\r\n\tThe objective of the proposed book is to give a multi-perspective view on role of autophagy in injury, infection and cancer diseases. The book chapters aim to elucidate autophagy pathways in sustaining the host defense mechanisms, adaptive homeostasis as well as in remodeling and regeneration events that are essential for recuperation of the affected tissues. A specific subject for discussion will be up-regulation and/or impairment of autophagy and crinophagy in phagocytes/granulocytes and adult stem cells.
\r\n
\r\n\tRationale: \r\n\tThe cell/tissue responses to acute stress, trauma/injury or pathogens are mediated by expression and release of plethora of paracrine and endocrine effectors including DAMPs, PAMPs and inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, defensins, and reactive intermediate species. These effectors drive the integrative interactome constituted by hubs of the acute phase response modules, the inflammatory response modules, the module of the adaptive homeostatic response in the damaged parenchymal cells, vascular cells, immunocompetent cells and emerging stem cells. Among these defense mechanisms is autophagy – the lysosomal pathway for processing of compromised cell constituents and/or bacterial and viral pathogens. In this light, explication of the role of autophagy in cellular pathology may arouse R&D of new modalities for management of devastating diseases such as injury, acute infections or cancer.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3daed6048bc8ff8368c4279558f109d7",bookSignature:"Dr. Nikolai Gorbunov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7997.jpg",keywords:"Autophagy-related Genes, Autophagy-related Proteins, Organelle Network, Signaling Mechanisms and Modulators, Cell Damage, Tissue Damage, PAMP and DAMP, Inflammasome, Autophagy Evasion, Cancer Stem Cells, Cancer Target Therapy, Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 13th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 1st 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180960/images/system/180960.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gorbunov obtained his Ph.D. degree in Biology from the Russian Academy Sciences. Then, he was a recipient of the NRC NAS (http://sites.nationalacademies.org/pga/rap/) and the Department of Energy fellowship awards to pursue postdoctoral training in translational science at the University of Pittsburgh and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (https://www.emsl.pnl.gov/emslweb Washington, USA). His translational research area has encompassed molecular pathology of trauma and countermeasures against acute radiation injury that was explored at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (http://wrair-www.army.mil) and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. His research interests are the disease-specific mechanisms driving alterations and defense responses in organelles, cells and tissues constituting biological barriers. With this perspective, the main objectives of his research are : i) to define the key components and pathways which regulate adaptive homeostasis and sustain intrinsic resistance to the harmful exposures and mediate recovery from the produced stress, cytotoxicity and damage; and (ii) to employ the acquired knowledge for advancement of injury-specific therapeutic modalities.",institutionString:"Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5295",title:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e16382542f283b73017bdb366aff66ad",slug:"autophagy-in-current-trends-in-cellular-physiology-and-pathology",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Marion Schneider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5295.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6207",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",subtitle:"Pathobiology, Advanced Diagnostics and Acute Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b39555959a8969f3d06634703afd3231",slug:"traumatic-brain-injury-pathobiology-advanced-diagnostics-and-acute-management",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Joseph B. Long",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71493",title:"Pelvic Organ Prolapse: Examination and Assessment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91357",slug:"pelvic-organ-prolapse-examination-and-assessment",body:'\n
1. Introduction
\n
Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is the herniation of the pelvic organs to or beyond the vaginal walls. Many women with prolapse experience symptoms that impact daily activities, sexual function, and exercise. The presence of POP can have a detrimental impact on body image and sexuality. Pelvic organ prolapse is an increasingly common condition seen with aging population with a prevalence of 41–50% of women above 40 years. The annual incidence of surgery for POP is within the range of 15–49 cases per 10,000 women years [1]. Pelvic floor defects result from attenuation of the supportive structures or by neuromuscular dysfunction due to obstetric trauma. Pregnancy itself, without vaginal birth, has been cited as a risk factor as well. Genital atrophy and hypoestrogenism also play important contributory roles in the pathogenesis of prolapse. However, the exact mechanisms are not completely understood. Prolapse may potentially result from pelvic tumors, sacral nerve disorders, and diabetic neuropathy [2].
\n
Older terms describing pelvic organ prolapse (e.g., cystocele, urethrocele, rectocele) have been replaced because they do not provide complete information regarding the structures on the other side of the vaginal bulge, especially in women who have had previous pelvic organ prolapse surgery.
\n
Presently, the pelvis is divided into anterior, posterior, and middle or apical compartments. Following hysterectomy, prolapse of the vaginal apex with or without prolapse of the anterior and/or posterior vaginal wall is referred to as vault prolapse [2, 3].
\n
\n
2. Classification of pelvic organ prolapse
\n
Pelvic organ support is maintained by complex interactions between the vagina, levator ani muscle, and pelvic floor connective tissue. A system of three integrated levels of vaginal support has been described by De Lancey [1].
Level 1: The cardinal uterosacral ligament complex.
Level 2: Midvaginal supports—pubocervical and rectovaginal fascia.
Level 3: Urogenital diaphragm and the perineal body.
\n
The prolapse is usually described according to the area of the vagina in which it occurs. Assumptions are often made about which organ is behind the vaginal wall that is prolapsing.
\n
Anatomical classification according to vaginal wall:
Anterior: cystocele (bladder most common) and urethrocele (urethra).
Middle: vault of the uterus (after hysterectomy).
Posterior: rectocele (rectum) and enterocele (small bowel, omentum).
\n
2.1 Shaw’s classification
\n
\n
Anterior wall
Upper 2/3 cystocele
Lower 1/3 urethrocele
Posterior wall
Upper 1/3 enterocele
Middle 1/3 rectocele
Lower 1/3 deficient perineum
Uterine prolapse
Grade 0: Normal position
Grade 1: Descent into vagina not reaching the introitus
Uterovaginal prolapse usually occurs in nulliparous prolapse due to congenital weakness of cervical ligaments.
Vaginouterine prolapse usually occurs in cases of prolapse resulting from obstetrical trauma.
\n
\n
\n
3. Pelvic organ prolapse quantification system (POP-Q)
\n
Pelvic organ prolapse quantification system refers to an objective, site-specific system for describing, quantifying, and staging pelvic support in women (Figure 1). It provides a standardized tool for documenting, comparing, and communicating clinical findings with proven interobserver and intraobserver reliability. The POP-Q system gained the attention of the specialists all over the world, being approved by the International Continence Society (ICS), the American Urogynecologic Society (AUGS), and the Society of Gynecologic Surgeons for the description of female pelvic organ prolapse. It is the most common system used by gynecologists and urogynecologists, although other systems have been devised (Figures 2–9) [4].
\n
Figure 1.
POP-Q points. Aa, anterior vaginal wall 3 cm proximal to the urethral meatus (−3 cm to +3 cm); Ba,most distal position of the remaining upper anterior vaginal wall (−3 cm to +tvl); C, most distal edge of cervix or vaginal cuff scar; D, posterior fornix (n/a if posthysterectomy); Ap, posterior vaginal wall 3 cm proximal to the hymen (−3 cm to +3 cm); Bp, most distal position of the remaining upper posterior vaginal wall (−3 cm to + tvl); genital hiatus (gh), measured from the middle of external urethral meatus to the posterior midline hymen; perineal body (pb), measured from the posterior margin of gh to the middle of anal opening; total vaginal length (tvl), depth of the vagina when point D or C is reduced to normal position.
\n
Figure 2.
Point Aa being measured by graded spatula.
\n
Figure 3.
Point Ba being measured by graded spatula.
\n
Figure 4.
Point C.
\n
Figure 5.
Point Ap.
\n
Figure 6.
Point Bp.
\n
Figure 7.
Point D.
\n
Figure 8.
Genital hiatus (gh).
\n
Figure 9.
Perineal body (Pb).
