Grading of suspended sediment.
\r\n\tTo sum up, there are numerous engineering applications of diamond which are yet to be realized and this book will address some of the mentioned and hopefully open some new topics.
\r\n\t
Channel-shoal (ridge) system is a common morphological feature in wide, shallow coastal bays and estuarine mouth where tidal flow is relatively stronger. Sediment transport and morphological evolution is complex within such a system as constrained by interacting tidal force, river current, sediment source and characteristics, shoreline configuration, etc.
\n\t\t\tAs the deeper tidal channels are usually utilized as navigation courses or water supply source for coal & nuclear power plants or other engineering purposes, it is vitally important to maintain the stability of these tidal channels, that is, they should not be allowed to migrate, merge or perish by siltation.
\n\t\t\tThis chapter chooses the dumbbell-shaped Qinzhou Bay as the study site to investigate the sediment transport process and resultant morphological evolution of the channel-shoal system within the Bay using numerical simulations under the status quo situation. This is beneficial to the planned large-scale coastal engineering projects that might exert a profound long-term influence upon the stability of the channel-shoal system.
\n\t\t\tQinzhou Harbor is one of the most important sea harbors connecting southwestern China’s inland and the southeast Asian countries, it delivered up to 47.162 million ton cargos in 2011. The harbor has been using waterways as its navigational channel. Meanwhile, coal & nuclear power plants, industrial development zones, recreational parks, land reclamations and many other coastal projects have been or planned to be constructed around the Qinzhou Bay coast, all of which compete for the limited shoreline and water area resources.
\n\t\t\t\tFor the optimum planning of the coastal engineering projects regarding size, location and the sustainable regional economic, social and environmental development, it is critically urgent to know how the stability of the channel-shoal system under the present coastal configuration and bathymetry. This might be answered by investigating the sediment transport processes and morphodynamics of the channel-shoal system.
\n\t\t\tQinzhou Bay is located on Guangxi Province’s coast facing South China Sea (Figure 1).
\n\t\t\t\tSketch map of Qinzhou Bay coastal configuration (the axis is local coordinate, unit: m).
Appearing as a dumbbell shape it consists of three parts: the inner enclosed bay, also known as Maoweihai, the outer bay and the Yingling tidal inlet connecting two bays. Two rivers, i.e. Maolingjiang and Qinjiang flow into the inner bay, delivering annually 27.73×109 m3 water and 86.4×103 t sediment; the outer bay is a show, trumpet-shaped bay, its area is nearly 2.55×108 m2 with a mean depth of 4.67m (calculated by mean sea level). A complex channel-shoal system is present within the outer bay, consisting of three dominant tidal waterways, i.e. the east waterway, middle waterway and west waterway and sand ridges/shoals between them (Figure 1). The Yingling tidal inlet is 10.1 km long and 1.1~3.5 km wide with a water depth of 5~20 m; it is a rocky inlet with a total of 71 various-sized islands and 72 narrow, small waterways.
\n\t\t\tThe spring tide and middle tide in Qinzhou Bay are diurnal throughout most of the year but become irregularly diurnal in March and September each year, while the neap tide is usually semi-diurnal throughout the whole year. The mean tidal range is 2.51m, and the maximum tidal range is 5.27m. The flood tides last longer than the ebb tides in spring, middle and neap tides. It is 13 hours plus 14 minutes, 11 hours plus 18 minutes for spring tide; 14 hours plus 36 minutes and 10 hours plus 7 minutes for middle tide, and 6 hours plus 33 minutes and 5 hours plus 40 minutes for neap tide, respectively [1].
\n\t\t\t\tTidal flow in the outer bay demonstrates as reciprocating flow in parallel to the major waterways; the mean flood velocity, ebb velocity of spring tide is 0.37m/s and 0.51 m/s, respectively, the mean flood velocity, ebb velocity of middle tide is 0.33m/s and 0.38 m/s, respectively, the mean flood velocity, ebb velocity of neap tide is 0.22m/s and 0.18 m/s; while flow velocity in the Yingling inlet becomes significantly larger, the mean flood velocity, ebb velocity of spring tide is 0.67m/s and 0.90 m/s, the mean flood velocity, ebb velocity of middle tide is 0.57m/s and 0.68 m/s, the mean flood velocity, ebb velocity of neap tide is 0.42m/s and 0.33m/s, respectively, and the maximum flood flow velocity reaches up to 1.40 m/s and the maximum ebb flow velocity is up to 1.32 m/s [1].
\n\t\t\tThe Qinzhou Bay is influenced by subtropical monsoon and the waves within the Bay are mainly wind-driven with some surge waves traveled from the open sea.
\n\t\t\t\tThe waves in winter season (October~Apirl) prevail in N-NE direction while they prevail in S-SW direction in summer season (May-September) and the stronger waves propagate in SSW, SSE directions; the mean wave height is 0.52m and mean wave period is 3.1s [2].
\n\t\t\tSuspended sediment concentration within Qinzhou Bay water is generally low. In summer 2009, the mean full tidal concentration is 0.022 kg/m3, among which, it is 0.035 kg/m3 in spring tide, 0.020 kg/m3 in middle tide and 0.013 kg/m3 in neap tide; the maximum concentration is 0.081 kg/m3, occurred in spring ebb tide, the maximum middle tidal concentration is 0.034 kg/m3, occurred also in ebb tidal period, the maximum neap tidal concentration is 0.025 kg/m3, occurred also in ebb tidal period [1].
\n\t\t\t\tThe medium diameters of suspended sediment vary within 0.0067~0.0152mm with a mean value of 0.0101mm. The suspended sediment is mainly clayey silt with 30.8% clay particles, 53.4% silt particles and 15.8% sand particles (Table 1). The sorting index is 1.90 [1].
\n\t\t\t\tGrading | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tsand | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tsilt | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tclay | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSorting index | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
percentage(%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t53.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t30.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Grading of suspended sediment.
The bottom sediments in Qinzhou Bay mainly consist of gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, silty clay and clayey silt, etc.
\n\t\t\t\tBottom sediment grain size distribution in Qinzhou Bay.
The gain sizes vary remarkably in 0.0027~1.099mm (Figure 2). The spatial mean median diameter (D50) in the inner bay is 0.334mm; it is 0.356mm in the deep channel but becomes 0.0041mm in the shallow parts in the Yingling inlet; in the outer bay, the spatial mean D50 is about 0.298mm with an overall deposition pattern: coarser in waterways but finer in shoals, and coarser in the western part than in the eastern part of the bay [1].
\n\t\t\tThe Qinzhou Bay has been a drowned rocky valley by the last sea level transgression since 7,000-8,000 year before present [3]. Therefore, the huge amount of sand deposits in the outer bay has come from the deposits by paleo-Maolingjiang river and paleo-Qinjiang river, they have been reformed into the contemporary channel-shoal geomorphology by tidal dynamics. At the present day, sediments delivered by these two rivers are deposited within the inner bay with limited amount of fine particles transported into the outer bay and open sea; meanwhile, limited amount of sediment eroded from the adjacent slopes by storm rains also enter the outer bay. Generally speaking, sediment from the open sea into the Qinzhou Bay is very limited.
\n\t\t\tA 3D unstructured grid, finite-volume coastal ocean model (called FVCOM) has been developed in the Marine Ecosystem Dynamics Modeling Laboratory led by Dr. C. Chen at the University of Massachusetts–Dartmouth (UMASS-D) in collaboration with Dr. R. Beardsley at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. FVCOM is a three-dimensional (3D) primitive equation ocean model, consisting of momentum, continuity, sediment, temperature, salinity, and density equations and is closed physically and mathematically using the Mellor and Yamada level-2.5 turbulent closure submodel; the irregular bottom slope is represented using a σ-coordinate transformation, and the horizontal grids comprise unstructured triangular cells; the finite-volume method used in the model combines the advantages of a finite-element method for geometric flexibility and a finite-difference method for simple discrete computation; current, sediment, temperature, and salinity in the model are computed in the integral form of the equations, which provides a better representation of the conservative laws for mass, momentum, and heat in the coastal region with complex geometry [4].
\n\t\t\tThe governing equations consist of the following momentum, continuity, temperature, salinity, and density equations:
\n\t\t\t\t(1) continuity equation
\n\t\t\t\t(2) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
(3) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
(4) temperature equation
\n\t\t\t\t(5) salinity equation
\n\t\t\t\t(6) pressure equation
\n\t\t\t\twhere x, y, and z are the east, north, and vertical axis of the Cartesian coordinate; u, v, and w are the x, y, z velocity components; T is the potential temperature; s is the salinity; P is the pressure; f is the Coriolis parameter; g is the gravitational acceleration; Km is the vertical eddy viscosity coefficient; and Kh is the thermal vertical eddy diffusion coefficient. Here Fu, Fy, FT, and Fs represent the horizontal momentum, thermal, and salt diffusion terms.
\n\t\t\tThe momentum and continuity equations are solved using a ‘model splitting’ method [4], that is, the current is divided into external and internal modes that can be computed using two distinct time steps. The external mode is used to solve the 2D vertically integrated momentum and continuity equations while the internal mode is computed for the 3D equations, the latter is solved numerically using a simple combined explicit and implicit scheme, in which the local change of the current is integrated using the first-order accuracy upwind scheme; the advection terms are computed explicitly by a second-order accuracy Runge–Kutta time-stepping scheme [4].
\n\t\t\tFVCOM adopts the Community Numerical Modeling System to simulate erosion, transport, deposition and the fate of sediments in the coastal ocean developed by experts from USGS [5]. The sediment-transport algorithms are implemented for an unlimited number of user-defined noncohesive/cohesive sediment classes. Each class has attributes of grain diameter, density, settling velocity, critical stress threshold for erosion, and erodibility constant. These properties are used to determine bulk properties of each bed layer. Suspended-sediment transport in the water column is computed with the same advection-diffusion algorithm used for all passive tracers and an additional algorithm for vertical settling that is not limited by the CFL criterion [5].
\n\t\t\t\tSuspended sediment transport equation is:
\n\t\t\t\t\there \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
At the top boundary, the vertical diffusive flux is set to be zero:
\n\t\t\t\t\there \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
here D is water depth. While the erosion flux of the i\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t\t sediment class is computed as:
\n\t\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
When the bottom shear stress passes the critical stress erosion occurs on the bed. The sediment concentration profile in the water body is determined by horizontal convection, diffusion, vertical diffusion, settling and bottom erosion flux [5].
\n\t\t\t\tBedload transport rate is computed using established empirical formula, i.e. the Meyer-Peter and Muller formula or using formulas that the modeler considers appropriate, for example, the theoretical-based formula [6].
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe sediment bed consists of a constant number layers, and each layer is initialized with a thickness, sediment-class distribution, porosity, and age, the mass of each sediment class can be determined from these values and the grain density; the bed evolving properties include bulk properties of the surface layer (active-layer thickness, mean grain diameter, mean density, mean settling velocity, mean critical stress for erosion) [5].
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tDistribution of vertical layers in bed model (from [5]).
The bed layers are modified at each time step to account for erosion and deposition (Figure 3) and track stratigraphy; at the beginning of each time step, an active-layer thickness z\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t is calculated based on the relation of Harris and Wiberg [7]:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Each sediment class can be transported by suspended-load and/or bedload; suspended-load mass is exchanged vertically between the water column and the top bed layer; mass of each sediment class available for transport is limited to the mass available in the active layer; bedload mass is exchanged horizontally between the top layers of the bed; mass of each sediment class available for transport is limited to the mass available in the top layer [5].
