families frequently endure ambiguous, non-death losses, or “losses that remain unclear and thus without resolution,” such as historical trauma, below-average academic opportunities, and oppressive laws and policies [38]. Thus, effective professional family counselors must learn to employ a trauma-informed and culturally responsive modality for BIPOC LGBTQIA+ clients and their families.
Advocating for BIPOC LGBTQIA+ individuals and their families by refuting punitive and discriminatory legislation such as Florida Bill 1557 and Tennessee Bill 1556, as well as intervening and preventing less covert and overt acts, is needed by all family counselors. Speaking with legislators and other public individuals is a crucial advocacy component that is needed by clinicians in our field, but not currently mandated. These actions are rooted in family counseling education and the AAMFT and ACA Code of Ethics. As counselors and related mental health clinicians have mentioned prior, when counselors see oppression, we must accept responsibility for individual and collective social action. Various systemic related resources for family counselors and their family clients include the following:
Being Trauma Informed Family counselors need to continue to learn how to help families dealing with trauma related to intersecting isms. Various isms that BIPOC LGBTQIA+ families may experience, include lack of physical access to resources due to discrimination, overt and covert racism, sexism, homophobia, transphobia, and chronic microaggressions [4, 25, 42]. A specific traumatic occurrence that impacts BIPOC LGBTQIA+ communities is police brutality [42]. As of 2020, BIPOC were killed at least 1.6 times the rate of their White peers. Additionally, Black men and Native American men were killed at almost 3 times the rate of White men by police. Family counselors should consider both the psychological and physical wounds that police brutality may trigger for many BIPOC and BIPOC LGBTQIA+ clients and families [42]. Furthermore, typical broadcasting does not usually cover the hate-crimes, violence, and grief related to oppressions surrounding BIPOC LGBTQIA+ communities. Being trauma-informed and having cultural competence, humility, composure, quick wittedness, creativity, persistence, assertiveness, and resilience are all ingredients of successful family counselors [43]. Family counseling that already intentionally incorporates trauma has already proven beneficial in recent literature [44].
Recognizing Representation Family counselors need to help mitigate the lack of representation that many BIPOC LGBTQIA+ members and families experience in mental health support and healing services. BIPOC, LGBTQIA+, and BIPOC LGBTQIA+ folks are often excluded from public media, as well as media surrounding grief and loss support [45, 46]. For example, a protective factor and supportive organization for many clients and families includes the Trevor Project. The Trevor Project is the largest suicide and crisis prevention intervention program for LGBTQIA+ youth in the world. Though this organization is very helpful, many clients in the BIPOC LGBTQIA+ community have shared that this organization, too, lacks representation as it was catalyzed primarily by Trevor, a White fictional character [47]. Thus, for family counselors to recognize the loss of Trevor and helpfulness of the Trevor Project, while also recognizing the impact of lack of representation on all BIPOC LGBTQIA+ individuals in this and other organizations, is crucial. Increasing representation not only includes representation of BIPOC LGBTQIA+ families and individuals, but also family counselors as advocates.
Advocacy Outside of the Counseling Session Family counselors can act as advocates by talking with legislators about terminating discriminatory Bills such as the: Tennessee Bill 1556 Senate Bill (i.e. which does not require counselors to help families or clients who conflict with their religious beliefs), Missouri Senate Bill 1721 (i.e. which prohibits anyone from gender reassignment surgical procedures under age 18), Georgia Senate Bill 368 (i.e. which excludes LGBTQIA+ foster parents from adopting when placement of a child violates certain religious or moral convictions of the fostering agency), Arkansas Stop CRT Act of 2021 (i.e. which would defund and prohibit efforts to teach about history though non-White lenses, like Critical Race Theory), and HR6243 No More Free Ride Act (i.e. prohibiting Federal public benefits for or naturalization of any person who received a payment pursuant or related sources) and others [4, 21, 22]. Family counselors are encouraged to pursue a congruence between their prosocial behaviors in both their professional and personal selves.