\n
The POP-Q may be an easier classification system to use in routine clinical practice. It was developed by the International Urogynecological Association to provide a less cumbersome exam tool [4]. The POP-Q stages (Table 1) prolapse for the anterior and posterior vaginal walls, the apex/cuff of the vagina and the cervix. For women posthysterectomy, there are three stages; for women with an intact uterus, there are four. The exam is carried out similarly to the standard POP-Q exam, with a half speculum placed in the vagina to visualize the vaginal walls and cervix.
\n
Pelvic organ prolapse quantification system
Stage
Description
0
No prolapse
I
>1 cm above the hymen
II
≤1 cm proximal or distal to the plane of the hymen
III
>1 cm below the plane of the hymen, but protrudes no farther than 2 cm less than the total vaginal length
IV
Eversion of the lower genital tract is complete
Table 1.
Evaluation/staging of pelvic organ prolapse.
POP-Q staging criteria.
Stage 0: Aa, Ap, Ba, Bp = −3 cm and C or D ≤ − (tvl − 2) cm.
Stage l: Stage 0 criteria not met and leading edge < −1 cm.
Stage ll: Leading edge ≥ −1 cm but ≤ +1 cm.
Stage lll: Leading edge > +1 cm but < + (tvl − 2) cm.
Stage lV: Leading edge ≥ + (tvl −2) cm [3, 4].
\n
A disadvantage of POP-Q is that all points and measures are taken in the midline; as a consequence, the POP-Q does not reflect asymmetries and cannot be used to describe, for example, paravaginal defects. One has also to keep in mind that the POP-Q depends on the cooperation of the patient and to the strength of her cough or Valsalva maneuver; it is therefore unreasonable to assume that in an individual patient, the POP-Q will always be identical [4].
\n
\n
4. History
\n
Most patients with pelvic organ prolapse are asymptomatic. Seeing or feeling a bulge of tissue that protrudes to or past the vaginal opening is the most specific symptom.
\n
4.1 Bulge in the vagina
\n
During a well-woman examination, she should be asked regarding any obvious bulge seen or felt in vagina. The report of a bulge has an 81% positive predictive value and a 76% negative predictive value for pelvic organ prolapse.
\n
Patient may complain of an increase in bulging and discomfort with progression of day [1]. Extensive standing, lifting, coughing, and physical exertion may increase patient awareness of discomfort in the pelvis, vagina, abdomen, and low back. Pelvic organ prolapse may progress with increasing body mass index. Weight loss does not reverse the prolapse.
\n
\n
4.2 Vaginal discharge
\n
Vaginal discharge may be present in patients with complete uterine prolapse (i.e., procidentia) who have a decubitus ulcer of the cervix or vagina.
\n
\n
4.3 Urinary symptoms
\n
Patients may have difficulty urinating—stress incontinence affects 40% of patients with pelvic organ prolapse; therefore, they should be asked about frequency, urgency, and sensation of incomplete emptying of the bladder, because they may not volunteer such information. Urinary outlet obstruction may occur because of the pressure on the urethra in anterior vaginal prolapse and sometimes in large posterior vaginal prolapse. Screening is advocated for urinary tract infection, postvoid residual urine volume, and the presence or absence of bladder sensation.
\n
Symptoms may not correlate with the location or severity of the prolapsed compartment.
\n
\n
4.4 Bowel symptoms
\n
Patients with posterior vaginal prolapse sometimes use manual pressure on the perineum or posterior vagina to help with defecation. These maneuvers are called “splinting.”
\n
\n
4.5 Back pain
\n
Though patients of prolapse attribute back and pelvic pain to their prolapse, very little evidence is available to show that this disorder causes pain, so other causes of pain should be ruled out.
\n
\n
4.6 Sexual discomfort
\n
Sexual activity, body image, and quality of life may be affected [3].
\n
\n
\n
5. Examination
\n
5.1 General physical examination
\n
Assessment will include weight, body mass index, and blood pressure, as well as assessment of any varicose veins or hypermobile joints, since these can be markers of a tendency to connective tissue laxity which predisposes to POP and, importantly, to recurrence after surgical repair [2].
\n
\n
5.2 Abdominal examination
\n
On examination of the abdomen, inspect for incisions of previous surgery (which may be associated with intra-abdominal adhesions affecting subsequent surgical approaches), and exclude masses or ascites. The presence of umbilical or other hernia can again indicate underlying connective tissue weakness and may require concomitant surgical correction [2, 3].
\n
\n
5.3 Local examination
\n
On inspection of the vulva, note the presence of any atrophy and whether there is any ulceration of prolapsed tissues that may require local estrogen therapy before surgery. Wide genital hiatus with visible vaginal walls or midline asymmetry on Valsalva shows levator ani damage.
\n
For stress urinary incontinence, the patient needs to be examined with full bladder and asked to cough or strain, and leakage of urine confirms positive stress provocation test.
\n
On examination in lithotomy position, if there is visible vaginal bulge, look for vaginal wall rugosities which predict an intact fascial layer in the midline and a probable lateral defect, or if absent, it suggests a midline defect with only the skin and attenuated connective tissue present.
\n
\n
\n
6. Examination in various positions
\n
6.1 Standing position
\n
In some mild cases of vaginal wall and uterine prolapse, examination of the patient in standing position is the only way to explore it.
\n
\n
6.2 Dorsal position
\n
Mostly for demonstration of uterine prolapse. Either the uterus will be obviously protruded or protrude when the patient is asked to strain.
\n
\n
6.3 Sims’ position
\n
In this position, the aim is to demonstrate the different types of vaginal wall prolapse. The patient is asked to lie on her left side at the edge of the table. The left leg is extended, while the right leg is flexed. Afterward, a sterile Sims’ speculum is inserted into the vagina gently first to expose the anterior vaginal wall. Then it is pulled backward gradually to expose the posterior vaginal wall. Cystocele and rectocele are usually diagnosed by this examination.
\n
\n
\n
7. Per speculum examination
\n
Examination with a Cusco’s bivalve speculum allows assessment of the cervix (including a Pap smear, if appropriate), but not of prolapse. The use of a Sims’ speculum is required to carefully assess the anterior and posterior compartments and to assess the supports of the cervix or the vault if there has been a previous hysterectomy. If prolapse is visible at the vaginal introitus or on Valsalva maneuver, a systematic examination should be performed. With the patient in a supine position, a suitable sized vaginal speculum is introduced in the vagina to view the cervix or vaginal cuff, and the extent to which the cervix or the vaginal vault follows the speculum through and out of the vagina is noted, and the speculum is slowly removed while performing Valsalva maneuver.
\n
To examine the anterior vaginal wall, the posterior vaginal wall is retracted with the fixed blade, and the extent of any anterior vaginal prolapse during the Valsalva maneuver is noted and vice versa to examine posterior vaginal wall. Any resulting prolapse is noted.
\n
Decubitus ulcers are inspected and palpated. It is common to require sponge holding forceps to aid in support of the vaginal walls, as this can obscure the view.
\n
\n
8. Per vaginal and rectovaginal examination
\n
Bimanual examination is performed to check the uterine size and mobility, as well as to exclude unsuspected adnexal pathology, such as ovarian tumors. This also allows an assessment of vaginal muscle tone. Rectal examination may distinguish rectocele from enterocele. Make sure you ask the woman to direct your attention to any other findings that she has noted, that you have not discovered, or that she wants to draw your attention to.