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tIf continuous deposition results in a top layer thicker than a user-defined threshold, a new layer is provided to begin accumulation of depositing mass; the bottom two layers are then combined to conserve the number of layers; after erosion and deposition have been calculated, the active-layer thickness is recalculated and bed layers are readjusted to accommodate it [5].
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 4 shows the computation domain consisting of unstructured triangular grids.
\n\t\t\t\tUnstructured grids of Qinzhou Bay.
It has 16466 nodes and 29722 elements in each horizontal layer and 7 sigma-levels in the vertical. The horizontal grid resolution varies from 2,000 m at the open boundary to 350m in the channel-shoal region to 150 m in the Yingling inlet, especially, down-to-30-m elements are interpolated around islands and in the estuarine channels.
\n\t\t\tThe open boundary uses observed water level as input condition, for this purpose half-month water levels at each open boundary grid are interpolated from two tidal station, i.e. the Beihai Station and the Bailongwei Station (Figure 4). River boundaries use annually-mean discharges as input conditions.
\n\t\t\t\tSuspended-sediment concentrations at the open boundary grids are interpolated from adjacent observation sites, while those at river input grids are annually-mean suspended-sediment discharges.
\n\t\t\t\tThe bathymetry in the computation domain consists of a local bathymetric survey in the Qinzhou Bay in 2008 and sea maps surveys in 2004 and 1997 to supplement other parts.
\n\t\t\t\tThe time step for both of external mode and internal mode is 1 s.
\n\t\t\tTCZC [1] measured half month water level at three temporary tidal gauges, namely, Guozishan, Shabadun and Wulei, also measured 26-hour spring, middle and neap tidal flow velocity & direction and suspended-sediment concentrations at 10 sites (Figure 5).
\n\t\t\tTidal gauges (red square) and flow observations sites (green triangular) in Qinzhou Bay.
The present study firstly performs the calibrations of water level, flow velocity& direction and suspended-sediment concentrations.
\n\t\t\tThe Calibrations for water levels at three tidal gauges are shown in Figure 6.
\n\t\t\t\tTidal water level calibrations (the ordinate unit of is meter).
The flow calibrations are shown in Figure 7. For limited space only calibrations for spring tide are show here.
\n\t\t\t\tFlow calibrations.
Sediment calibrations for selected sites are shown on Figure 8. It needs to explain that the overall sediment calibrations are satisfactory, but results for some sites are not satisfactory enough due to observation and computation errors, ship activities and dredging during the observation period, etc.
\n\t\t\t\tSuspended-sediment calibrations at selected sites for spring tide (the ordinate unit is kg/m3).
Based upon a local bathymetric survey conducted in 2008 summer and a sea map surveyed in 2004, statistics shows that the total siltation amount at this area is about 1.52 million m3with a spatial average value of 0.592m (the deposition volume is divided by the deposition area, the same hereinafter), the total erosion amount is nearly 3.35 million m3 with a spatial average value of 1.104m (the erosion volume is divided by the erosion area, the same hereinafter), the net eroded sediment amounts to 1.83 million m3 (Figure 9).
\n\t\t\t\tErosion & deposition distribution map in a part of Qinzhou Bay.
The present study computes the morphological evolution using the 2004 bathymetry as the initial bathymetry, the computed four-year accumulative erosion & siltation distribution is shown in Figure 10. The computed total siltation amount is 1.244 million m3 with a spatial average value of 0.461m, amounting 81.89% and 77.87% of surveyed quantities, respectively; the computed total erosion amount is 2.97 million m3 with a spatial average value of 1.073m, amounting 88.53% and 97.19% of surveyed quantities, respectively; the computed net eroded sediment amounts to 1.72 million m3, amounting 94.03% of surveyed quantities.
\n\t\t\t\tIn view of the discrepancies of computed results vs. surveyed quantities the present morphological calibration is quite satisfactory. This lays down very good basis for further morphodynamic study.
\n\t\t\t\tThe computed 2004~2008 erosion & deposition distribution map.
As for neap tide and middle tide, tidal water floods into the Qinzhou Bay in the northeastern direction while it floods into the Bay nearly in the northern direction during spring tide. As constrained by the shoreline and channel-shoal geomorphology tidal water propagates in the northwestern direction into the Yingling inlet and further into the inner bay, where it flows anticlockwise till stack water; then tidal water rushes into Yingling inlet and diverges among east, middle and west waterways; finally it leaves the Qinzhou Bay in the southwestern direction to the South China Sea (Figure 11).
\n\t\t\t\tGenerally speaking, the tidal flow field in the Qinzhou Bay is characteristics of reciprocating flow in parallel to the major waterways, large scale eddies occur during flow reversal periods.
\n\t\t\t\tThe computation results show that the ebb-mean velocities of spring tide and middle tide are all larger than the flood-mean velocities; while flood-mean velocity becomes larger than ebb-mean velocity during neap tide in the overall flow field of Qinzhou Bay.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Flood peak flow of spring tide in Qinzhou Bay, b) Ebb peak flow of spring tide in Qinzhou Bay.
a) Upper-layer flood peak flow of spring tide in Qinzhou Bay, b) Middle-layer flood peak flow of spring tide in Qinzhou Bay, c) Lower-layer flood peak flow of spring tide in Qinzhou Bay.
Among three major tidal channels in the outer bay, the flood-mean and ebb-mean velocities of spring, middle, neap tides in the middle channel are all larger than those in the east and west channels; though flood-mean velocity in spring tide in the west channel is somewhat smaller than that in the east channel the flood-mean velocities in middle & neap tides in the west channel are all larger than those in the east channel; as for ebb-mean velocity, they are all larger in the west channel than those in the east channel. These data demonstrates that the west channel is the dominant channel for tidal water flowing into and out the Qinzhou Bay, the middle channel comes second and the east channel is third; ebb tide dominates in the west channel and middle channel but flood tide dominates in the east channel.
\n\t\t\t\tGenerally speaking, flow velocity at the upper water layer is the largest and decreases from top to bottom (Figure 12). The depth-averaged residual flow is shown in Figure 13. Various-sized residual eddies occur in the Qinzhou Bay. Mean residual flow velocity in the Yingling inlet is around 0.15m/s with largest velocity of 0.489m/s, it is generally below 0.05m/s in other parts.
\n\t\t\t\tDepth-averaged residual flow in Qinzhou Bay.
The suspended-sediment sources include those delivered by Maolingjiang river and Qinjing river and limited amount transported from the open sea, but the majority is eroded and resuspended in situ in the Bay. As a result, the spatial & temporal variations of suspended-sediment concentrations are in accordance with the processes of tidal flows.
\n\t\t\t\tGenerally speaking, suspended-sediment concentrations are larger in major channels than those on shoals and intertidal zones (Figure 14), decrease from bottom to top. The majority of sediment delivered by Maolingjiang and Qinjiang rivers is deposited within the inner bay with limited amount of finer particles transported into the outer bay and deep water.
\n\t\t\t\ta) Suspended-sediment concentration field at flood peak of spring tide, b) Suspended-sediment concentration field at ebb peak of middle tide.
The computation results show that suspended-sediment concentration at spring tidal flood peak is 0.037 kg/m3, 0.021 kg/m3 at spring tidal flood stack, 0.034 kg/m3 at spring tidal ebb peak and 0.023 kg/m3 at spring tidal ebb stack, respectively, the mean spring-tidal concentration is 0.029 kg/m3; sediment concentration is 0.031 kg/m3 at middle tidal flood peak, 0.023 kg/m3 at middle tidal flood stack, 0.031 kg/m3 at middle tidal ebb peak and 0.018 kg/m3 at middle tidal ebb stack, respectively, the mean middle-tidal concentration is 0.026 kg/m3; the sediment concentration is 0.013 kg/m3 at neap tidal flood peak, 0.013 kg/m3 at neap tidal flood stack, 0.013kg/m3 at neap tidal ebb peak and 0.012 kg/m3 at neap tidal ebb stack, respectively, The mean neap-tidal concentration is 0.013 kg/m3. Generally speaking, suspended-sediment concentration is relatively low in the Qinzhou Bay.
\n\t\t\t\tThe west channel has been the major channel to transport sediment from outer bay thought Yingling inlet to inner bay and vice versa; the middle channel comes second and the east channel contributes the least. The sediment discharges at ebb tide are all larger than those at flood tide in the three channels, demonstrating net sediment transport into the open deep water. The sediment discharges at spring tide in three channels are all larger than those at middle & neap tide, and the dividing ratio of west channel, middle channel and east channel is nearly 5:2:1 for spring flood tide and 7:5:1 for spring ebb tide, 4:2:1 for middle flood tide and 8:4:1 for middle ebb tide, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\tThe sediment transport pattern is normally accordance with tidal flow asymmetry in three channels, that is, ebb flow strength and discharge are superior to flood flow strength and discharge.
\n\t\t\tDue to lack of data on the deposit thickness distribution in Qinzhou Bay and considering that rock is exposed locally within the deep channel in Yingling inlet by strong tidal flows [8], the present study assumes the initial deposit thickness is 0.3m within the deep channel in Yingling inlet and 20m in other parts of the Qinzhou Bay. The morphological computation starts from year 2008.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe computed 2009 annual erosion & deposition distribution map is shown in Figure 15. It can be observed that erosions mainly occur within channels including three major channels in the outer bay, deep-water channel in the Yingling inlet and those in the inner bay while depositions occur at shoal & ridge area and at the end of channels. This asserts that tide flow is really the dominant force for maintaining and reforming the channel-shoal morphology in the Qinzhou Bay.
\n\t\t\t\t\tGenerally speaking, eroded sediments exceed deposited sediment for the whole Qinzhou Bay with net erosion nearly up to 10.288 million m3. Except for the inner bay where net deposition occurs with a quantity of 3.190 million m3 net erosions all occur in the Yingling inlet and the outer bay, they are 2.999 million m3 and 3.503 million m3, respectively. Due to lack sediment supply, the offshore slope outside the Qinzhou Bay is also subjected to net erosion of 6.976 million m3, where erosion mainly occurs at the middle and southeastern part while deposition occurs at the southwestern part.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the west channel (bounded by -5m bathymetric contour, the same for middle channel and east channel) in the outer bay is roughly 490,887.486 m3, the total erosion is roughly 2,257,125.612 m3, and the net erosion is about 1,766,238.1 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.097m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.232m, the maximum deposition is 0.355m and the maximum erosion is -1.244m.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the middle channel in the outer bay is roughly 9,830.569 m3, the total erosion is roughly 551,595.451 m3, and the net erosion is about 453,285.88 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.073m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.394m, the maximum deposition is 0.157m and the maximum erosion is -1.785m. The erosion mainly occurs at the channel mouth connecting with the Yingling inlet.
\n\t\t\t\t\t2009-year annual erosion & deposition distribution map.
The total deposition in the east channel in the outer bay is roughly 499,259.028 m3, the total erosion is roughly 1,488,779.676 m3, and the net erosion is about 989,520.6 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.110m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.213m, the maximum deposition is 0.623m and the maximum erosion is -1.285m.