Increasing Competence and Providing Supportive Resources to Families Family counselors are also expected to help families find physical and psychological support in and outside of the counseling session. Organizations in support of BIPOC LGBTQIA+ affirming counselors, community families, and community members include, but are not limited to 1) the Society for Sexual, Affectional, Intersex, and Gender Expansive Identities (SAIGE), 2) National Queer and Trans Therapists of Color Network (NQTTCN), 3) The National Black Justice Coalition (NBJC), and 4) The National Center for Transgender Equality (NCTE). SAIGE is a division of the American Counseling Association which offers information and support for both counselors in the LGBTQIA+ community and their allies [48]. Another impactful organization, the NQTTCN is a nonprofit agency formed in 2016 that provides support and therapeutic services to queer and transgender people of color (QTPoC) [4]. Additionally, The National Black Justice Coalition (NBJC) is a federal civil rights-based group that was founded in 2003 and focuses on empowering Black lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer+, and same gender loving people. The NBJC engages in advocacy for federal policy change, research, and education [4]. Family counselors educating themselves, professionally, through groups, such as the NBJC is encouraged. Additionally, family counselors providing these names of supportive groups to family clients may also provide education, universality, and hope. Another influential entity is the National Center for Transgender Equality (NCTE). The NCTE is a social justice organization founded in 2003 that advocates for transgender and nonbinary people [4]. The NCTE facilitates a variety of developments, including the Racial and Economic Justice Initiative (REJI), which advocates for change for transgender people of color experiencing rural and urban poverty (among other obstacles). These are only four of various emerging advocacy groups where family counselors can collaborate and connect clients and families.
As referenced throughout this documentation, family counselors’ inclusive and multicultural based advocacy, leadership, and clinical practice are needed when working with underrepresented families, especially BIPOC LGBTQIA+ families. Leadership theories and types have evolved and continue to influence the work that family counselors do in this and other areas. Unfortunately, in theory, there will always be societal constraints and power inequities; because of these inequities, however, there will always be a reason for family counselors to unite professionally and clinically advocate for BIPOC LGBTQIA+ families!
The authors would like to thank all Northern Illinois University and Northwestern mentors who encouraged advocacy and passion for this subject!
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8436",title:"Sandy Materials in Civil Engineering",subtitle:"Usage and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b448d888478a3a8836bb6dca78facaf8",slug:"sandy-materials-in-civil-engineering-usage-and-management",bookSignature:"Saeed Nemati and Farzaneh Tahmoorian",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8436.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"296316",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Nemati",slug:"saeed-nemati",fullName:"Saeed Nemati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7690",title:"Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:"Selected Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c0c03565105a25fb6cfe85f83885afe3",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",bookSignature:"Michael Sakellariou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7690.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16550",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Sakellariou",slug:"michael-sakellariou",fullName:"Michael Sakellariou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8757",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2170e51b425059296e5464e0fe13f237",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",bookSignature:"Pavlo Kryvenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8757.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180922",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Krivenko",slug:"pavel-krivenko",fullName:"Pavel Krivenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9989",title:"ISBS 2019",subtitle:"4th International Sustainable Buildings Symposium",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a34ca3367e8af39c3718aca2f3557efe",slug:"isbs-2019-4th-international-sustainable-buildings-symposium",bookSignature:"Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9989.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143644",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzuhan",middleName:"Burcu",surname:"Gültekin",slug:"arzuhan-gultekin",fullName:"Arzuhan Gültekin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"2",chapterContentType:"conference paper",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8412",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dec13857a884f2b52b887e8751e4c37f",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",bookSignature:"Sayed Hemeda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8412.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258282",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayed",middleName:null,surname:"Hemeda",slug:"sayed-hemeda",fullName:"Sayed Hemeda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7225",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a845c7ddd9193f56a6bc91bc22bc503d",slug:"dam-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7225.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5214",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4f7096ba0b4812663b72c918c4a4eff7",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",bookSignature:"Salih Yilmaz and Hayri Baytan Ozmen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5214.