\n
Bonney’s stress test is performed following reduction of prolapsed. If test is positive, incontinence surgery should be performed at the time of prolapse surgery. Testing for integrity of anal sphincter should be assessed for resting tone and voluntary squeeze and sensation around the vulva with the bulbocavernous reflex. (Stroking lateral to clitoris contraction of bilateral bulbocavernous muscle is observed.) The anocutaneous reflex (anal wink sign) is triggered by stroking the skin immediately surrounding the anus and observing a reflexive contraction of the external anal sphincter; this reflex should be elicited bilaterally. Absence of these reflexes is not always abnormal, and hyperreflexia or asymmetry may in fact be more suggestive of a neurologic etiology. Crude sensory testing is advocated for evidence of pudendal neuropathy [4, 5].
\n
Grading pelvic floor muscle strength:
No discernible contraction.
Barely palpable, flickering contraction, not visible on inspection of the perineum.
Weak, distinctly palpable contraction, felt as slight pressure on the examining finger.
Moderate muscle strength, distinct pressure on the examining finger, palpable upward and forward movement, visible on the perineal surface.
Good muscle strength, elevation possible against slight resistance, circular pressure can be felt around the examining finger. During simultaneous examination by the index and middle finger, these are pressed against each other.
Very strong muscle strength, contraction possible against vigorous resistance, with suction-type effect on the examining finger. During simultaneous examination by the index and middle finger, these are pressed against each other despite resistance.
Digital examination makes it possible to distinguish between the left and right side of the levator ani. It is capable of quantifying strength, strength endurance, fast contraction, and fast contraction endurance for clinical purposes [2].
\n
\n
9. Quantifying and documenting the findings
\n
A full description of the examination is recorded, including the following:
Type of examination table, speculum, and retractors
Patient position
Bladder and rectal fullness
\n
It is important to note and document any episodes of urinary, fecal, or flatal incontinence that occur during the examination. The findings of the examination should be recorded using a quantitative and reproducible method for recording POP such as the POP-Q , Baden-Walker, or Shaw systems [4, 5].
\n
\n
10. Further evaluation
\n
Further studies depend on the symptoms, stage of prolapse, and treatment plan. If needed for definitive treatment planning, urodynamic studies can help in identifying those patients with lower urinary tract symptoms (urinary incontinence) who are most likely to get benefit from surgery or may require stress incontinence surgery. Patients with defecatory symptoms and/or fecal incontinence may need anal manometry and endoanal ultrasonography [5].
\n
\n
11. Conclusion
\n
Taking a thorough history and performing a careful physical examination of women who are referred help in the assessment of prolapse. Examination should be carried out with dignity and care, using some basic tools that aid in the accurate evaluation of anatomical and functional defects. A standardized assessment system has been used to document findings which should explain everything in understandable terms.
\n
\n',keywords:"uterovaginal prolapse, POP-Q",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71493.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71493.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71493",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71493",totalDownloads:276,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 26th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 25th 2020",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 22nd 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is a common, benign condition in women, and patient can present with complaints of vaginal bulge and pressure, voiding and defecatory, and sexual dysfunction, which may adversely affect quality of life. Although POP can occur in younger women, it is commonly seen in aging population with a prevalence of 45–50%. Older terms describing pelvic organ prolapse (e.g., cystocele, urethrocele, rectocele) have been replaced because they do not provide complete information regarding the structures on the other side of the vaginal bulge, especially in women who have had previous pelvic organ prolapse surgery. Therefore, a thorough history and performing a careful physical examination with dignity and care, using some basic tools that aid in the accurate evaluation of anatomical and functional defects, should be conducted. A standardized assessment system has been used to document findings which should explain everything in understandable terms.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71493",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71493",book:{slug:"lower-urinary-tract-dysfunction-from-evidence-to-clinical-practice"},signatures:"Priyanka Bhadana",authors:[{id:"287080",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Priyanka",middleName:null,surname:"Bhadana",fullName:"Priyanka Bhadana",slug:"priyanka-bhadana",email:"docpriyanka89@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of pelvic organ prolapse",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Shaw’s classification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Pelvic organ prolapse quantification system (POP-Q)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. History",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Bulge in the vagina",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Vaginal discharge",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.3 Urinary symptoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.4 Bowel symptoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.5 Back pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.6 Sexual discomfort",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Examination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.1 General physical examination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.2 Abdominal examination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.3 Local examination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Examination in various positions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.1 Standing position",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.2 Dorsal position",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"6.3 Sims’ position",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"7. Per speculum examination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"8. Per vaginal and rectovaginal examination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"9. Quantifying and documenting the findings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"10. Further evaluation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"11. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Shaw R, Luesley D, Monga A, editors. Urogynaecology Section. Gynaecology, 4th ed. London: Churchill Livingstone; 2010'},{id:"B2",body:'Bordman R, Telner D, et al. Step-by-step approach to managing pelvic organ prolapse. Can Fam Physician. 2007;53(3):485-487'},{id:"B3",body:'Kuncharapu I, Majeroni BA. Pelvic organ prolapsed Am fam physician. 2010;81(9):1111-1117'},{id:"B4",body:'Kieren W, Andrew F. Prolapse assessment. Int urogynecol J. 2014;16(1):35'},{id:"B5",body:'ACOG Committee on practice bulletins—gynecology. ACOG practice bulletin no. 85: Pelvic organ prolapse. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2007;110(3):717-729'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Priyanka Bhadana",address:"docpriyanka89@gmail.com",affiliation:'