\n\t\t\t\tThe computed 2012-year annual erosion & deposition distribution map is shown in Figure 16. Eroded sediments still exceed deposited sediment for the whole Qinzhou Bay with net erosion nearly up to 10.469 million m3. The inner bay continues to accommodate net deposition of 2.832 million m3, net erosions still occur in the Yingling inlet and the outer bay, they are 0.809 million m3 and 4.161 million m3, respectively; the offshore slope outside the Qinzhou Bay is still subjected to net erosion of 8.331 million m3.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the west channel in the outer bay is roughly 240,510.501 m3, the total erosion is roughly 2,031,819.599 m3, and the net erosion is about 1,791,309.0 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.063m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.185m, the maximum deposition is 0.232m and the maximum erosion is -0.889m.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the middle channel in the outer bay is roughly 32,702.536 m3, the total erosion is roughly 435,482.067 m3, and the net erosion is about 402,779.53 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.044m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.217m, the maximum deposition is 0.095m and the maximum erosion is -0.772m.
\n\t\t\t\t\t2012-year annual erosion & deposition distribution map.
The total deposition in the east channel in the outer bay is roughly 356,241.632 m3, the total erosion is roughly 1,160,837.006 m3, and the net erosion is about 804,595.37 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.084m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.159m, the maximum deposition is 0.527m and the maximum erosion is -0.705m.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThese data in the three channels reflect that the erosion and deposition in the three major channels in the outer bay has steadily decreased. In particular, the erosion length in the west channel has increased substantially, leading almost to whole-channel erosion, and tidal channels have further developed in the inner bay.
\n\t\t\t\tThe computed 2020-year annual erosion & deposition distribution map is shown in Figure 17. Eroded sediments still exceed deposited sediment for the whole Qinzhou Bay with net erosion nearly up to 11.136 million m3. The inner bay continues to accommodate net deposition of 2.601 million m3, net erosions still occur in the Yingling inlet and the outer bay, they are 0.677 million m3 and 3.095 million m3, respectively; the offshore slope outside the Qinzhou Bay is still subjected to net erosion of 9.965 million m3.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe overall morphological evolution trend is that total erosion & deposition amount have dropped steadily in all parts of Qinzhou Bay though net deposition might moderately increase or decrease in different parts of the Bay.
\n\t\t\t\t\t2020-year annual erosion & deposition distribution map.
The total deposition in the west channel in the outer bay is roughly 207,835.846 m3, the total erosion is roughly 1,685,565.419 m3, and the net erosion is about 1,477,729.5 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.074m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.141m, the maximum deposition is 0.311m and the maximum erosion is -0.475m.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the middle channel in the outer bay is roughly 17,775.557 m3, the total erosion is roughly 296,870.467 m3, and the net erosion is about 279,094.91 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.025m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.145m, the maximum deposition is 0.049m and the maximum erosion is -0.405m.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the east channel in the outer bay is roughly 251,859.055 m3, the total erosion is roughly 929,903.211 m3, and the net erosion is about 678,044.15 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.069m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.118m, the maximum deposition is 0.431m and the maximum erosion is -0.412m.
\n\t\t\t\tThe computed 2040-year annual erosion & deposition distribution map is shown in Figure 18.
\n\t\t\t\t\t2040-year annual erosion & deposition distribution map.
Eroded sediments still exceed deposited sediment for the whole Qinzhou Bay with net erosion nearly up to 13.915 million m3. The inner bay continues to accommodate net deposition of 1.063 million m3, but net deposition has occurred in the Yingling inlet with a value of 0.125 million m3, net erosion in the outer bay is 1.592 million m3, the offshore slope outside the Qinzhou Bay has been subjected to increased net erosion of 13.512 million m3.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the west channel in the outer bay is roughly 387,349.439 m3, the total erosion is roughly 1,114,549.259 m3, and the net erosion is about 727,199.81 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.098m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.103m, the maximum deposition is 0.335m and the maximum erosion is -0.429m.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the middle channel in the outer bay is roughly 37,682.474 m3, the total erosion is roughly 202,893.855m3, and the net erosion is about 165,211.38 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.054m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.099m, the maximum deposition is 0.310m and the maximum erosion is -0.379m.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe total deposition in the east channel in the outer bay is roughly 170,181.197 m3, the total erosion is roughly 420,256.804 m3, and the net erosion is about 250,075.6 m3; the spatial mean deposition is 0.051m, the spatial mean erosion is -0.051m, the maximum deposition is 0.271m and the maximum erosion is -0.259m.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe overall morphological evolution trend is that total erosion & deposition amount have continuously decreased, sub-channels haves occurred at the shoal between west channel and middle channel and new channel-shoal morphology has been developed within the inner bay (Figure 19).
\n\t\t\t\t\tBathymetry maps of 2008 vs. 2040.
The Qinzhou Harbor has used the east channel as its major navigation channel to deliver cargos. Two large-scale dredgings were performed within this channel, i.e. 2009/9-2002/12 with a total dredged sediment of 8.234 million m3, 2004/2-2008/12 with a total dredged sediment of 45.307 million m3 [9]. These two dredging activities have exerted profound influences upon the morphological evolution of the channel-shoal system in the Qinzhou bay. The present computation has just reflected this evolution process and trend. During the adjusting process, the deeper channels have experienced further erosion while the shallower shoals (ridges) have accreted further higher, and the overall stability of the channel-shoal system has been maintained without horizontal migration or sign of merging or perishing; the inner bay has not only accepted sediments delivered by Maolingjiang river and Qinjiang river, but also sediments transported by flood tidal flows from the outer bay; the remaining part of the net eroded sediments from the outer bay has been transported into the offshore slope and deeper water by ebb tidal flows.
\n\t\t\tThe magnitude of morphological adjustment by the above-mentioned channel dredging has been initially large but decreasing steadily with time. It could be estimated the morphological adjustment process at the outer bay would finished one hundred years later while other parts of the Qinzhou Bay might experience even longer adjustments. It should be clarified that such an estimation has assumed that no new engineering projects to be constructed and the computation conditions such as spatial bed thickness, horizontal & vertical sediment grading, shoreline configuration, tidal force and river discharges are unchanged.
\n\t\tQinzhou Bay is characteristics of a unique dumbbell in shape, consisting of an inner enclosed bay, a trumpet-shaped outer bay and irregular rocky tidal inlet connecting them. Within the outer bay a complex channel-shoal (ridge) system has been present with the major channels serving as the navigation course for the Qinzhou Harbor.
\n\t\t\tFVCOM is a 3D unstructured grid, finite-volume coastal ocean model for the study of coastal oceanic and estuarine circulation, sediment transport and morphodynamics.. Having performed good calibrations of observed tidal water level, flow velocity and direction, suspended-sediment concentration at hydrographic sites [1] and morphological variation in the period of 2004 through 2008, the present study further investigates the diurnal tidal circulation including tidal asymmetry, residual eddy, and accompanying sediment transport processes in order to ascertain the water & sediment exchanges between the inner basin and the outer bay, especially, among the branching channels.
\n\t\t\tIt is found that the inner basin has been acting as a sediment storage basin to accept sediments delivered by river flows and those by asymmetric tidal flows from the outer bay; Coriolis force together with rocks at the inlet mouth has controlled the dividing ratios of water and sediment among the branching channels, the west channel has been the dominant course for tidal flow and sediment to pass the outer bay, the middle channel comes secondly important and the east channel contribute the least.
\n\t\t\tTwo large-scale dredging activities conducted in 2000/9-2002/12 and 2004/2-2008/12 in the east channel for deep navigation course development have exerted profound influence upon the morphodynamic evolution of the channel-shoal system. The erosion & deposition pattern, i.e. erosion in channels and deposition in shoals (ridges) has clearly demonstrated that tidal flow is the predominant force for maintaining and reforming the channel-shoal morphology; the dredging in the east channel has caused lasting erosions in the major channels in the outer bay, Yingling inlet and the inner bay as well as the offshore slope, meanwhile, depositions accumulate on shoals (ridges) and at the end parts of the channels.
\n\t\t\tGenerally speaking, the overall channel-shoal system has been stable with channels becoming deeper and shoals becoming higher, and such a morphological adjustment process will probably finished over one hundred years later, if no new coastal engineering activity intervenes.
\n\t\tThis study is supported by a grant from National Natural Science Foundation (No. 51179211) and a Young Researcher Fund of IWHR (No. NJ1009).
\n\t\tCreep is an irreversible ductile time-dependent deformation, without fracture where deformation does not occur suddenly when applying stress as opposed to brittle fracture. Instead, strain accumulates as a result of long-term stress [1, 2, 3, 4]. This behavior usually distinguishes weak rocks such as rock salt, shale, buttocks, venetian, silt, and sandstone. Rock creep behavior has been widely discussed in the literature, based on experimental results from laboratory or field investigations, foundational modeling, and numerical analyses. The main objective of this chapter is to focus on appropriate methodologies for determining the creep behavior of soft/weak intact rocks through laboratory experimental analysis and critical evaluation of available rheological models to explain creep behavior [5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
\nCreeping in fragile hard rocks is rare because the deformation rate is too slow. Solid rocks exhibit a creep behavior noticeably only at elevated temperatures and pressures generally not encountered in engineering structures. Soft rocks on the other hand mostly creep at room temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the range of deviating stress typically encountered in engineering structures [10, 11, 12].
\nAs we know, creeping rocks have a significant effect on the long-term stability of the rocks and the surrounding surface [13, 14, 15, 16]. For broken rocks, porosity is the primary determinant of creep characteristics, but in the existing literature, the stress rate was mainly used to describe the creeping properties of broken rocks. For example, Wang [17, 18] carried out numerical simulations on the process of creeping damage to the road surrounding the rock under high pressure, and Zhu and Ye discussed the law of creep affected by water content by comparing the results of the rock creep test under dry condition and in saturation. Zhang and Luo [19] studied the properties of creeping rocks under different stress levels. Liu et al. [20] performed triaxial creep tests on coal and rock by step loading method. Zhang and Luo [19] examined the creeping test of marble and soft rock separately; Parkin [21] used a pressure meter to study the rheological properties of granular materials. Shen and Zhao [22] proposed a model for three parameters of creeping rock filling through rheological experiments on limestone. Zheng and Ding proposed a creep model to rocks of nine parameters and obtained parameter indexes through tests. Guo et al. [23] proposed a modified three-parameter rheological model for coarse-grained materials. Wang [24] and Liu et al. [25] summarized the rheological state of coarse-grained materials and noted that experimental studies on granular materials were insufficient.
\nThey suggested that it is necessary to study the mechanism of partial deformation of coarse granular materials given the effect of the scale for internal testing.
\nUnderstanding the mechanisms of deterioration of the calcarenite rock structures in which the Greco-Roman monuments are excavated requires a comprehensive study of the mechanical behavior and engineering properties of the calcarenite rocks. In addition to geological and geomorphological concerns, numerous investigations have been conducted on rock degradation and disintegration. As the areas are an open museum and attractive places for tourists, sampling can only take place in a limited number of locations with official permission. For this purpose, cylindrical samples with a diameter of 42–44 mm and a height of 90–100 mm, prepared using a basic drilling machine and some blocks collected from archeological sites under investigation (catacomb from Kom El-Shoqafa, El-Shatby tombs, and tombs of Mustafa Kamel), as shown in Figure 1 illustrates the physical, short, and long-term mechanical properties of calcarenitic rocks in the laboratory, a number of samples prepared from these blocks have been used for testing, and the limitations of the number of blocks have been overcome by determining the topical properties of the rocks through hammer tests. Schmidt, pictorial geographic investigations and classification of the rocky hill in some outcrops and in some rock structures where testing was permitted.
\nUnderground monuments (Catacombs) in Alexandria, (present conditions).