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75636",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"salih-yilmaz",fullName:"Salih Yilmaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:10,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"66446",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85675",title:"Compressive Behavior of Concrete under Environmental Effects",slug:"compressive-behavior-of-concrete-under-environmental-effects",totalDownloads:1150,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Concrete strength is fairly sensitive to environmental effects. Extreme weather conditions and changes in humidity rates significantly affect the concrete compressive strength development. Concrete as one of the substantial material used in residential buildings and infrastructures is subjected to a massive strength change under extreme weather conditions. For understanding, the different concrete’s behavioral aspects, various commercial cement types under different temperatures, and humidity rates are investigated in this chapter. The experiments are aimed to investigate the concrete strength development over time when the material is cast at lower to mild temperatures and different humidity index rates. Results show that reducing the curing temperature more than 15° could result in 20% reduction in total compressive strength, while decreasing humidity rates by 50% leads to less than 10% drop in ultimate strength. To understand the strength developing process, maturity tests are conducted. It is shown that concrete is not able to reach to the expected ultimate strength if the temperature is significantly low regardless of curing time. The effect of temperature change during the curing process is more tangible on strength development compared to cement type and humidity rate values.",book:{id:"8757",slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete",title:"Compressive Strength of Concrete",fullTitle:"Compressive Strength of Concrete"},signatures:"Alireza Farzampour",authors:null},{id:"51720",doi:"10.5772/64574",title:"Microstructure of Concrete",slug:"microstructure-of-concrete",totalDownloads:4908,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate particles and can be formed in several types. It may be considered to consist of three phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them. In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"51861",doi:"10.5772/64779",title:"Concretes with Photocatalytic Activity",slug:"concretes-with-photocatalytic-activity",totalDownloads:2860,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is a short review about the modified concretes with photocatalytic activity. In the beginning, the photocatalysis process is explained; the authors are focused on the mechanism of organic contamination and nitrogen oxide decomposition. Next the three main methods for concretes modification are presented: the first group is when the concrete is covered by thin layer of TiO2 materials, e.g., paints or TiO2 suspensions. The second group is the concretes with thick layer of photoactive concrete on the top. The third group constitutes concretes modified in mass with TiO2. The two main methods for photocatalytic activity of the modified concrete determination were shown: an air purification by a nitrogen oxide decomposition and the self-cleaning properties by dyes decomposition. Also in this chapter the mechanical properties of the modified concrete are presented. In the end, the examples of the buildings made of photocatalytic concretes are shown.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Magdalena Janus and Kamila Zając",authors:[{id:"180824",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Janus",slug:"magdalena-janus",fullName:"Magdalena Janus"}]},{id:"64801",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82489",title:"Bitumen and Its Modifier for Use in Pavement Engineering",slug:"bitumen-and-its-modifier-for-use-in-pavement-engineering",totalDownloads:1572,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter focuses on bitumen specifically. This chapter consists of several parts that can be mentioned, including the history of the appearance of bitumen and the types of constituent elements, as well as its mechanical properties and chemical structure and its thermal sensitivity. In all parts, the effects of bitumen on asphalt are discussed. In the following sections, the bitumen modification mechanism, polymer modifiers, and their behavior on the bitumen resistance to asphalt failures are also discussed. This chapter is very suitable for students and researchers interested in improving polymerization asphalt and bitumen and will help them to carry out research and concepts.",book:{id:"8412",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials"},signatures:"Mehrdad Honarmand, Javad Tanzadeh and Mohamad Beiranvand",authors:[{id:"268734",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mehrdad",middleName:null,surname:"Honarmand",slug:"mehrdad-honarmand",fullName:"Mehrdad Honarmand"},{id:"271251",title:"Prof.",name:"Javad",middleName:null,surname:"Tanzadeh",slug:"javad-tanzadeh",fullName:"Javad Tanzadeh"}]},{id:"64787",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82525",title:"A Decade of Research on Self-Healing Concrete",slug:"a-decade-of-research-on-self-healing-concrete",totalDownloads:1484,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The main findings of a decade of research on the design and development of the first self-healing concrete are summarized in this chapter. The autonomous healing concept is introduced, and plethora of design campaigns is enlisted. Healing agent encapsulation and agent tubes vascular networks are reported as the most efficient healing configurations for laboratory-scale and real-size applications, respectively. Crack formation, closure after healing and further damage are phenomena tracked by using advanced experimental