ABVIMS and RML Hospital, New Delhi, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7957",title:"Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction",subtitle:"From Evidence to Clinical Practice",fullTitle:"Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction - From Evidence to Clinical Practice",slug:"lower-urinary-tract-dysfunction-from-evidence-to-clinical-practice",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Ran Pang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7957.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ran",middleName:null,surname:"Pang",slug:"ran-pang",fullName:"Ran Pang"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"70965",title:"Introductory Chapter: Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction at a Glance",slug:"introductory-chapter-lower-urinary-tract-dysfunction-at-a-glance",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ran Pang",authors:[{id:"186524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ran",middleName:null,surname:"Pang",fullName:"Ran Pang",slug:"ran-pang"}]},{id:"71493",title:"Pelvic Organ Prolapse: Examination and Assessment",slug:"pelvic-organ-prolapse-examination-and-assessment",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Priyanka Bhadana",authors:[{id:"287080",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Priyanka",middleName:null,surname:"Bhadana",fullName:"Priyanka Bhadana",slug:"priyanka-bhadana"}]},{id:"68632",title:"Diagnostic Potential of Imaging Modalities in the Assessment of Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunctions",slug:"diagnostic-potential-of-imaging-modalities-in-the-assessment-of-lower-urinary-tract-dysfunctions",totalDownloads:278,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"George Asafu Adjaye Frimpong, Evans Aboagye and Akosua Asafu-Adjaye Frimpong",authors:[{id:"290066",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Asafu Adjaye Frimpong",fullName:"George Asafu Adjaye Frimpong",slug:"george-asafu-adjaye-frimpong"},{id:"290414",title:"Mr.",name:"Evans",middleName:null,surname:"Aboagye",fullName:"Evans Aboagye",slug:"evans-aboagye"},{id:"298949",title:"Ms.",name:"Akosua",middleName:null,surname:"Asafu-Adjaye Frimpong",fullName:"Akosua Asafu-Adjaye Frimpong",slug:"akosua-asafu-adjaye-frimpong"}]},{id:"67883",title:"Stress Urinary Incontinence: A Proteomics Overview",slug:"stress-urinary-incontinence-a-proteomics-overview",totalDownloads:340,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Goran Mitulović, Thomas Mohr and Marianne Koch",authors:[{id:"212804",title:"Dr.",name:"Goran",middleName:null,surname:"Mitulović",fullName:"Goran Mitulović",slug:"goran-mitulovic"},{id:"286098",title:"Dr.",name:"Marianne",middleName:null,surname:"Koch",fullName:"Marianne Koch",slug:"marianne-koch"},{id:"296816",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Mohr",fullName:"Thomas Mohr",slug:"thomas-mohr"}]},{id:"69092",title:"Advances in Treatment of Nocturnal Enuresis in Children",slug:"advances-in-treatment-of-nocturnal-enuresis-in-children",totalDownloads:314,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Bingying Zhou, Jianxin Lu, Peiqi Shi and Yifang An",authors:[{id:"288655",title:"Dr.",name:"Bingying",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",fullName:"Bingying Zhou",slug:"bingying-zhou"},{id:"290124",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianxin",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Jianxin Lu",slug:"jianxin-lu"},{id:"290125",title:"Dr.",name:"Peiqi",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Peiqi Shi",slug:"peiqi-shi"},{id:"290126",title:"Dr.",name:"Yifang",middleName:null,surname:"An",fullName:"Yifang An",slug:"yifang-an"}]},{id:"66847",title:"Historical Perspective and Innovations in Penile Urethroplasty",slug:"historical-perspective-and-innovations-in-penile-urethroplasty",totalDownloads:786,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Francisco E. Martins, Pedro Simoes de Oliveira and Natalia M. Martins",authors:[{id:"240780",title:"M.D.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Martins",fullName:"Francisco Martins",slug:"francisco-martins"},{id:"249678",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Simoes De Oliveira",fullName:"Pedro Simoes De Oliveira",slug:"pedro-simoes-de-oliveira"}]},{id:"67813",title:"Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTS) and Sexual Function and Dysfunction",slug:"lower-urinary-tract-symptoms-luts-and-sexual-function-and-dysfunction",totalDownloads:431,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Charalampos Konstantinidis, Ioannis Eleftheropoulos and Achileas Karafotias",authors:[{id:"84607",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Konstantinidis",fullName:"Charalampos Konstantinidis",slug:"charalampos-konstantinidis"},{id:"247362",title:"Dr.",name:"Achilleas",middleName:null,surname:"Karafotias",fullName:"Achilleas Karafotias",slug:"achilleas-karafotias"},{id:"288230",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Eleftheropoulos",fullName:"Ioannis Eleftheropoulos",slug:"ioannis-eleftheropoulos"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1318",title:"Urinary Tract Infections",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"018471a7330e239e2bfbd8b11b1111ca",slug:"urinary-tract-infections",bookSignature:"Peter Tenke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1318.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62770",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Tenke",slug:"peter-tenke",fullName:"Peter Tenke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"20563",title:"A Review of Uncomplicated Urinary Tract Infections",slug:"a-review-of-uncomplicated-urinary-tract-infections",signatures:"Tze Shien Lo and Augusto Alonto",authors:[{id:"58025",title:"Dr.",name:"Tze Shien",middleName:null,surname:"Lo",fullName:"Tze Shien Lo",slug:"tze-shien-lo"},{id:"58032",title:"Dr.",name:"Augusto",middleName:null,surname:"Alonto",fullName:"Augusto Alonto",slug:"augusto-alonto"}]},{id:"20564",title:"Current Management Strategies for Uncomplicated and Complicated Cystitis",slug:"current-management-strategies-for-uncomplicated-and-complicated-cystitis",signatures:"Niall F. Davis and Hugh D. Flood",authors:[{id:"47196",title:"Mr",name:"Niall",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",fullName:"Niall Davis",slug:"niall-davis"},{id:"50625",title:"Mr.",name:"Hugh",middleName:null,surname:"Flood",fullName:"Hugh Flood",slug:"hugh-flood"}]},{id:"20565",title:"Urinary Tract Infections and Dysfunctional Voiding",slug:"urinary-tract-infections-and-dysfunctional-voiding",signatures:"Minardi Daniele, d’Anzeo Gianluca, Conti Alessandro and Muzzonigro Giovanni",authors:[{id:"51846",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniele",middleName:null,surname:"Minardi",fullName:"Daniele Minardi",slug:"daniele-minardi"},{id:"59304",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianluca",middleName:null,surname:"D'Anzeo",fullName:"Gianluca D'Anzeo",slug:"gianluca-d'anzeo"},{id:"59305",title:"Dr",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Conti",fullName:"Alessandro Conti",slug:"alessandro-conti"},{id:"59306",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Muzzonigro",fullName:"Giovanni Muzzonigro",slug:"giovanni-muzzonigro"}]},{id:"20566",title:"Prostatitis: From Diagnosis to Treatment",slug:"prostatitis-from-diagnosis-to-treatment",signatures:"Stylianos Kontos, Vasilis Migdalis, Stefanos Kachrilas and Athanasios G. Papatsoris",authors:[{id:"59245",title:"Prof.",name:"Athanasios",middleName:null,surname:"Papatsoris",fullName:"Athanasios Papatsoris",slug:"athanasios-papatsoris"},{id:"59246",title:"Dr.",name:"Stylianos",middleName:null,surname:"Kontos",fullName:"Stylianos Kontos",slug:"stylianos-kontos"},{id:"59247",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefanos",middleName:null,surname:"Kachrilas",fullName:"Stefanos Kachrilas",slug:"stefanos-kachrilas"},{id:"79981",title:"Dr",name:"Vasilis",middleName:null,surname:"Migdalis",fullName:"Vasilis Migdalis",slug:"vasilis-migdalis"}]},{id:"20567",title:"Complicated Upper Urinary Tract Infection",slug:"complicated-upper-urinary-tract-infection",signatures:"Nasser Shakhssalim, Mohammad Samzadeh and Seyed Mohammad Ghahestani",authors:[{id:"56037",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:null,surname:"Shakhssalim",fullName:"Nasser Shakhssalim",slug:"nasser-shakhssalim"},{id:"62073",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sam Zadeh",fullName:"Mohammad Sam Zadeh",slug:"mohammad-sam-zadeh"},{id:"110261",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ghohestani",fullName:"Seyed Mohammad Ghohestani",slug:"seyed-mohammad-ghohestani"}]},{id:"20568",title:"Asymptomatic Bacteriuria: Significance for Different Patient Population",slug:"asymptomatic-bacteriuria-significance-for-different-patient-population",signatures:"Thomas Nelius, Stephanie Filleur and Jonathan S. Nelson",authors:[{id:"53464",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Nelius",fullName:"Thomas Nelius",slug:"thomas-nelius"},{id:"53476",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephanie",middleName:null,surname:"Filleur",fullName:"Stephanie Filleur",slug:"stephanie-filleur"},{id:"100431",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Nelson",fullName:"Jonathan Nelson",slug:"jonathan-nelson"}]},{id:"20569",title:"Urinary Tract Infections During Pregnancy",slug:"urinary-tract-infections-during-pregnancy",signatures:"Anick Bérard, Fabiano