The purpose of this research is to make recommendations on the strengthening and safety of archeological underground structures under long- and short-term loading. For this purpose, a set of experimental tests and advanced digital analyses had been performed.
\nCalcarenitic rocks and other type of fine limestone (under investigations) are porous rocks with complex behavior [26, 27, 28]. Two major mechanisms can be identified to distort types of rock properties, depending on conditions in-situ stress: (1) the prevalence of fracture, associated with volumetric expansion and fragile behavior, which is predominant in compressive stress paths in the absence of low confined pressure, or (2) pore breakdown, which dominates high-stress conditions, producing plastic deformations and large contracting [29].
\nThe high fossil content, mainly due to the shells of necrosis and some mollusks, leads to structural heterogeneity, which is reflected in the variance of mechanical properties and weaknesses in the conclusion of experimental results [13].
\nThere is no generally accepted theory of fragile rock strength based on examination of the process of formation of microcracks and deformation, and the establishment of the initiation and development of stress-induced fractures in EDZ is therefore a major concern.
\nSome of the main concerns related to the stability of underground structures in soft rocks include the effects of potential land disturbances through the method of drilling and reallocation of pressures at the site surrounding the excavations [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. Each of these factors relates to the initiation and spread of fragile fractures and the extent of the troubled drilling area (EDZ), which can adversely affect the stability of the drilling boundaries and can increase the permeability of host rocks to the near field. In structural and tectonic geology, experimental rock deformation is important in determining the evolution of natural structures and tectonic features [36, 37].
\nGreat effort has been made toward understanding the fragile fracture processes and mechanisms. Much of this focus extended to laboratory tests and quantification/measurement of fragile fracture thresholds [7, 38]. Among these, damaged thresholds marked by the onset of expansion, which is the reflection point of the volumetric pressure curve, are particularly important because many studies have linked the threshold to the spread of unstable fracture in fragile rocks [7]. The unstable crack spreading corresponds to the point where the reproduction process is controlled between the applied stress and the speed of crack growth. Under these circumstances, the crack will continue to spread until failure even if the applied load stops and remains stable. As such, Martin and Chandler and Read et al. equated the threshold of damage caused by cracking and the long-term on-site strength of fragile rocks.
\nThus, the identification of these processes and associated mechanisms is essential in predicting both the strength of soft rocks in the short and long term. This research focuses on these processes by presenting the results of many short- and long-term laboratory tests.
\nIn general, the spread of cracks can be equated with the irreversible destruction of molecular cohesion along the path of the crack generated. In this sense, the miniature crushing process “damages” the rock material. Due to the multiplication of the number of reproductive fractures, the damage can be considered to be cumulative and can be associated with a perceived lack of elastic stiffness and the strength of material cohesion.
\nIn this work, we highlighted some important characteristics of the geotechnical behavior of structured soft rocks and showed that these properties are very common in many natural rocks. Based on these concepts, research into soil/rocky transition material has intensified in the last two decades [39].
\nThe Roman underground tombs in Alexandria are located on the northern edge of the “Nile Delta geomorphic province, c. 1.30 km north of the Lake Maryout and 1.42 km south of the Mediterranean Sea shoreline, as shown in Figure 2”. Since Pleistocene time, within the last 1 million years, Lake Maryout has intermittently been connected to fresh Nile river flows and sea water sources and has been both at and below mean sea level. Lake Maryout and Delta had varied depositional environment, including “silt and clay deposits with some organics (lagoonal deposit)”; “sand and silt deposits (Nile River deposits); “sand deposits (beach and littoral deposits”). The basement rock unit is Miocene (6–25 million years old) and older carbonate formations that comprise the Egyptian plateau. Above the Miocene sedimentary rocks are Plio-Pleistocene age (less than 6 million years old) sediments consisting of alternating beds of shale, limestone, sandstone, silt, and calcareous sand.
\nThe limestone outcrop at the catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa.
The Plio-Pleistocene sediments form a series of ridge and trough that are approximately parallel to the Mediterranean coastline in the vicinity of the catacomb site. Most of the city of Alexandria rests on one of these topographic ridges while behind the ridge, Lake Maryout is in a trough. The near surface limestone deposits, which are commonly encountered in the Alexandrian ridge, are cemented marine sand.
\nThe catacombs of Alexandria show some clear indications of yield and partial collapse in several locations, as defined in the honeycomb weathering, the contour scaling and spalling of the stone surface, the disintegration of building materials, and the wet surfaces of rocky meals especially for semi-protected parts of the excavation; also, we observe salt flowering and yellow staining of yellow iron in many wall parts.
\nStructural damage is obvious like the wall cracking, the thinning out of rock pillars, disintegration and degradation of the walls surfaces, the partial collapse of some parts of the roofs and walls, and the peeling of rocks, especially in the roof of narrow corridors found in the deepest parts and mass waste from the ceiling and walls.
\nIn conclusion, the current state of conservation of the great catacombs at Kom El-Shoqafa, the best-known and most famous testimony of the culture of the funerary architecture of Alexandria, is now at its most deteriorating.
\nMost structural damage is caused by one or a combination of the following factors:
The gradual weakening of rock materials due to the intrinsic sensitivity of weathering factors, especially the effect of weathering with groundwater and salt
Earthquake and other man-made dynamic loading
Permanent deformation of the rock mass
Natural wear and tear of materials
History of construction in the area
The effort behind thin-section analysis was to provide insight into the closed grains (calcite/sand) and/or theories of overgrowth after precipitation of the large angle of internal friction. Due to the fragile nature of the rocks and plaster layers being excavated, it was necessary to be very careful to make thin sections, which were studied using independent polarized light, electron microscopy (SEM), and stereoscopic observation.
\nA light-transmitted polarized plane, scanning electron microscopy, and stereoscopic observations were used to determine the interlocking textures and connections between grains and crystals. These contacts rely on differences in solubility due to impurities and differences in bending radius, which lead to the penetration of smaller grains in large grains.
\nIn addition, thin section microscopy was used to help explain the large friction angles associated with the material, limestone/rock.
\nMiniature petrographic description of stones/rocks for engineering purposes includes the identification of all parameters that cannot be obtained from a comprehensive endoscopic examination of rock samples, such as mineral content, grain size and texture, which have an impact on the mechanical behavior of the rock or rock mass. To ensure proper classification, the first step should be to check the metal composition and rock texture; see Table 1. Mineralogy summarizes the three types of soft limestone under investigation. Additional investigations should include analysis of the texture and minerals in the case of highly contrasting rocks, determining the degree of change or weathering, grain size, partial fracture, and porosity.
\nRock type | \nCalcite CaCO3\n % | \nQuartz SiO2\n % | \nGypsum CaSO4.2H2O % | \nHalite NaCl % | \nOther % | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sandy oolitic limestone (Kom El-Shoqafa) (COM) | \n47–65 | \n31–23 | \n10–5 | \n12–9 | \n2 | \n
Intact Calcarenite (Mustafa Kamel Necropolis) (M) | \n52–72 | \n28–18 | \n8–3 | \n12–6 | \n3–5 | \n
Oolitic intraclastic limestone (El-Shatby Necropolis) (SH) | \n53–80 | \n25–20 | \n11–7 | \n11–7 | \n3 | \n
Mineralogy of the three soft limestone types under investigation.
In sandstone, limestone, and calcarenite samples intact, it is possible to determine with the naked eye an alternative sequence of white and pink bands with a thickness of about 1 mm (bedding plane). Optical microscopy and counting points were performed on thin sections of rock samples. The air-dried samples were inoculated with Canada balsam, and the thin sections were then cut perpendicular to the bedding planes. A thin section is observed under parallel light and polarizing light. The following is a detailed analysis of the rock samples collected from the three archeological sites under investigation, rock samples from six collections of El-Shatby with code Nr (SH), five rock samples collected from the tombs of Mustafa Kamel 1 and No. 2 with code Nr (M), and four samples Rock collected from Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa code Nr (COM).
\nIn the internal structure, we can observe the dominant components, which are the cells of the fibers of the stomach, grass, algae, and mother of pearl, mostly with a test wall of microscopic microspheres, while the tests are filled internally with microtomes and microbes (Figure 3). Surrounded monocrystalline quartz granules of varying sizes and perimeter of iron oxides have been detected representing the previous presence of K-feldspar grains. Rock and granular materials make up this fossil sand limestone, or cement sand.
\nPhotomicrograph of fossiliferous sandy oolitic limestone, (a) under parallel polarized light, (b) under cross polarized light (XPL), showing bioclasts of gastropods, foraminifera, algae, and shell debris; most of them are with test wall of neomorphic microspar, filled with micrite and microspar, cracks between and through the minerals are obvious. Catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa.
(Calcarenite size) 15% of customizations are medium-sized numulite tests filled with prickly calcite. 15% of foraminifers tests with a neomorphic microspar test wall and test chambers are full of neomorphic microspar. 20% of medium size bryoza and algae tests 0.25% small size, monocrystalline, crispy extinction, quartz granules subrounded. 25% medium to small size structure less ooides. Customizations are solidified by isopachous microspar. Porosity is a fit of 20% of the area of the thin-section field, which is reduced by microscopy. Oxidation is observed as red color spots.
\nThe rock texture in these tombs consists of two textures, namely packed stone and stone. These two types of texture show different proportions and sizes of quartz granules, and different biological plates, especially foraminifer tests. Most Ooides lost their internal structure. Few of them retain their concentric structure. Consolidation of the components of this limestone is represented by isopachous microspar (Figure 4).
\n(a, b) Photomicrograph of intact calcarenite under cross polarized light (XPL) showing wackestone (pele-oo-sparite) texture with drusy sparite, Mustafa Kamel Necropolis (Weathered sample, heterogeneous pore system).
(Calc rud –arenite size) 58% of the assignments are medium in size, thin and micro pigment and less pollutant internal structure. 10% micritic oval. 30% large to small angular size to subrounded, crispy extinction, monocrystalline quartz. 2% plajioclase and microcline crystals. Porosity reached 20% of the area of the thin-section field. The pores are filled with neomorphic microspar. Allochems are surrounded with isopachous microspar.
\nCalcarenite is a bio-soft rock originating from marine sediments, which occurred during the overflow and decline of the region in the Ice Age. The calcarenite consists of almost pure calcium carbonate and is applied directly to the limestone rock of the Cretaceous.
\nChanges in internal structure and metals were analyzed and the most distinctive textures documented on the images. In the internal structure, we can observe the porosity increase of various sizes. In some places, we can find cracks on metal contacts or even inside metals. Generally, significant changes are shown in the cement material; see Figure 5. Limestone in this site can be classified into two types of fabric, namely, fossiliferous oolitic intraclasic limestone. These two types of texture are in different proportions of quartz granules, biological panels, ooides, and peloids.
\n(a, b) Photomicrograph of fossiliferous oolitic intraclastic limestone thin section under cross-polarized light (XPL) showing subrounded monocrystalline quartz grains (QTZ) and porous region, El-Shatby Necropolis.
(Callus arinite rod size) 80% of the customizations are medium-sized structure less ooides. 10% large to medium-sized monocrystalline unite extinction, quartz granules subrounded. 5% large polycrystalline, crispy extinction, quartz granules subrounded. Five% of algae and foraminifera are tested with a micritic wall and are filled internally with microscopic grains. Porosity is greatly reduced due to their filling with depressed dwarfs. The new form is observed to worsen from micrite to microspar. The evaluation of thin sections allows the analysis of pore structure and enables the assessment of pore size and distribution in relation to the distribution and formation of the minerals involved.