monitoring methods and their performance is critically revised. The effect of self-healing technology on concrete mechanical response, durability and long-term response to damage are critically discussed. The study contributes to the open discussion in the scientific research community regarding self-healing concrete upscaling feasibility and finally it aims to contribute as a base for the future studies dealing with concrete design optimization.",book:{id:"8412",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials"},signatures:"Eleni Tsangouri",authors:[{id:"263163",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eleni",middleName:null,surname:"Tsangouri",slug:"eleni-tsangouri",fullName:"Eleni Tsangouri"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70605",title:"Designing a Tunnel",slug:"designing-a-tunnel",totalDownloads:2801,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Designing a tunnel is always a challenge. For shallow tunnels under cities due to the presence of buildings, bridges, important avenues, antiquities, etc. at the surface and other infrastructures in the vicinity of underground tunnels, parameters like vibrations and ground settlements must be tightly controlled. Urban tunnels are often made in soils with very low values of overburden. Risks of collapse and large deformations at the surface are high; thus negative impact on old buildings are likely to occur if appropriate measures are not taken in advance, when designing and constructing the tunnel. For deep tunnels with high overburden and low rock mass properties, squeezing conditions and excessive loads around the excavation can jeopardize the stability of the tunnel, leading to extensive collapse. The aim of the chapter is to give details on advance computational modelling and analytical methodologies, which can be used in order to design shallow and deep tunnels and to present real case studies from around the world, from very shallow tunnels in India with only 4.5 m overburden to a deep tunnel in Venezuela with extreme squeezing conditions under 1300 m overburden.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Spiros Massinas",authors:[{id:"295762",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Massinas",slug:"spiros-massinas",fullName:"Spiros Massinas"}]},{id:"70990",title:"Engineering Geology and Tunnels",slug:"engineering-geology-and-tunnels",totalDownloads:2001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Currently, knowledge and understanding of the role of geological material and its implication in tunnel design is reinforced with advances in site investigation methods, the development of geotechnical classification systems and the consequent quantification of rock masses. However, the contribution of engineering geological information in tunnelling cannot be simply presented solely by a rock mass classification value. What is presented in this chapter is that the first step is not to start performing numerous calculations but to define the potential failure mechanisms. After defining the failure mechanism that is most critical, selection of the suitable design parameters is undertaken. This is then followed by the analysis and performance of the temporary support system based on a more realistic model. The specific failure mechanism is controlled and contained by the support system. A tunnel engineer must early assess all the critical engineering geological characteristics of the rock mass and the relevant mode of failure, for the specific factors of influence, and then decide either he or she will rely on a rock mass classification value to characterise all the site-specific conditions. Experiences from the tunnel behaviour of rock masses in different geological environments in Alpine mountain ridges are presented in this chapter.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Vassilis Marinos",authors:[{id:"298713",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassilis",middleName:null,surname:"Marinos",slug:"vassilis-marinos",fullName:"Vassilis Marinos"}]},{id:"51720",title:"Microstructure of Concrete",slug:"microstructure-of-concrete",totalDownloads:4910,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Concrete is a composite material that consists of a binding medium and aggregate particles and can be formed in several types. It may be considered to consist of three phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between them. In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"77899",title:"Review of Existing Methods for Evaluating Adhesive Bonds in Timber Products",slug:"review-of-existing-methods-for-evaluating-adhesive-bonds-in-timber-products",totalDownloads:252,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gluing is an integral part of the majority of production processes in the timber industry. The effectiveness of adhesive application, glue bond development and glue penetration into the wood structure is becoming more and more important as more structural glued timber products are used in construction and other applications. The continued increase in utilisation of mass timber products (MTPs) such as CLT, glulam and LVL in tall timber buildings requires an accurate and in-depth understanding of adhesive roles and their performance effectiveness during the life span of any of those products in relation to the type of loading applied, environmental effects (e.g. RH and temperature) and in-service condition of elements (e.g. exposure to major wet events and degradation from decay). This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of existing imaging and other visualisation methods used to assess the glue line properties and examine the performance of glue lines in relation to factors such as species, product type and environmental conditions during manufacture and in-service life.",book:{id:"10584",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",fullTitle:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction"},signatures:"Maryam