Santos, Ema Ferreira and Sylvie Perreault",authors:[{id:"55191",title:"Dr.",name:"Anick",middleName:null,surname:"Bérard",fullName:"Anick Bérard",slug:"anick-berard"},{id:"55848",title:"MSc",name:"Fabiano",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",fullName:"Fabiano Santos",slug:"fabiano-santos"},{id:"55881",title:"Dr.",name:"Ema",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Ema Ferreira",slug:"ema-ferreira"},{id:"55882",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Perreault",fullName:"Sylvie Perreault",slug:"sylvie-perreault"}]},{id:"20570",title:"Reducing the Incidence of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections in the Acute Care Setting Using Evidence-Based Guidelines",slug:"reducing-the-incidence-of-catheter-associated-urinary-tract-infections-in-the-acute-care-setting-usi",signatures:"Diane Gorman",authors:[{id:"55192",title:"Mrs",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Gorman",fullName:"Diane Gorman",slug:"diane-gorman"}]},{id:"20571",title:"The Formation of Poly-Microbial Biofilms on Urinary Catheters",slug:"the-formation-of-poly-microbial-biofilms-on-urinary-catheters",signatures:"Veronika Hola and Filip Ruzicka",authors:[{id:"48709",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronika",middleName:null,surname:"Holá",fullName:"Veronika Holá",slug:"veronika-hola"},{id:"136557",title:"PhD.",name:"Filip",middleName:null,surname:"Ruzicka",fullName:"Filip Ruzicka",slug:"filip-ruzicka"}]},{id:"20572",title:"Urinary Tract Infections in Psychiatric Patients",slug:"urinary-tract-infections-in-psychiatric-patients",signatures:"Teresita Sáinz Espuñes, Maria Elisa Drago Serrano and Jaime Amadeo Bustos Martínez",authors:[{id:"52242",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresita",middleName:null,surname:"Sainz-Espuñes",fullName:"Teresita Sainz-Espuñes",slug:"teresita-sainz-espunes"},{id:"59716",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Drago-Serrano",fullName:"Maria Elisa Drago-Serrano",slug:"maria-elisa-drago-serrano"},{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Bustos-Martínez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez"}]},{id:"20573",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Urinary Tract Infections: Current Issues and Future Solutions",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-urinary-tract-infections-current-issues-and-future-solutions",signatures:"David W. Hilbert",authors:[{id:"55917",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Hilbert",fullName:"David Hilbert",slug:"david-hilbert"}]},{id:"20574",title:"Identification and Antibiotic Sensitivity of UTI Pathogens Using Raman Spectroscopy",slug:"identification-and-antibiotic-sensitivity-of-uti-pathogens-using-raman-spectroscopy",signatures:"Evdokia Kastanos, Alexandros Kyriakides, Katerina Hadjigeorgiou and Costas Pitris",authors:[{id:"49230",title:"Prof.",name:"Costas",middleName:null,surname:"Pitris",fullName:"Costas Pitris",slug:"costas-pitris"},{id:"49762",title:"Prof.",name:"Evdokia",middleName:null,surname:"Kastanos",fullName:"Evdokia Kastanos",slug:"evdokia-kastanos"},{id:"49763",title:"Mr",name:"Alexandros",middleName:null,surname:"Kyriakides",fullName:"Alexandros Kyriakides",slug:"alexandros-kyriakides"},{id:"49764",title:"BSc.",name:"Katerina",middleName:null,surname:"Hadjigeorgiou",fullName:"Katerina Hadjigeorgiou",slug:"katerina-hadjigeorgiou"}]},{id:"20575",title:"Natural Approaches for Controlling Urinary Tract Infections",slug:"natural-approaches-for-controlling-urinary-tract-infections",signatures:"Mary Anne Roshni Amalaradjou and Kumar Venkitanarayanan",authors:[{id:"61657",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Venkitanarayanan",fullName:"Kumar Venkitanarayanan",slug:"kumar-venkitanarayanan"},{id:"61765",title:"Dr.",name:"Mary Anne Roshni",middleName:null,surname:"Amalaradjou",fullName:"Mary Anne Roshni Amalaradjou",slug:"mary-anne-roshni-amalaradjou"}]},{id:"20576",title:"Prevention Strategy of Urogenital Infections by Using Lactobacilli with Probiotic Properties",slug:"prevention-strategy-of-urogenital-infections-by-using-lactobacilli-with-probiotic-properties",signatures:"Liliana Pascual and Lucila Barberis",authors:[{id:"59046",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucila",middleName:null,surname:"Barberis",fullName:"Lucila Barberis",slug:"lucila-barberis"},{id:"60021",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Pascual",fullName:"Liliana Pascual",slug:"liliana-pascual"}]},{id:"20577",title:"Current Management of Urinary Tract Infection in Children",slug:"current-management-of-urinary-tract-infection-in-children",signatures:"Yusuf Kibar",authors:[{id:"51399",title:"Dr.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Kibar",fullName:"Yusuf Kibar",slug:"yusuf-kibar"}]},{id:"20578",title:"Urinary Tract Infection in Children – Onset of a New Era?",slug:"urinary-tract-infection-in-children-onset-of-a-new-era-",signatures:"Tanja Kersnik Levart and Rajko B Kenda",authors:[{id:"50388",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Kersnik Levart",fullName:"Tanja Kersnik Levart",slug:"tanja-kersnik-levart"},{id:"136559",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajko",middleName:null,surname:"Kenda",fullName:"Rajko Kenda",slug:"rajko-kenda"}]},{id:"20579",title:"UTI in Children",slug:"uti-in-children",signatures:"Samileh Noorbakhsh and Vida Zarabi",authors:[{id:"45794",title:"Prof.",name:"Samileh",middleName:null,surname:"Noorbakhsh",fullName:"Samileh Noorbakhsh",slug:"samileh-noorbakhsh"},{id:"45801",title:"Dr.",name:"Vida",middleName:null,surname:"Zarabi",fullName:"Vida Zarabi",slug:"vida-zarabi"}]},{id:"20580",title:"Post-Inflammatory Nephropathy",slug:"post-inflammatory-nephropathy",signatures:"Beata Bieniaś, Małgorzata Zajączkowska, Halina Borzęcka, Przemysław Sikora, Marek Majewski, Ewelina Książek and Andrzej Borzęcki",authors:[{id:"52793",title:"Dr",name:"Beata",middleName:null,surname:"Bieniaś",fullName:"Beata Bieniaś",slug:"beata-bienias"},{id:"59721",title:"Dr.",name:"Małgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Zajączkowska",fullName:"Małgorzata Zajączkowska",slug:"malgorzata-zajaczkowska"},{id:"59722",title:"Dr.",name:"Halina",middleName:null,surname:"Borzęcka",fullName:"Halina Borzęcka",slug:"halina-borzecka"},{id:"59723",title:"Mr.",name:"Przemysław",middleName:null,surname:"Sikora",fullName:"Przemysław Sikora",slug:"przemyslaw-sikora"},{id:"59724",title:"Mr.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Majewski",fullName:"Marek Majewski",slug:"marek-majewski"},{id:"59725",title:"Mr.",name:"Ewelina",middleName:null,surname:"Książek",fullName:"Ewelina Książek",slug:"ewelina-ksiazek"},{id:"59726",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Borzęcki",fullName:"Andrzej Borzęcki",slug:"andrzej-borzecki"}]},{id:"20581",title:"Studies on Clinical Characteristics, Urovirulence Factor and Host Susceptibility Gene in Pediatric Acute Lobar Nephronia",slug:"studies-on-clinical-characteristics-urovirulence-factor-and-host-susceptibility-gene-in-pediatric-ac",signatures:"Chi-Hui Cheng, Yong-Kwei Tsau and Tzou-Yien Lin",authors:[{id:"51309",title:"Prof.",name:"Tzou-Yien",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",fullName:"Tzou-Yien Lin",slug:"tzou-yien-lin"},{id:"52822",title:"Prof.",name:"Yong-Kwei",middleName:null,surname:"Tsau",fullName:"Yong-Kwei Tsau",slug:"yong-kwei-tsau"},{id:"52824",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi-Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Chi-Hui Cheng",slug:"chi-hui-cheng"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74664",title:"Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction from Natural Matrices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95440",slug:"microwave-assisted-solid-extraction-from-natural-matrices",body:'
1. Introduction
Nature Aided Drug Discovery (NADD) represents the most ancient approach in finding new active compounds for fighting human diseases, and still today it plays a crucial role in drug discovery [1]. New chemical entities (NCE) from natural derivation represent a relevant slice among the drugs approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agencies (EMA) for commercialization and administration on humans [2]. More than half the total anti-infective drugs approved in the last forty years resulted from a NADD approach and a similar trend can be observed for anticancer drugs, where 41% of them derived from natural sources and only 16% are classifiable as totally synthetic small molecules [2]. Moreover, the Global Herbal Medicine Market Size is expected to increase to USD 129 billion by 2023, according to Market Research Future [3].