\nSamples can be clearly distinguished from the alveolar portions - the amortized and non-woven parts using thin, unpainted limestone sections that feature a relatively homogeneous pore structure. In contrast to unpainted areas, alveolar flats have a heterogeneous pore structure, for example pores often contain ferric oxides and hydroxides indicating a lower total pore size and higher content of small spots.
\nData from microscopic polarization and electron microscopy experiments show that oxygen clarity of NaCl crystals is strongly influenced by the rate and volume of moisture changes, and how they shrink with changes in crystal size.
\nCreep is an irreversible ductile deformation in time under constant stress. Creep strain seldom can be recovered fully when the loads are removed, thus it is largely “plastic deformation.” It is a progressive phenomenon initiated at a certain time after excavation at a certain location around the profile and spreading in time into the rock mass. For the long-duration design life of underground structures, the long-term stability of the tunnel must receive major consideration. For this reason, time-dependent deformation behavior of the surrounding rock must be well understood. Neglecting creep effects during deep excavation may lead to incorrect evaluation of deformation and thus may impact on the criteria for selection of proper design.
\nUnderstanding the mechanisms of rock breakdown that have been excavated within ancient monuments requires a thorough study of the mechanical behavior of these rocks, and the importance of the physical and mechanical properties of these rocks to understand the phenomena of instability.
\nThe results of the geotechnical characterization of these rocks will be used in numerical modeling and design of reinforcement measures. For this purpose, a new laboratory testing program will be launched.
\nRocks, sample preparation, experimental setup used and the procedure are briefly described below.
\nAn idealized creep curve for rock at constant stress consists of three stages: instantaneous elastic strain followed by primary creep with decreasing creep rate, then steady-state creep with constant creep rate, and finally tertiary creep with increasing creep rate leading to failure. Most of the work on time-dependent strain has been conducted on primary and secondary creep phases only and the tertiary phase has not been investigated in appreciable detail.
\nIn this study, the size of the comprehensive laboratory testing program using cylindrical samples with 42-44 mm diameter and height (91–103 mm). Although these rocks do not show distinct layers, the nuclei were extracted from the blocks and their masses in the vertical direction, which was expected to represent the physical properties of these units perpendicular to the layers. However, some samples were also extracted in a vertical direction on the mattress. Some specimens were broken and/or small cracks or cracks appeared on their surfaces. However, in order to achieve reliable assessments, the number of samples was increased as many as possible. Laboratory tests were performed in accordance with the testing procedures proposed ISRM and recommended by ASTM at the Engineering Geology Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Aristotle Thessaloniki, Greece.
\nLaboratory studies (experimental examination) were performed on surface rock samples and prepared surfaces. The basic mechanical testing of the laboratory includes the behavior of deformation to failure under uniaxial and triaxial compression and we offer a complete creeping rock characterization conducted during the past 2 years from a series of isotropic and isotropic compression tests conducted in the inventory of various stresses, viscosity behavior was determined by following a procedure, the multi-step download, which emphasizes the transit creep side.
\nCreep in hard brittle rocks is rare as deformation rate is extremely slow. Hard rock shows creep behavior appreciably only at elevated temperatures and pressures generally not encountered in engineering structures. Soft rocks on the other hand creep mostly at the room temperature, atmospheric pressure, and deviatoric stress range normally encountered in engineering structures.
\nRegarding viscous plasticity, despite much work done on high porous rocks, only over the past years, there has been growing concern about the long-term behavior of deep underground structures in general. The rock mass tests large strain rates of viscosity and plastic. However, after a few years, the stress rates become smaller and reach a fairly stable condition characterized by very small stress rates.
\nIt is known that most rocks have time-dependent behavior, and the viscous and plastic modeling of rocks and soils is of great importance both in petroleum engineering and underground engineering, for example when assessing deformations at the walls of deep fossil sections or considering pressure problems.
\nMoreover, when smaller time periods are considered, the stress distribution around a cave or exposures is such that the divergent pressure decreases rapidly with respect to the distance to the cave. Very small stress rates are tested at large distances within the rock mass and should be evaluated when predicting the behavior of the cave or photo gallery [40].
\nThe limited available literature may be rooted in the particular problems raised by the long-term creep test, in the short term, as described below.
When the creep rate is 10 = 10−12 s−1, a 12-day test results in a strain of ε = 10−6. The coefficient of thermal expansion of rocks is in order α = 1−4 × 10−5 C−1, that is, the “noise” (i.e., elastic thermal deformation sample) due to small temperature changes will be greater, in most cases, than the signal to be measured (e.g., the average sample deformation arose from proper creep). The same can be said for moisture variations, which have a significant impact on many rocks.
Slow creep rates are obtained when small mechanical loads are applied. Most of the crawl test devices are designed to work in a DVR pressure range of 5–20 MPa. Stress control is usually weak when the applied pressure is less than 1 MPa.
The creep rate is calculated by comparing strains ε1, measured in two different times, τ1 and τ2, or ε. = (ε2 − ε1) / (τ2 − τ1). When the compression rate is in the range ε = 10−12 s−1, it can be reasonably evaluated on a daily basis (t2 − t1 = 105 s, ε2 − ε1 = 10−7) only if ε1 and ε2 can be measured with an accuracy of not less than 10.8, or one-tenth of the expected difference between the two successive measured breeds [40].
Tightening of fragile rocks results in distributed damage long before the rocks fail unstable. The damage is usually manifested in small fractures and expansive microcracks [41, 42, 43]. These small fractions are usually smaller than the grain size and are often distributed almost uniformly before they are locally cracked. There are no uniform distributions of small fractions associated with the nucleus of error and growth.
\nPartial damage was used to explain the reduction of seismic wave velocity, earthquake variation, reduction of elasticity and strength units, and rock failure mechanics. In addition, stress damage can facilitate time-based creep-driven by stress erosion and subcritical crack growth. This creep strongly affects long-term strength and failure stability. For example, granite samples that are exposed to 1 month of non-axial static pressure under a pressure of approximately 0.65 may fail—or “delayed fractures” may develop days to years after removal of applicable loads.
\nThe creep test shows how strain builds up over time under constant pressure. The rock usually deforms quickly and then begins to deform more slowly after the yield fatigue, which is called the initial creep. After the initial creep (I), the deformation continues at a constant rate in the linear part of the curve, which is secondary creep (II). Finally, the deformation rate increases rapidly until the rock fails to “fracture” in the high creep (III), if stress is removed but the strain remains permanent.
\nThree stages of creep behavior can be identified: in the first stage, they are classified as initial creep, and strain occurs at a decreasing rate. In some cases, the primary creep curve approaches a constant rate of strain called secondary creep. In high-stress specimens, secondary creep may turn up in higher creep, which is characterized by an increased strain rate until creep failure occurs suddenly. In the last two stages, the thin vertical cracking begins, accompanied by hardening, and only near failure, large cracks spread rapidly and lead to a sudden collapse. Long-term tests performed on a secondary creep sample revealed even appearance at 40% of estimated strength. The purpose of this research is to make recommendations on the promotion and safety of long-term underground historical structures under load. For this purpose, there is a set of experimental tests and advanced numerical analyses.
\nThe research demonstrates an integrated empirical approach aimed at assessing safety and strengthening historic underground structures under high pressure.
\nThe purpose of these tests is to obtain data, first, to determine the amount of sticky parameters that govern the long-term behavior of these structures, and secondly, to validate numerical models.
\nLong-range uniaxial creep tests were performed on standard cylindrical rock samples collected from the three archeological sites under investigation (diameter D = 4.2–4.4 mm, height H = 90–103 mm); samples were prepared for testing according to ASTM standards with length-to-diameter ratios approximately 2.25, all samples have highly polished end surfaces to minimize final effects. The sample was set between two solid steel plates, with a steel cover between the sample and the two plates. During each test, two high-precision displacement sensors at two vertical levels at a 90° angle allowed both the relative rotation of the two pages and the measurement of the average relative displacement.
\nApplied loads and the resulting strain were recorded using an automatic data acquisition system, sampling at a rate between 1 and 3 readings per second, thereby overcoming any deficiencies in data resolution.
\nThe approved test procedure consisted of loading samples at a constant rate of about 1.35 MPa up to 1.75 MPa for samples from Catacomb in Kom El-Shoqafa, 1.55 MPa up to 2.17 MPa for samples from Mustafa Kamel Necropolis, and 2.6 MPa up to 3.44 MPa for samples from El-Shatby cemetery. In order to keep the applied pressure as stable as possible, dead weights were used and steel cylinders were placed on the upper steel plate on the upper face of the cylindrical sample. The applied stress is calculated by dividing the weight of the steel cylinders placed on the top plate by the initial cross-sectional area of the sample.
\nThe temperature changes during a long-term creep test must be as a small as possible and must be measured precisely enough to allow correction of the raw strain data for thermoelastic strains; in our study, all the periods of test were in the room temperature between 24 and 26° in the laboratory by controlling the air condition.
\nUniaxial creep tests were performed on three rock samples from each site. Rock samples are loaded through fixed uniaxial compression at 1, 35, 1, and 75 MPa (one stress per sample) for Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa rock samples collected, at 2.6 and 3.44 MPa for rock samples collected from El-Shatby archeological site, and at 1.55 and 2.17 MPa for rock samples collected from Mustafa Kamel Necropolis.
\nThe experimental procedure follows ASTM standards (ASTM D4405 and D4341). The compression machine is used to apply continuous axial load to the samples. Digital scales are installed at 0.001 millimeters to measure the axial displacement of the samples, see Figures 6–9. Samples are loaded continuously for 1 to 2 years until the samples fail without any acceleration, depending on the displacement results. During testing, axial distortion, time, and failure modes are recorded. The readings are repeated every minute at the beginning of the test, and gradually decrease to twice a day after the first few days of testing. This also depends on the deformation rate of each sample. The results are presented by strain time curves. Axial stress and axial pressure values are calculated by:
\nRock creep testing devices. Samples are 90–105 mm high, 42–44 mm2 diameters. Two displacement sensors were used during each test.
The collected intact sandy oolitic limestone specimens from Εl-Shatby Necropolis site under creep testing devices.
The collected sandy οοlitic limestone specimens from the catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa site under creep testing devices.
The collected intact calcarenitic rock specimens from Mustafa Kamel Necropolis site under creep testing devices.
where σ axial is the axial pressure, Pa is applied axial load, A is the normal cross-section area of the direction of the load, ε axial is the geometric axial strain, ΔL is the axial deformation, and L is the original length.
\n\nTable 2 summarizes the results of a uniaxial creep test. The axial stress time curves are shown in Figures 10–16, and the curves represent instantaneous, transient, and triple creeps of rock samples under a fixed axial load. Samples are loaded quickly and then the axial strains increase. The immediate breeds range from 0.07 to 3.5.