Shirmohammadi and William Leggate",authors:[{id:"346973",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Shirmohammadi",slug:"maryam-shirmohammadi",fullName:"Maryam Shirmohammadi"},{id:"426650",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Leggate",slug:"william-leggate",fullName:"William Leggate"}]},{id:"78315",title:"Engineered Wood Products as a Sustainable Construction Material: A Review",slug:"engineered-wood-products-as-a-sustainable-construction-material-a-review",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Engineered wood products are considered as best building materials due to environmentally friendly. Huge change to the way in which wood has been utilized in primary application of construction in the course of the most recent 25 years are in light of decreased admittance to high strength timber from growth forests, and the turn of events and creation of various new design of manufactured wood products. Engineered wood products are available in different variety of sizes and measurements like laminated veneer lumber, glued laminated timber, finger jointed lumber, oriental strand board etc. It is utilized for rooftop and floor sheathing, solid structure, beams and the hull of boats. This review objectively explores not only the environmental aspects of the use of different engineered wood composites as a building material, but also their economic aspects, to understand their effect on sustainability.",book:{id:"10584",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",fullTitle:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction"},signatures:"Ranjana Yadav and Jitendra Kumar",authors:[{id:"335083",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"jitendra-kumar",fullName:"Jitendra Kumar"},{id:"354856",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr Ranjana",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"dr-ranjana-yadav",fullName:"Dr Ranjana Yadav"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"284",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81503",title:"The Data Representations of a Building Project: BIM Model, and IFC or IFCXML Data Standard",slug:"the-data-representations-of-a-building-project-bim-model-and-ifc-or-ifcxml-data-standard",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104580",abstract:"Building regulations in the construction industry are legal documents written in human language. These are interpreted and implemented by people and generally controlled by local governments. Traditional building regulation control and supervision methods emerge as a time-consuming and error-prone process for architects, engineers, and public authorities. Therefore, BIM\\'s effective building regulation control is considered a promising field of study in the construction industry. Automated Code Compliance Checking (ACCC) method is a rule-based method that provides simultaneous control of the computer’s building regulations. ACCC takes into account the characteristics of the building elements and related building regulations. BIM is recognized as the most effective platform for information exchange of building projects in the construction industry. It supports the development of various software. It facilitates automated or semi-automated ACCC of the building projects for compliance with building regulations and standards for the participants involved in the building production process. The data of the building project are represented in two ways in the ACCC. These are BIM Model, and IFC or IFCXML Data Standard. In this study, the BIM, IFC, and IFCXML representations of the building project data were explained over the sample housing project in the ACCC process.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Murat Aydın"},{id:"81506",title:"Bentonite Clay Modified Concrete",slug:"bentonite-clay-modified-concrete",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103803",abstract:"Replacing cement with pozzolanic materials to some extent in construction is found to be one of the sustainable approaches in the construction industry. Pozzolanic materials of industrial origin like fly ash and Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag will have to be replaced with natural pozzolanic materials once the world moves towards renewable energy sources. Bentonite is one such pozzolanic clay material that is rich in SiO2 content. A little research was made to assess the performance of bentonite modified concrete. Based on those, an improvement in the fresh, hardened, durability properties was reported. This chapter presents the current scenario on the development of bentonite modified concrete. It also reviews the literature about the physical & chemical properties of bentonite, bentonite blended cement mortar, bentonite modified cement concrete, and reinforced concrete. The history and development of Bentonite modified concrete were also briefly presented in this chapter.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Metta Achyutha Kumar Reddy and Veerendrakumar C. Khed"},{id:"81381",title:"Oil Contaminated Sand: Sources, Properties, Remediation, and Engineering Applications",slug:"oil-contaminated-sand-sources-properties-remediation-and-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103802",abstract:"Oil leakage during the exploration, production, and transportation of crude oil is a significant issue worldwide because crude oil spills severely impact the physical and chemical properties of the surrounding soil. A range of remediation methods for oil-contaminated soil is recommended, consisting of sand washing, bioremediation, electro-kinetic sand remediation, and thermal desorption; however, none are cost-effective. To find a suitable alternative remediation method, oil-contaminated sand utilisation in construction was considered. Several researchers found that oil contamination generally has an adverse effect on the mechanical properties of sand, but certain levels of contamination have beneficial effects on some of the important properties of the sand and its produced concrete. This chapter reviews the main sources of oil contamination and the existing remediation methods for this waste material. It analyses the different factors that affect the properties of oil-contaminated sand and concrete, including the type of crude oil and permeability of sand, like its properties, absorption, chemical composition, and spillage quantity. Furthermore, the intensive evaluation results of light crude oil effects on the geotechnical properties of fine sand, cement mortar and concrete were presented. Potential applications for oil-contaminated sand were also identified for the re-use of this material in engineering and construction.