The success of NADD finds its main reason in the wider and heterogeneous chemical space covered by natural products whether compared with synthetic derivatives. The 83% of the chemical scaffolds found in natural compounds are unique and absent in synthetic NCE, due to the lack of commercially available synthons or cumbersome and prohibitive synthetic procedures [4]. Thus, the screening of libraries of compounds derived from natural sources still remains a worthy procedure for the identification of new and unexplored NCE. Besides, marine sources or lichens are still almost uninvestigated and might therefore represent an inestimable treasure of new potential drugs [5, 6, 7].
The natural compounds of interest in NADD are secondary metabolites that are not directly involved in the essential functions of the cell cycle and duplication processes and are characterized by high structural variability. From a structural standpoint, they are classified into alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, lignans, flavonoids, and tannins [8]. Secondary metabolites are produced in different amounts for vexillary functions or defensive responses to biotic or abiotic stress being involved in the system of plant defense [9]. For this reason, specific secondary metabolites may be considered as markers of the plant health and may be used to evaluate the quality of the selected natural matrix and the effects that the environmental factors have on it. The evaluation of their content in natural sources, as well as their recovery, require the exploitation of ad hoc extractive procedures since secondary metabolites are mainly present in the intracellular domain. Thus, appropriate extraction procedures involve the rupture of the cell wall and cellular membranes, thus favoring the passage of the secondary metabolites into the extraction solvent, from which they can be recovered.
Over the years different protocols and techniques have been developed for the extraction of metabolites from natural matrices, named Solid–Liquid Extraction (SLEs). SLEs are classified in conventional (or traditional) and non-conventional (or innovative) methodologies [10]. In conventional methodologies, SLE is performed by heating the natural source with conventional heating sources (i.e., flame, heating plate, or mantle) in the presence or not of solvent and with or without stirring. Examples of conventional methodologies are maceration (digestion, infusion, and decoction), percolation, and Soxhlet or steam distillation. Solvents, or generally mixtures of solvents, with wide grades of polarity such as methanol, ethanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, trichloromethane, hexane, etc. are employed. Nevertheless, conventional extraction methods usually require a large volume of solvents, long extraction time, and high temperature. Such harsh extraction conditions may lead to thermal or chemical degradation of the metabolites, thus resulting in a low yield of the final extract. Moreover, the upscaling at an industrial level would be impracticable, owing to energy consumption, technological inaccessibility, and environmental considerations [11]. Conversely, non-conventional methodologies exploit innovative chemical–physical principles and cutting-edge technologies to facilitate the extractive procedures and the recovery of the product of interest from the natural source. Varied energy sources and extractive principles may be exploited and, therefore, specific equipments are needed. Microwave-assisted Solid Extraction (MASE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), pressurized solvent extraction (PLE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) are the most frequently non-conventional methodologies extensively used for NADD [11].
In this chapter, the potential of microwave-assisted irradiation for the extraction of secondary metabolites from plants, and natural resources in general, will be discussed, with a special focus on recent applicative examples of the most representative chemical classes.
2. Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction (MASE)
The physical principles underlying MASE are completely different from those of conventional extraction because microwave irradiation can cause a more effective disruption of the cellular structures (cell walls and cellular membranes) thus favoring the release of the cellular content and speeding up the extraction process. The interaction of microwave irradiation with the solvents, intracellular water, and ions causes an increase of the dipolar rotation and ionic conductivity of molecules with dipolar moments and ions, which results in a rise of the temperature inside the cell. The vaporization of the intracellular water causes the dehydration of the cellular wall and the reduction of its resistance. This, combined with the abrupt increment of the intracellular pressure, leads to the cell wall and membranes disruption, thus facilitating the passage of the secondary metabolites into the extractive solvent [12, 13].
This is the result of a synergistic combination of heat and mass gradient working in the same direction from the inside to the outside of the cell, as confirmed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis (Figure 1) [14].
Figure 1.
Microwave heating effect on cells.
Monomodal and multimodal microwave systems also referred to as single- or multi-mode systems specifically designed for MASE are nowadays available. A single-mode system permits to focus the microwave radiation on a restricted zone where the sample is subjected to a much stronger electric field. Conversely, in a multimode system, the microwave radiation is randomly dispersed within the microwave cavity, where the sample is irradiated [15]. Both mono- and multi-modal microwave devices comprise a magnetron, which generates microwave radiation, a waveguide, which is used to propagate the microwave from the source to the microwave cavity, the applicator, where the sample is placed and a circulator that allows the microwave to move only in the forward direction. The main difference between the two systems relies on the applicator that in the case of a multimodal system is a closed cavity where the microwaves are randomly dispersed, whereas in the monomodal oven the extraction vessel is directly located in-line with the waveguide [15]. Both systems are effective in extracting metabolites from natural sources, and their use is usually related to the amount of natural matrix. Accordingly, the monomodal system is preferred when the amount of natural source to be treated is relatively low (milligram to gram scale), and vice versa. Microwave extraction may be performed using open or closed extraction vessel systems. The open vessel apparatus originated from a modification of domestic MW ovens. The extraction is conducted at ambient pressure and the vessel is directly connected to a condenser to avoid loss of solvent or volatile components. An evolution of the open vessel apparatus is the Focused Microwave-Assisted Soxhlet (FMASE) which combines the classical Soxhlet extraction (SE) technique with MW irradiation. In the closed vessel system the entire extraction vessel is located within the oven, thus allowing better control of the pressure and temperature during the extraction [16].
The closed-vessel system presents several advantages: i) a higher temperature than open vessel systems can be reached because of the increased pressure inside the vessel raises the boiling point of the solvents used, thus decreasing the time needed for the extraction; ii) the loss of volatile substances is completely avoided because they are confined within the vessel; iii) a low amount of solvent is required because no evaporation occurs and there is little or no risk of airborne contamination thus preventing the oxidation of air-sensitive metabolites; iv) the fumes are contained within the vessel, reducing the hazard of the extractive procedure.
In a closed vessel system high pressure can be reached. The high pressure stimulates various phenomena according to LeChatelier’s principle, such as the transition of phase from one form to another, change in reaction dynamics, change in molecular structure, etc. hence resulting in the enhancement of extraction efficiency. Accordingly, working under high pressure causes alterations in the structure of some constituents of the cells such as lipids, proteins, enzymes, and outer cell membranes, thus damaging the plant wall and internal structure of the cell and reducing the mass transfer resistance. In this way, the secondary metabolites are released, leaving behind other cellular components. The High-Pressure MASE (HPMAE) is considered a newly emerging technique. It is a time-efficient, convenient, eco-friendly, safe, and energy-efficient extraction method when compared to the traditional or conventional methods of extraction [17].
Nevertheless, the use of closed-vessel systems presents some drawbacks: the amount of samples that can be processed is limited; the addition of reagents or solvents during operation is forbidden and the vessel must be cooled down before it can be opened to avoid loss of volatile constituents [16]. For processing a large amount of material, an open-vessel system is more appropriate. It allows the possibility to add reagents and to refill the solvent during the extraction, and to remove the excess of solvent during the extraction procedure. Moreover, the extraction of thermolabile metabolites is allowed since it usually reaches low temperatures relative to closed-vessel systems. On the other hand, the open-vessel systems ensure less reproducible results compared to the closed-vessel systems and the extraction in open-vessel could require a longer time to obtain results comparable to those achieved in closed-vessel [16].