\nSpecimen No. | \nTesting period | \nTime (days) | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 9 100 135 178 375 667 786 813 | \n|||||
Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa test Ν_1 (sandy oolitic limestone) | \nFrom 5/5/2016 to 1/6/2017 | \nσ1= 1.35 MPa | \n|||
Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa test Ν_2 | \nFrom 1/9/2016 to 2/7/2018 | \nσ1= 1.75 MPa | \n|||
El-Shatby Necropolis. test Ν_1 (oolitic intraclastic limestone) | \nFrom 12/4/2016 to 4/7/2018 | \nσ1= 2.60 MPa | \n|||
El-Shatby Necropolis. test Ν_2 (oolitic intraclastic limestone) | \nFrom 5/5/2016 to 3/7/2018 | \nσ1= 3.44 MPa | \n\n | ||
Mustafa Kamel Necropolis .test Ν_1 (intact Calcarenite) | \nFrom 3/4/2016 to 22/3/2017 | \nσ1= 1.55 MPa | \nσ1= 1.86 MPa | \n\n | |
Mustafa Kamel Necropolis. test Ν_2 (intact Calcarenite) | \nFrom 11/4/2016 to 28/3/2017 | \nσ1= 2 MPa | \n|||
Mustafa Kamel Necropolis. test Ν_3 (intact Calcarenite) | \nFrom 6/4/2016 to 7/4/2016 | \nσ1= 2.50 MPa | \n
Uniaxial creep test, testing program.
Strain versus time curve during the catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa, uniaxial creep test no. 1.
Strain versus time curve during the catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa, uniaxial creep test no. 2.
Strain versus time during El-Shatby Necropolis, uniaxial creep test no. 1.
Strain versus time curve during El-Shatby Necropolis, uniaxial creep test no. 2.
Strain versus time curve during Mustafa Kamel Necropolis, uniaxial creep test no. 1.
Strain versus time curve during Mustafa Kamel Necropolis, uniaxial creep test no. 2.
Strain versus time curve during Mustafa Kamel Necropolis, uniaxial creep test no. 3.
Most samples, under constant axial pressure, show a complete creep stage: transient, steady, and triple creep stages.
\nIncreasing the value of the instantaneous creep strain with hard axial stress gives strain time curves of rock samples tested under constant high and low axial pressures. Axial stress also increases crawling strains. In the transit crawl stage, the stress rate increases with the applied stressors. In most cases, the stress rate under high axial pressure is greater than the low axial pressure rate. The effect of embedding in the sample may make the compression rate under low pressure higher than the pressure under high pressure.
\nOn May 5, 2016 (Day 1), Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa no_1 began testing on a sample of sandy limestone, loading it to a vertical stress of σ1 = 1.75 MPa, 65% of the coaxial compression strength of the rock material (peak sample strength). Figure 10 displays the strain curve versus time; this curve averages the data provided by two displacement sensors. Strains do not correct for elastic thermal differences. In this test, the crawl was faster than the Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa site. Test no_2: From day 130 to day 200 after the start of each test, the cumulative strain was 4.5 microns for Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa. 1 and 2.8 microns for Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa test site 2. This difference is fully in line with what is known in previous tests conducted at greater pressures on these samples. When the stress rate in the transient pressure zone is increased, followed by a similar decrease, it can be observed from day 44 to day 130, immediately followed by a steady slope (steady state crawl) up to 205 days. Finally, a more stable condition followed with a smaller stress rate until the sudden sample failure on day 368. Stress rate developments were more progressive in this case. There is no specific explanation for these changes in compression rate. At the end of the test, the observed pressure rate is ε = 2.30 × 10−8 s−1, the sample was suddenly broken after the 368 day (end of the test) on June 1, 2017, while the sample showed a higher creep phase.
\nOn September 1, 2016, (Day 1) after the start of the previous tests, an identical creep device on the same table was assigned to the catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa Test no_2, which began on another sample significantly purer than the previous, loaded on a vertical stress σ1 = 1.35 Mpa, 50% of the axial compression strength of the rock material (peak strength), the applied stress until the end of the test was not adjusted without sample failure on July 2, 2018, during a steady slope or steady state and a creep with a small strain rate was observed. Figure 11 displays a curve versus time. This curve averages the data provided by two displacement sensors. The compression rate (ε.) is calculated every 5 days; it is calculated for 10 days. Strains are corrected for temperature variation. Initially, the strain experienced a long initial transient period until the first few days characterized by a slow decline in rate, with the average stress rate stabilizing to ε = 5.85 × 10−10 s−1 (positive sample contractions), with long-term amplitude fluctuations ++20%; this is probably associated with moisture fluctuations. This phase was followed by a long steady slope or steady-state creep to the end of the test while the observed compression rate was ε. = 3.21 × 10−9 s−1, while it was 1.50 × 10−9 s−1 was at the beginning of the test.
\nOn April 12, 2016, (Day 1) testing of Shatby Tombs No. 1 began on a sample of sound rock-limestone that was loaded to = 1 = 2.60 MPa, 50% of the axial compression strength of the rock material (peak strength) is not Stress adjustment until the end of the test on July 4, 2018. Figure 12 shows the stress curve versus time, where the elastic strain is followed by a long transient creep characterized by a slow rate of decline, followed by a slope or creep constant in a steady state with a small stress rate until end of the test without sample failure; this curve averages the data provided by two displacement sensors. The compression rate (ε.) is calculated every 1 h at the beginning of the test, and after the first few days it is calculated every day. Strains are corrected for temperature variation. The strain experienced a long initial transient period, where the average stress rate stabilized on ε = 1.3 × 10−9 s−1 (positive sample contractions.), with long-term amplitude fluctuations ++15%; this is probably associated with moisture fluctuations.
\nTransient reverse crawl was observed on day 214 to day 244, sometimes referred to as “hypotension.” During this test, this reverse crawl lasted much longer (20 days) than is currently observed in tests with greater stress. The stress rate stabilized one way or another after day 260, but at the end of the test, the observed pressure rate was ε. = 1.62 × 10−9 s−1.
\nOn May 5, 2016 (after the start of the previous tests), an identical crawl device was assigned to the same table, and El-Shatby test of Q2 was started on a cylindrical sample with geometric dimensions similar to that used in El-Shatby test of cemetery no_1, loaded on a vertical stress of σ1 = 3.44 MPa, 65% of the coaxial compression strength of the rock material (Figure 13). A long transient period can be observed followed by a constant inclination or a steady-state crawl until the last day of recording. In this test, the crawl was faster than at El-Shatby Cemetery, test number 1: from day 70 to 270 after the beginning of each test, the cumulative strain was 2.5 μm for El-Shatby Cemetery, test number 2 and 1.8 microns for El-Shatby Cemetery site, test number 1. This difference corresponds exactly to what is known from previous tests conducted at greater pressures on these samples. An increase in the stress rate can be observed, followed by an equivalent decrease, at day 260 and at around day 324, and stress rate developments were more progressive in this case. There is no specific explanation for these changes in compression rate. At the end of the test on July 3, 2018, the observed pressure rate was ε. = 3.41 × 10−10 s−1.
\nOn April 3, 2016, (Day 1) Mustafa Kamel’s # 1 test began on an intact sample initially loaded at 1.55 MPa but no creep was observed until 9 days after the test began. Perhaps the pregnancy is too small to produce any detectable strain. Thereafter, the applied pressure was adjusted once, and was constructed up to σ1 = 1.86 MPa (+10%) after the 9th day 60% of the uniaxial compression strength of the rock material. The numbers in parentheses indicate that the compression value is adjusted. Figure 14 shows the pressure curve versus time; this curve averages the data provided by two displacement sensors. The compression rate (ε.) is calculated every 5 days; it is calculated for 10 days. Strains are corrected for temperature variation. The strain experienced a long initial transient period characterized by a low slow rate followed by a steady slope or a steady-state creep with a small stress rate, at which time the average stress rate stabilized to ε = 1.62 × 10−9 s−1 (positive sample contractions.), with long-term capacity fluctuations of + _20%; this is probably associated with moisture fluctuations.
\nThe transient inverse creep has not been observed, and is sometimes referred to as “stress drop.” Strain rate more-or-less stabilized after day 160, and strain rate ε. = 4.86 × 10−9 s−1 and the sample has been broken suddenly after 178 days (the end of the test 22/3/2017); the specimen showed the complete three phases of creep end with the tertiary or acceleration creep stage.
\nOn April 11, 2016, (after the start of the previous tests) an identical crawl device was set on the same table, and Mustafa KAM # 2 test started on another sample that is significantly purer than the previous, loaded on the stress of σ1 = 2 MPa, 65% of the uniaxial compression force for rocky materials, and applied pressure was not modified until the end of the test on 28/3/2017 (Figure 15). It displays the strain curve versus time; this curve averages the data provided by two displacement sensors. In this test, the creep was faster than the site of Mustafa Kamel’s tombs, test number 1: from day 11 to 91 after the start of each test, the cumulative strain was 3.7 microns for the Mustafa Kamel test site Necropolis. 2 and 3.5 microns of the graves of Mustafa Kamel site No. 1. This difference corresponds exactly to what is known from previous tests conducted at greater pressures on these samples. An increase in stress rate was not observed in this test, followed by an equivalent decrease, while a long transient strain was encountered and a slow decline in rates was followed by a creeping phase in a steady state with a very small stress rate until day 91, after acceleration or the third stage of creep began. The 135th day in a large stress rate ε. = 1.11 × 10−9 s−1.
\nOn April 6, 2016, an identical creep device was set on the same table, and Mustafa KAM # 3 test was started on another heavily loaded sample on a stress of σ1 = 2.5 MPa, 80% of the uniaxial pressure force of the material rock (peak strength). Strains do not correct for elastic thermal differences. Figure 16 displays a curve versus time. This curve averages the data provided by two displacement sensors. In this test, the crawl was faster than the site of Mustafa Kamel’s tombs, test number 1 and test number: from the first day after the start of the test, the cumulative strain was 7 microns for the site of Mustafa Kamel Necropolis, test number 3. This difference corresponds exactly to what is known from the tests previously conducted at smaller pressures on these samples. The sample fractured 26 h after the start of the test, the crawl begins with a short elastic strain followed by a short transient strain followed by a steady-state crawl with a very small stress rate up to 23 h after the start of acceleration or triple crawl resulting in a sudden failure of the sample with a high stress rate after 26 h exactly. At the end of the test, the observed pressure rate was ε. = 0.30 per second.
\nQualitatively, the behavior of soft rocks under small pressure (0.1 = 0.1–3 MPa) exhibits the same general features as observed under large pressures (e.g., σ = 5–20 MPa). The rapid accumulation of stress leads to a transient creep characterized by a slow rate of decline. The creep rate then becomes almost constant (a steady state is reached) or, more precisely, its average value remains constant, but the rate faces long-term fluctuations that may be affected by slow changes in moisture measurement. Reducing the load (“low pressure”) creates an inverse crawl, which lasts much longer during tests under greater stress.
\nNorton-Hoff’s constitutive equation is often proposed to describe stable state creep.
\nwhere σ is the applied deviatoric stress; T is the absolute temperature; and A*, n, and Q/R are constants. For Etrez salt, Pouya suggests the following parameter values:
\nBerest et al. [40] found that if the Norton-Hoff Law of Conditions was derived in Creep Test 1 (σ = 0.108 ΜPa, T = 286.5 K), the calculated compression rate (ε. = 10−17 s−1) is smaller. Start by from the observed compression rate (ε. = 1.4 × 10−12 s−1). The observed pressure rates, even if they are too small, are much larger than expected. Spears et al. suggest that the pressure solution (rather than infiltration and slip, the mechanism that controls high stresses) is the most effective mechanism for crawling at very small pressures; the exponent of stress in this context would be n = 1 instead of n = 3–5, which is observed during standard tests. If this proposal is adopted, the Creep law should be modified when considering small pressures, with significant consequences in predicting the cave or gallery convergence rate.