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Rajab Abousnina and Rochstad Lim Allister"},{id:"81175",title:"Thermal Conductivity and Mechanical Properties of Organo-Clay-Wood Fiber in Cement-Based Mortar",slug:"thermal-conductivity-and-mechanical-properties-of-organo-clay-wood-fiber-in-cement-based-mortar",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102321",abstract:"This paper orientated to study the compressive resistance and thermal conductivity of compressed and stabilized clay blocks in the cement matrix. The effect of the content of wood fiber (WF) became studied as a reinforcement material in cement mortars. The porosity, compressive energy, thermal conductivity and composite of cement hydration had been investigated. The addition of NFC suggests a very good pore reduction, and the fine result becomes acquired with the emulsion of a combination incorporating 2%wt of WF inside the presence of an anionic surfactant (SDBS). The results revealed that used in this study were a mix of water with ordinary portland cement and organo-clay (OC) modified with Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide at water-to-solid ratios 1%. The effect depending on w/s ratio of OC used samples with cement substitution for organoclay showed from 2% higher compressive strength results than that of the plain cement paste and a decrease of the thermal conductivity by addition of 2%wt of WF from 2.26 to 0.8 W/m °C. It was also observed that with increasing w/s ratio higher amount of cement can be replaced by OC. These analyses have revealed that the presence of WF promoted the hydration, by producing more portlandite and calcium silicate gel.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Fadhel Aloulou and Habib Sammouda"},{id:"80651",title:"The Effects of Mill Conditions on Breakage Parameters of Quartz Sand in the District of Şile on the Black Sea Coast of İstanbul",slug:"the-effects-of-mill-conditions-on-breakage-parameters-of-quartz-sand-in-the-district-of-ile-on-the-b",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102554",abstract:"Casting, glass, ceramic, construction, plastic, dyeing, and abrasive industries are the main consumption areas of quartz sand, which are formed as a result of the weathering of igneous metamorphic rocks. In such industries, it is very important to select the correct ball size in order to grind the raw material to the desired particle size in optimum time. In this study, the changes in the specific rate of breakage of the quartz sand sample were investigated by using alloy steel balls of five different sizes. For this purpose, three different mono-size samples were prepared according to 4√2 series in the range of 0.090–0.053 mm. The quartz sand prepared in these three intervals was ground with 6.35, 7.94, 9.52, 12.70, and 19.05 mm alloy steel balls for different durations. The specific rate of breakage values was obtained from the particle size distributions acquired after various grinding periods. As a result of grinding tests, an increase in the rate of breakage is observed due to the increase in ball diameter.",book:{id:"11186",title:"Sand in Construction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11186.jpg"},signatures:"Serhan Haner"},{id:"80288",title:"The Role of Sand in Mortar’s Properties",slug:"the-role-of-sand-in-mortar-s-properties",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102489",abstract:"Mortars are diachronic composite materials used in masonry construction to serve multiple roles. Their durability and esthetic harmonization in constructions of the different eras were the reasons why numerous research works have been realized over recent decades. Each time, the role of the mortars’ components revealed significant pieces of information on the technology used. Despite the indisputable role of the binders on the mortar’s quality, aggregates of different characteristics had a significant role in the behavior of mortars. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82800",title:"Repurposing Drugs as Potential Therapeutics for the SARS-Cov-2 Viral Infection: Automatizing a Blind Molecular Docking High-throughput Pipeline",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105792",signatures:"Aldo Herrera-Rodulfo, Mariana Andrade-Medina and Mauricio Carrillo-Tripp",slug:"repurposing-drugs-as-potential-therapeutics-for-the-sars-cov-2-viral-infection-automatizing-a-blind-",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82582",title:"Protecting Bioelectric Signals from Electromagnetic Interference in a Wireless World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105951",signatures:"David Marcarian",slug:"protecting-bioelectric-signals-from-electromagnetic-interference-in-a-wireless-world",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82586",title:"Fundamentals of Molecular Docking and Comparative Analysis of Protein–Small-Molecule Docking Approaches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105815",signatures:"Maden Sefika Feyza, Sezer Selin and Acuner Saliha Ece",slug:"fundamentals-of-molecular-docking-and-comparative-analysis-of-protein-small-molecule-docking-approac",totalDownloads:29,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. 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