The microwave energy may be applied also to extraction in solvent-free conditions (Solvent Free Microwave Extraction-SFME) [12]. In this case, the plant material is directly placed into the microwave reactor, without the addition of any solvent. The heating of the water contained by the plant material distends the natural matrices and causes the rupture of the cells releasing their content. This process has been successfully applied for the extraction of the essential oils. After MW heating, the volatile components co-evaporate with the in-situ water contained in the natural matrix; the vapors condense outside the microwave oven into a collector where they separate between essential oils and the aqueous phase. The latter is brought back into the vessel to refresh the amount of water in the sample, whereas the essential oil is collected apart [12].
3. Procedure set-up
The performance of the MASE process is strictly related to the operative conditions employed. Several parameters, such as solvent, solvent-drug ratio, temperature, time, pressure, microwave power, water content, and characteristic of the matrix must be optimized in setting up a MASE procedure. Each of these parameters should not be considered alone, but they are all linked together and the comprehension of the effects and influences of these factors is pivotal for MASE efficiency. A brief discussion about the role of these parameters in the design of a MASE protocol is herein reported.
3.1 Solvent
The selection of the solvent plays a crucial role in MASE, as well as in other conventional extraction processes, and several solvent parameters (solubility of the analyte, penetration, interaction with the matrix, dielectric constant, and mass transfer kinetic process) should be considered to perform the right choice. In primis, the solvent should assure the highest solubility of the analyte of interest while excluding undesired matrix components. However, conversely to the traditional extractive procedures, the chosen solvent must be able to absorb the microwave radiation and to convert it into heat. This depends on the dielectric constant and the dielectric loss of the solvent. Thus, in microwave application, solvents are usually classified in low, medium, or high absorbance whether they absorb at 300 W (i.e. carbon chlorides, 1,4-dioxane, tetrahydrofuran, diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, pyridine, toluene, chlorobenzene, xylenes, and hexane), 200 W (i.e. water, DMF, NMP, butanol, acetonitrile, HMPA, ketones, o-dichlorobenzene, 1,2-dichloroethane, 2-methoxy ethanol, acetic acid, and trifluoroacetic acid) or 100 W (i.e. DMSO, ethanol, methanol, propanol, nitrobenzene, formic acid, ethylene glycol), respectively. For low absorbing solvents, the heating rate can be increased by mixing with solvents with a higher dielectric constant or by adding salts to the mixture [18]. Recently, increasing interest in ionic liquids as MASE solvents or modifiers has been observed. Ionic liquids are organic salts with low melting points, and they are usually liquid at room temperature. They are characterized by extremely low vapor pressure, high stability and can solubilize both polar and non-polar metabolites. Moreover, they have the advantage to be eco-friendly solvents, although their extensive use is limited due to the high commercial costs. Another emerging eco-friendly alternative is the use of deep eutectic solvents. They possess physical and chemical properties similar to the ionic liquids, but they show better biodegradability, toxicity profiles, and solubility properties. Lastly, the content of water in the sample should be taken into account since it influences the heating rate and facilitates the transport of the analytes into the solvent at higher rates [19].
As stated in the previous paragraph, a Solvent-Free Microwave Extraction (SFME) is also possible. This procedure foresees the direct irradiation with MW of the plant material, fresh or rehydrated. A crucial role is played by the content of water in the sample, because it is the heating of such water to cause the rupture of the cells of the plant material, favoring the release of the content. This process is mainly applied for the extraction of volatile compounds such as essential oil. The oil evaporates by azeotropic distillation with the water contained in the sample. After cooling outside of the microwave reactor the oil separates from the water and can be collected through a modified Clevenger apparatus. Water is refluxed back into the microwave oven to allow the continuous extraction of the oil from the sample [12].
3.2 Liquid-Solid (L/S) ratio
Another important parameter to consider in the set-up of a MASE protocol is the ratio between the amount of sample and the volume of solvent. The latter should be enough to cover the sample during the entire process, especially when the matrix swells during the extraction process. Although in conventional extraction higher is the volume of solvent, higher is the yield of the extract, in MASE larger volume of solvent may result in more energy and time to heat the suspension and in a lower yield due to a non-uniform distribution and exposure to microwave. Usually, an L/S from 10:1 to 20:1 (mL/mg) is found to be the right ratio in many extractive processes reported in the literature [20].
Strictly correlated to the L/S ratio is the stirring rate since it affects the mass transfer process in MASE. However, the significance of this parameter is rarely explored. By stirring, the mass transfer barrier created by the concentrated compounds in a localized region due to insufficient solvent can also be minimized resulting in better extraction yield. In other words, agitation accelerates the extraction speed by accelerating the desorption and dissolution of compounds bound to the sample matrix [17].
3.3 Time
Extraction times in MASE lasts from a few minutes up to half an hour, and this represents an advantage for the extraction of thermal or oxygen labile compounds since it avoids the degradation of the compounds of interest [21]. The extraction yield is directly proportional to the extraction time, although it has been observed that this increment is very small for an extremely long time. Moreover, for longer extraction time overheating may occur, especially with high absorbent solvents, thus exposing thermolabile compounds to degradation. Whether longer extraction time is required, consecutive and shorter extraction cycles are preferable. The solvent can be collected after each extraction cycle and a fresh solvent could be added to the residue to guarantee the exhaustion of the matrix. This discontinuous procedure has been applied for the extraction of several secondary metabolites from plant material, allowing an enhanced yield and low decomposition of thermolabile compounds [22].
3.4 Temperature and microwave power
Temperature and MW power are strictly correlated. Power is the driving force of the process since it provides the energy necessary to excite the dipolar moments and the ionic conduction of the constituent of the sample, resulting in a proportional increase of the temperature and promoting the destruction of the natural matrix. Thus, the power of the microwave irradiation has to be carefully dosed in function of the amount of the sample, the solvent employed, the extraction time required, and the chemical stability of the secondary metabolites of interest [23]. Increasing the power results in an improved extraction yield and shorter extraction time. However, this result is true until the reaching of an optimal temperature beyond which a decrease in yield is observed, mainly due to the thermal stability of the target metabolite [24].
Accordingly, the temperature is a key parameter to enhance the efficacy of MASE and to avoid at the same time the degradation of the sample. Thus, the choice of the extraction temperature is strictly related to the properties of the solvent, the chemical stability of the metabolites of interest, and the microwave system used. In particular, at high temperatures the viscosity and the surface tension of the solvent diminish; moreover, the capability to solubilize the analytes, and to wet and penetrate the matrix increase, thus resulting in improved extractive efficacy. Also, when operating in a close-vessel, there is the advantage of heating the solvent above its boiling point, thus leading to a more performing extraction [25].
To conclude, the development of a proper MASE methodology must consider at least four variables: solvent, liquid/solid ratio, temperature, and time. To speed up the set-up of the procedure, the Design of Experiment (DoE) approach may be applied. This is a systematic statistic-based tool to assess the best experimental conditions both in the academic and industrial fields [26]. Thanks to this approach, all the variables and their interactions can be evaluated while doing the minimum number of runs.
Over the years, microwave-assisted extraction has been successfully applied to extract diverse classes of secondary metabolites (i.e. polyphenols, flavonoids, coumarins, terpenoids, cannabinoids, and alkaloids) from natural sources, for evaluating the plant productivity, for extracting bioactive compounds both for drug discovery or for commercial purposes.
Here below, studies of plant productivity based on MASE methodology and specific cases of extraction of natural compounds of pharmaceutical and nutraceutical interest will be discussed, with a special focus on resveratrol, terpenoids, and cannabinoids.