\nMany lessons were learned during the test under these unusually low pressures. This first series of tests opened the way for further research on the behavior of rocks under very small pressures, long-term single-axis crawl tests were performed for geological and engineering applications on rock samples (for 850 days), and the applied loads were as small as 1.35 MPa. Slow stress rates such as 1.11 × 10−10 s−1 were observed in some cases. These small loads and pressure rates pose several specific problems: potential drift of sensors during long 2-year tests, interference with small changes in room temperature and moisture measurement, and effects related to irregular load distribution applied to sample surfaces. These difficulties have been recognized and at least partially addressed. The qualitative results are in good agreement with what is known as the behavior of soft rocks under greater pressure; however, the observed pressure rates, even if they are extremely small, were much greater than expected.
\nThe initiation, accumulation, and growth of cracks caused by stress in rocks are generally referred to as rock damage. Referring to the pressure caused by the crack is the load at which the sample will eventually fail, under prolonged loading, which they propose correspond to about 70–80% of the peak strength of the sample. It is also believed that the damage to the crack damage or the crack damage threshold point corresponds to the point at which the stress reflection or sample expansion begins. Corresponding to the volumetric stress gradient is approximately 70% of the estimated unrestricted compressive strength of the rock.
\nThese stresses are well above the stress threshold for damage. It has been suggested that sample composition for unrestricted compression force tests reduces the spread of cracks. Many researchers suggest that the strain of the ring is generated between a stretch crack and the outer surface of a cylindrical sample. This breed may generate a confinement collar that limits the growth of continuous cracks.
\nPreliminary test results suggest that an alternative mechanism may affect the spread of unstable cracks. Under pure uniaxial loading conditions, a split can be expected parallel to the maximum pressure direction. The failure may ultimately be at the microscopic level due to the curvature of the rock slabs resulting from tensile fractures directed toward the maximum compressive pressure, as shown in Figure 17.
\nRock specimens under investigation, after uniaxial creep test. (a) Calcarenitic rock specimens, Necropolis of Mustafa Kamel. (b) Oolitic intraclastic limestone specimens, El-Shatby Necropolis. (c) Sandy oolitic limestone specimens, Catacombs of Kom El-Shoqafa.
The purpose of triaxial creep tests is to determine the viscosity and plastic parameters of the soft rock samples under confined conditions and to investigate the effects of axial stress and fortified pressure. Time-related parameters are monitored, recorded, and analyzed.
\nTwo samples of rock (length = 91–103 mm, diameter = 41–44 mm) were tested from each site under different constant axial pressures and different static pressure pressures for approximately 300 h. The experimental procedure follows the ASTM standard (ASTM D4406-93). The compression machine (fusion machine, 5000 kN) is used to apply the fixed axial load to the samples. Rock samples were placed in a three-axis cell (GDS) to provide constant confining pressure (Figure 18). The collected sample (Test # 1) of Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa is immediately loaded to the axial stress required at 1.45 MPa to limit the pressure by 225 kPa, and the applied axial stress was adjusted twice: the initial applied pressure was increased to 1 = 2, 17 MPa (+50%) after 98 h (2) then increased to σ1 = 2.53 MPa (+74%) after 125 h (3). The number in brackets refers to Figure 18, which displays the strain versus the time curve. Where the axial stress of up to 1.45 MPa and inventory pressures 510 kPa. Axial stress was not adjusted until the test ends after 200 h with steady-state creep with a small stress rate and without sample failure.
\nTriaxial creep test device, with constant axial load under confining pressure. Triaxial creep test device. The cylindrical specimen placed inside (GDS) cell is loaded vertically using the compression machine.
Samples collected (test # 1) from the Shatby Necropolis site were immediately loaded on the required axial stress at 2.63 MPa to limit pressure at 210 kPa, the applied axial stress was adjusted once: the initial applied pressure was increased to = 1 = 3.30 MPa (+25%) after 26 h (2).
\nIn Mustafa Kamel Test No. 2, the sample was loaded on the axial stress required at 2 MPa to limit pressures of 600 kPa without modifying the axial stress until the end of the test at 300 h without high creep.
\nDuring testing, axial distortion and time are recorded. The frequency of reading is once every second at the beginning of the test, and gradually decreases to once every half an hour after the first day of the test. This also depends on the deformation rate of each sample. The results are presented by stress time curves in Figures 19–24. Axial stress and axial pressure values are calculated.
\nStrain versus time during the catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa, triaxial creep test no. 1.
Strain versus time during the catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa, triaxial creep test no. 2.
Strain versus time curve during El-Shatby Necropolis, triaxial creep test no. 1.
Strain versus time during El-Shatby Necropolis, triaxial creep test no. 2.
Strain versus time during Mustafa Kamel Necropolis, triaxial creep test no. 1.
Strain versus time curve during Mustafa Kamel Necropolis, triaxial creep test no. 2.
Axial strain time curves are shown in shapes (Figures 19 and 20). The curves represent transient and transient creep conditions of rock samples under constant axial load and compression pressure. Instantaneous strains were observed immediately after loading the range from 3 × 10−3 to 3.2 × 10−3 for the test number_1, and 1.3 × 10−3 to 2.2 × 10−3 for the test number_2. All samples show a long “slow low” primary transient creep and steady-state creep stages until the end of the test without acceleration or triple creep resulting in sudden failure. Observations on subsequent tests show that deformation increases rapidly at first to the first few hours of testing and tends to remain constant after that. Stress rates in a steady state are 0.01 to 0.02 × 10−3 h−1.
\nIn this test, it was observed that crawling during the catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa site Test no_1 (where = 3 = 225 kPa) was faster than crawling during the catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa site test no_2 (where = 3 = 510 kPa) with the same axial pressure σ1 = 1.45 MPa: From 1 to 96 h after the start of each test, the axial strain accumulated (10–3) 3.5 for the catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa site Test No. 1 and 2.7 for the catacomb of Kom Shoqafa website Test No. 2.
\nAxial strain time curves are shown in shapes (Figures 21 and 22). The curves represent temporary and transient creeps of rock samples under constant axial load and confined pressure. Instantaneous strains were observed immediately after the loading range from 2.5 × 10−3 to 2.9 × 10−3 for number_1 test, and from 0.91 × 10−3 to 1.8 × 10−3 for number_2 test. All samples show a long “slow low” primary transient creep and steady creep stages (constant slope) up to the end of the test at 300 h except test number_1, which showed acceleration or triple creep stage leading to a sudden sample failure at 180 h where the confined pressure σ3 was small, that is, 210 KPa, while at test number_2, it was 560 kPa and the axial pressure was the same for the eyes σ1 = 3.3 Mpa. Observations on subsequent tests showed deformation increases rapidly at first to the first few hours of testing and tends to remain constant after that. The first sample failed after the end of the test. Pressure rates in the steady state are 0.01 to 0.015 × 10−3 h−1.
\nIt was observed that creep through Shatby site Necropolis, test number 1 (where k3 = 210 kPa) was faster than creep through Shatby cemetery site, test no_2 (where = 3 = 560 kPa) under the same axial pressure σ1 = 3.3 MPa: From 1 to 150 h after the start of each test, the accumulated axial strain (10−3) was 3.2 for Shatby Necropolis site Test site 1 and 2.4 for Shatby site Necropolis Test No. 2.
\n\nTable 3 summarizes the results of the triple axial crawl test. Axial strain time curves are shown in shapes (Figures 23 and 24). The curves represent transient and transient creep conditions of rock samples under constant axial load and compression pressure. Strains observed immediately after the loading range from 2.5 × 10−3 to 2.7 × 10−3 for test number_1, and from 0.98 × 10−3 to 2.3 × 10−3 for test number 2. All samples show a long initial transient creep “characterized by slow rate of decline” and steady creep phases (constant slope) up to the end of the test at 300 h except the first sample, which shows a transient, steady, and triple-accelerated creep phase leading to sudden sample failure at 49 h immediately after adjusting the axial pressure from σ1 = 2 MPa to σ1 = 2.65 MPa. Observations on subsequent tests showed deformation increases rapidly at first to the first few hours of testing and tends to remain constant after that. Pressure rates in the steady state are 0.01 to 0.015 × 10−3 h−1.
\nSpecimen No. | \nTesting period | \nConfining pressure (σ3) | \nTime (h) | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 3 26 51 52 98 125 200 300 | \n||||||
Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa test Ν_1 (Sandy oolitic limestone) | \nFrom 19/10/2016 to 27/10/2016 | \n225 KPa | \nσ1= 1.45 MPa | \nσ1= 2.17 MPa | \nσ1= 2.53 MPa | \n\n |
Catacomb of Kom El-Shoqafa test Ν_2 | \nFrom 21/11/2016 to 28/11/2016 | \n510 KPa | \nσ1= 1.4 MPa | \n\n | ||
El-Shatby Necropolis test Ν_1 (oolitic intraclastic limestone) | \nFrom 9/11/2016 to 16/11/2016 | \n210 KPa | \nσ1= 2.63 MPa | \nσ1= 3.30 MPa | \n\n | |
El-Shatby Necropolis test Ν_2 (oolitic intraclastic limestone) | \nFrom 29/11/2016 to 11/12/2016 | \n560 KPa | \nσ1= 3.31 MPa | \n|||
Mustafa Kamel Necropolis test Ν_1 (Calcarenite rock) | \nFrom 16/10/2016 to 18/10/2016 | \n200 KPa | \nσ1= 1.32 MPa | \nσ1= 1.98 MPa | \nσ1= 2.6 MPa | \n\n |
Mustafa Kamel Necropolis test Ν_2 (Calcarenite rock) | \nFrom 12/12/2016 to 22/12/2016 | \n600 KPa | \nσ1= 2 MPa | \n
Triaxial creep test, testing program.
In this test, it was observed that crawling through the site of Mustafa Kamel’s cemetery in test 1 (where = 3 = 200 kPa) was faster than crawling through the site of Mustafa Kamel’s cemetery. No_2 test (where = 3 = 600 kPa) under the same axial pressure = 1 = 2 MPa: from 1 to 45 h after the start of each test, the accumulated axial strain (10−3) was 3.3 for Necropolis of Mustafa Kamel site Test no. 1 and 2.5 for the site of Mustafa Kamel cemetery test site 2.
\nThus, the prevalence of cracking (in the fragile field) and pore breakdown (under high pressure conditions) are the prevailing deformation mechanisms of the selected rocks.
\nThe cumulative results of various three-axis crawl tests, conducted at tight pressures ranging from 200 to 600 kPa, showed that crawling reduces the level of brittle stress on failure by 15–20% in relation to standard tests, and similarly, the resulting stress threshold (e.g., Pore breakdown (reduction)) is reduced by the same amount, while the volumetric component of the strain is diluted only in the absence of confined pressure, and shrinks completely even when σ3 decreases.
\nThe instantaneous creep strain depends on axial pressure and confining pressure. In general, increased continuous axial pressure leads to greater axial stress. The pressure rate under high axial pressure is greater than the pressure under the lower axial pressure for the same fixed pressure. The higher the confined pressure, the smaller the resulting pressure. Comparison of results obtained from other soft rocks/salts indicates that the stress rate depends on the stress and previous strain. This is also consistent with the conclusion of Courthouse and Ong et al. who describe soft rocks as close.
\nThe time-based foundational model of soft rocks developed by Zhang et al. can reproduce the general crawl characteristics of soft rocks with high precision. The crawl failure time to load the strain of the aircraft is longer than that of the three-axis load because the strain load frame controls the sample to expand.
\nThere is now a large body of evidence that rock deformation at low temperatures and pressures occurs through two mechanisms widely referred to as faulty flow and ductile flow. The term ductile is often used in three different contexts, including (1) plastic deformation of single crystals, (2) homogeneous deformation or uniform flow, and (3) deformation over a certain amount of stress. Here we will use the term ductile in the macroscopic sense of homogeneous deformation where inferior microscopic processes include improved shear pressure, granulation, and granular flow.
\nMacroscopically, these microscopic processes form the flow of the calcite. Experimental evidence of Caracola flow includes (1) a broad shear area indicating distributed damage and intact granules in an extraction; (2) a large pore breakdown, often accompanied by small intracranial cracks caused by “fragmentation”; and (3) fractures. Unlike this distributed pervasive flow, the standard fragile deformation at low-effective pressures is characterized by an expansive fine fracture, leading to shear localization along narrower fracture zones, which often consist of sections linked to a zigzag pattern (e.g., [44, 45, 46, 47, 48]). In thin sections, the fragile fracture is evidenced by the presence of almost abundant small cracks, away from the shear fracture. Many of these miniature cracks are parallel to the main baseline pressure and may arise from axial splitting of healthy grains [42, 43] or cracking of grain boundaries.
\nFrom previous experimental studies, the researchers agreed that distributed sedimentary rocks, for calcarenitic sedimentary rocks, are the dominant failure mechanisms in highly porous rocks, especially at high effective medium pressures [49, 50, 51, 52]. On the contrary, the fragile local fracture dominates the rocks with low porosity, as well as in high-porosity rocks with low effective pressure.
\nThe catacombs of the Kom El-Shoqafa and Amod El-Sawari (Pompeii’s pillar) site, located in the city center, 2.5 km from the sea coastline, are carved into the initial sandy limestone (cement limestone); Cross joints filled with fragmented sand and saturated with water in the lower parts. This unit is illustrated with loose sandstone. It is medium brown in color to decorate granulated limestone saturated with groundwater. It goes beyond the formation of the hayf (Pliocene) or the older myosin. Surface quadruple deposits obscure actual contact. The other two archeological sites, which are located close to the waterfront of Alexandria (Shatby Cemeteries, Mustafa Kamel Cemeteries), were excavated in internal limestone or calcite (coastal hills). Yellowish white upward become yellow brown bottom.
\nBased on tests carried out on air-dried samples prepared in the vertical direction, UCS values indicate that according to the classification adopted by the London Geological Society, which relies on the unrestricted compressive strength and the classification proposed by [33, 50]. These calcarenitic rocks from which excavations are carried out underground are classified as soft to very weak. It is also in good compliance with the Rock Quality Assignment System (RQD) for these types of soft rocks, where RR = 18 and RQD = 15–20% and a very poor quality range from 0 to 25. In addition, the results of static deformation tests indicate that the types of rock in question have high deformation.
\nIt should be noted that the silica content at the Catacomb site in Kom El-Shoqafa is higher than in any area in Alexandria, possibly due to sedimentation processes, such as the high silica content that does not contain cement but is found as sand grains. In low rock durability and stiffness, high sand-like grain content reduces rock strength against salt crystallization and moisture pressures within rock pores. This is not only because of its high content of silica granules but also because it is a sparse rock. It is known that this type of limestone is characterized by low durability.
\nThree stages of crawling behavior can be identified by uniaxial and triple-axis crawling tests. In some cases, the primary creep curve approaches a constant rate of stress called secondary creep. In high-stress specimens, secondary crawl may turn up in higher creep, which is characterized by an increased stress rate until crawl failure occurs suddenly. In the last two stages, the thin vertical cracking begins, accompanied by hardening, and only near failure, large cracks spread rapidly and lead to a sudden collapse. Long-term tests were performed on a secondary creep sample showing even at 40% of estimated strength.
\nThe weathering process is associated with structural properties, such as poor geotechnical properties, carbon chemical composition, the presence of soluble salts in the porous system, marine climate with characteristic humidity, and marine spray, groundwater.
\n"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5698},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10243},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15647}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"10,11,12,14,24,5"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8485",title:"Weather Forecasting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eadbd6f9c26be844062ce5cd3b3eb573",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Muhammad Saifullah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8485.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"320968",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saifullah",slug:"muhammad-saifullah",fullName:"Muhammad Saifullah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10013",title:"Geothermal Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a5f5277a1c0616ce6b35f4b44a4cac7a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Basel I. Ismail",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10013.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"62122",title:"Dr.",name:"Basel",surname:"Ismail",slug:"basel-ismail",fullName:"Basel Ismail"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10404",title:"Evapotranspiration - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"babca2dea1c80719111734cc57a21a4c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Amin Talei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10404.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"335732",title:"Dr.",name:"Amin",surname:"Talei",slug:"amin-talei",fullName:"Amin Talei"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7724",title:"Climate Issues in Asia and Africa - Examining Climate, Its Flux, the Consequences, and Society's Responses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c1bd1a5a4dba07b95a5ae5ef0ecf9f74",slug:null,bookSignature:" John P. Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10238",title:"Food Packaging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"891ee7ffd87b72cf155fcdf9c8ae5d1a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Norizah Mhd Sarbon",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10238.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"246000",title:"Dr.",name:"Norizah",surname:"Mhd Sarbon",slug:"norizah-mhd-sarbon",fullName:"Norizah Mhd Sarbon"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10374",title:"Advances in Micro- and Nanofluidics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b7ba9cab862a9bca2fc9f9ee72ba5eec",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. S. M. Sohel Murshed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10374.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10358",title:"Silage - Recent Advances and New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1e33f63e9311af352daf51d49f0a3aef",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Juliana Oliveira and Dr. Edson Mauro Santos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10358.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180036",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"juliana-oliveira",fullName:"Juliana Oliveira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10491",title:"Anaerobic Digestion in Natural and Built Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"082ec753a05d6c7ed8cc5559e7dac432",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Anna Sikora and Dr. Anna Detman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10491.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"146985",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Sikora",slug:"anna-sikora",fullName:"Anna Sikora"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10597",title:"Electric Grid Modernization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"62f0e391662f7e8ae35a6bea2e77accf",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mahmoud Ghofrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10597.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"183482",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Ghofrani",slug:"mahmoud-ghofrani",fullName:"Mahmoud Ghofrani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10412",title:"Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bd7287b801dc0ac77e01f66842dc1d99",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sajjad Haider and Dr. Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10412.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10216",title:"Paraffin - Thermal Energy Storage Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"456090b63f5ba2290e24e655abd119bf",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Elsayed Zaki and Dr. Abdelghaffar S. Dhmees",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10216.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"220156",title:"Dr.",name:"Elsayed",surname:"Zaki",slug:"elsayed-zaki",fullName:"Elsayed Zaki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10573",title:"Fluid-Structure Interaction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3950d1f9c82160d23bc594d00ec2ffbb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Khaled Ghaedi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10573.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"190572",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",surname:"Ghaedi",slug:"khaled-ghaedi",fullName:"Khaled Ghaedi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:61},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:36},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5141},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1282",title:"Robot Vision",slug:"psychology-digital-image-processing-robot-vision",parent:{title:"Digital Image Processing",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics-digital-image-processing"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1,numberOfWosCitations:68,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitations:81,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"psychology-digital-image-processing-robot-vision",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3595",title:"Vision Systems",subtitle:"Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"vision_systems_applications",bookSignature:"Goro Obinata and Ashish Dutta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3595.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131538",title:"Prof.",name:"Goro",middleName:null,surname:"Obinata",slug:"goro-obinata",fullName:"Goro Obinata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"358",doi:"10.5772/4994",title:"A Practical Toolbox for Calibrating Omnidirectional Cameras",slug:"a_practical_toolbox_for_calibrating_omnidirectional_cameras",totalDownloads:4098,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Davide Scaramuzza and Roland Siegwart",authors:null},{id:"370",doi:"10.5772/5006",title:"Stereo Vision Based SLAM Issues and Solutions",slug:"stereo_vision_based_slam_issues_and_solutions",totalDownloads:4557,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"D.C. Herath, K.R.S. Kodagoda and G. Dissanayake",authors:null},{id:"367",doi:"10.5772/5003",title:"Algebraic Reconstruction and Post-Processing in Incomplete Data Computed Tomography: from X-rays to Laser Beams",slug:"algebraic_reconstruction_and_post-processing_in_incomplete_data_computed_tomography__from_x-rays_to_",totalDownloads:2954,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Alexander B. Konovalov, Dmitry V. Mogilenskikh, Vitaly V. Vlasov and Andrey N. Kiselev",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"352",title:"3D Cameras: 3D Computer Vision of Wide Scope",slug:"3d_cameras__3d_computer_vision_of_wide_scope",totalDownloads:4167,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Stefan May, Kai Pervoelz and Hartmut Surmann",authors:null},{id:"358",title:"A Practical Toolbox for Calibrating Omnidirectional Cameras",slug:"a_practical_toolbox_for_calibrating_omnidirectional_cameras",totalDownloads:4098,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Davide Scaramuzza and Roland Siegwart",authors:null},{id:"353",title:"A Visual Based Extended Monte Carlo Localization for Autonomous Mobile Robots",slug:"a_visual_based_extended_monte_carlo_localization_for_autonomous_mobile_robots",totalDownloads:2206,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Wen Shang and Dong Sun",authors:null},{id:"371",title:"Shortest Path Homography-Based Visual Control for Differential Drive Robots",slug:"shortest_path_homography-based_visual_control_for_differential_drive_robots",totalDownloads:2346,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"G. Lopez-Nicolas, C. Sagues and J.J. Guerrero",authors:null},{id:"364",title:"New Types of Keypoints for Detecting Known Objects in Visual Search Tasks",slug:"new_types_of_keypoints_for_detecting_known_objects_in_visual_search_tasks",totalDownloads:1762,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Andrzej Sluzek and Saiful Islam",authors:null},{id:"344",title:"Multi-Focal Visual Servoing Strategies",slug:"multi-focal_visual_servoing_strategies",totalDownloads:1934,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Kolja Kuehnlenz and Martin Buss",authors:null},{id:"351",title:"An Effective 3D Target Recognition Imitating Robust Methods of the Human Visual System",slug:"an_effective_3d_target_recognition_imitating_robust_methods_of_the_human_visual_system",totalDownloads:1850,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Sungho Kim and In So Kweon",authors:null},{id:"350",title:"Bearing-Only Vision SLAM with Distinguishable Image Features",slug:"bearing-only_vision_slam_with_distinguishable_image_features",totalDownloads:2246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Patric Jensfelt, Danica Kragic and John Folkesson",authors:null},{id:"346",title:"Behavior-Based Perception for Soccer Robots",slug:"behavior-based_perception_for_soccer_robots",totalDownloads:1698,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Floris Mantz and Pieter Jonker",authors:null},{id:"349",title:"ViSyR: a Vision System for Real-Time Infrastructure Inspection",slug:"visyr__a_vision_system_for_real-time_infrastructure_inspection",totalDownloads:2223,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"vision_systems_applications",title:"Vision Systems",fullTitle:"Vision Systems: Applications"},signatures:"Francescomaria Marino and Ettore Stella",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"psychology-digital-image-processing-robot-vision",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/143802/moses-olorunniwo",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"143802",slug:"moses-olorunniwo"},fullPath:"/profiles/143802/moses-olorunniwo",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()