4. MASE procedures successfully applied to secondary metabolites extraction
4.1 Evaluation of plant productivity
Numerous applications report about the use of the MW to assist the extraction of organic and organometallic compounds from various matrices (soils, sediments, water samples, botanicals), with special emphasis on environmental applications [27, 28]. Extraction of natural matrices is essential to compare their productivity under different stress conditions [9], harvesting time [29], and places [30]. MASE offers the possibility of performing multiple extractions and therefore, it is suitable for the rapid screening of a numerous set of samples to evaluate the productivity of organisms.
An example is a work performed by Martino et al., regarding the MASE of Melilotus officinalis, harvested in different environmental situations, to compare the amount of coumarin and related compounds, and to find the best condition for its cultivation [22]. The Authors developed a rapid, reliable, and reproducible method of extraction from M. officinalis inflorescence of coumarin (Figure 2), melilotic acid, and o-coumaric acid, considered as productivity markers of the plants. A comparison of different extraction techniques evidenced that MASE is the best procedure in terms of both yields and extraction time [22]. The optimal extraction conditions consisted of two successive irradiations of 5 min each at 50°C, with a cooling step in between, and it resulted suitable for application to large sets of samples [22].
Figure 2.
Secondary metabolites extracted via MASE approach and considered as markers of the plant productivity.
Another example is the setup of a fast and reproducible extraction methodology of vitexin and its isomer isovitexin from Crataegus monogyna (Figure 2) for evaluating the plant productivity and determining the best ecological conditions for hawthorn cultivation in northern Italy (Lombardy). These metabolites have a high pharmaceutical value due to their anti-hyperalgesic and neuroprotective effects and their activity against oxidative stress, cancer, and inflammation [31].
Within this context, Martino et al. set up a MASE procedure that can be applied for quantitative extraction of both metabolites from C. monogyna in just 3 minutes [50% aqueous methanol (v/v), 120°C, 120 W], bringing advantages both in terms of time (3 min vs 6 hours) and solvent consumption (0.05 vs 0.10 g/mL) over standard extraction methods [30]. The developed MASE protocol combined with isocratic HPLC analysis is suitable for the rapid screening of plant materials collected in different environmental conditions, and to determine the best ecological conditions for its cultivation. To extract vitexin and isovitexin from Crotalaria sessiliflora, Tang et al. exploited a microwave-assisted cloud-point extraction (MACPE). MACPE combines cloud-point extraction (CPE) with MAE. This has emerged as a technique to extract and separate bioactive compounds from medicinal plants [32]. Of note, using MACPE, hydrophobic compounds present in the aqueous phase can be favorably extracted into the hydrophobic core of micelles [33]. Applying MACPE, vitexin and isovitexin have been obtained in high yields and short times [34].
MASE can also be applied to study the effect of micronutrients or pollutants on secondary metabolites production. Amri et al. investigated the impact of soil copper (II) concentrations on nutrient uptake and the antioxidant system of Marrubium vulgare. Owing to waste deposition and agricultural practices, copper (II) tends to accumulate in high and toxic concentrations, leading to an alteration of the vital physiological or biochemical functions of the plants. As it is the case of M. vulgare, these effects may have a great impact on human health, since such a plant is used worldwide for its medicinal properties. To perform the study, the Authors selected marrubiin (Figure 2) as a reference compound, since it is the main secondary metabolite produced by M. vulgare leaves. A MASE protocol was developed for the easy extraction of marrubiin. This procedure allowed to evaluate the quality of a wide range of samples of white horehound. To optimize the process, the Authors used the statistical DoE approach. DoE findings indicated that the highest extraction efficiency of marrubiin with high repeatability was obtained using 100% ethanol at 120°C for 15 min, with significant benefits in terms of extraction times and environmental impact, given that ethanol is completely biodegradable. The MASE methodology may be applied for the characterization of M. vulgare herbal drug samples, thus evaluating their exposure to abiotic stress, revealing their phytochemical status, and facilitating the identification of raw materials obtained from a plant grown under stress conditions.
To sum up, MASE procedures is a versatile technique suitable for the evaluation of the plant productivity, and to assess the quality of vegetal matrices, since it is fast, reproducible, suitable for extraction of a large number of samples and requires a low amount of natural matrix.
4.2 Extraction of secondary metabolites for drug discovery or commercial purposes
4.2.1 Alkaloids
Alkaloids are a well-known class of secondary metabolites characterized by basic nitrogen. Over the years, many active alkaloids have been extracted via MW irradiation, e.g. ephedrine alkaloids, cocaine, and ergot alkaloids [35, 36, 37]. Unfortunately, results obtained for many of them have been comparable or worst if compared with the traditional method [38]. Nevertheless, microwaves have also spurred the discovery of new active alkaloids at the early stage of drug discovery. MASE protocols can be exploited to extract different alkaloids (examples are reported in Figure 3) from different botanicals like tuberous roots, leaves, and seeds [37, 39, 40].
Figure 3.
Examples of alkaloids extracted via the MASE approaches.
As an example of MASE applied to the extraction of alkaloids, Pan et al. obtained a good recovery of caffeine and polyphenols from the leaves of green tea (Thea sinensis L.). MASE provided high extraction and selectivity, required a short time, and less labour-intensive, thus resulting in an efficient method in comparison with the conventional extraction procedures [41].
Xiong et al. developed an efficient MASE protocol, within a drug discovery process, for the isolation of bioactive alkaloids (e.g. liensinine, isoliensinine, neferine, dauricine, nuciferine, Figure 3) from Lotus plumule. The optimal extraction conditions required a 65% aqueous methanol as a solvent and irradiation at 200 W for 260 seconds [42]. Another interesting example, reported by Zhou et al., is the microwave-assisted aqueous two-phase extraction, useful for rapid and simultaneous extraction and separation of alkaloids. This technique was applied to Radix Sophorae tonkinensis. The optimum conditions were summarized as follows: ethanol/Na2HPO4 as the extraction solvent, 100 mesh as particle size, 1:75 of S/L ratio, irradiating at 90°C for 5 min [43]. Matrine, sophocarpine, oxymatrine, oxysophocarpine, 5α-hydroxysophocarpine, sophoranol, cytisine, N-methylcytisine, and sophoridine were efficiently extracted.
Recently, Belwal et al. reported an optimized MASE protocol, defined by multicomponent analysis, for the extraction of berberine (Figure 3) and polyphenols from diverse species of Berberis. The medical properties of berberine (anti-diabetic, hepato-protectant, anti-arthritic, antioxidants, anti-microbial, neuro-protective, and hypo-lipidemic activity) are widely recognized, and it is used in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals preparation. In this study, multi-component analysis (MCA) has been used to extract berberine and polyphenols from B. jaeschkeana roots under microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) conditions. All the variables, above described, were considered under 42 experiments and the results of the model showed significant model fitness. Under optimized MAE condition, (i.e. 100% methanol, pH 2.0, 598 W, 2 min of irradiation time), the berberine and palmatine (Figure 3) contents were recorded in 4.6% and 2.0%, respectively. Under the optimized condition, the yield of alkaloids was found closer to the models’ predicted value [34].
Regarding the alkaloids employed as drugs, or of interest for the toxicological use and/or abuse, few extractive procedures by MASE are reported in the literature. As an example, Brachet et al. extracted cocaine and benzoylecgonine from the leaves of Erythroxylum coca by MASE. Different solvents, particle size, time, and power were evaluated. Since MeOH is a high absorbing microwave solvent, and cocaine is highly soluble in it, it was found to be the best extraction solvent [36]. Interestingly, MASE found application in the forensic field as a rapid and cleanup-free method for the extraction and quantification of drugs of abuse and the respective metabolites from human fluids and tissues. Fernandez et al. reported the simultaneous extraction of cocaine, benzoylecgonine, cocaethylene, morphine, 6-monoacethylmorphine, and codeine from human urine [44], hair [45], and vitreous humor samples [46]. The MASE procedure reduces the extraction time, avoids the cleanup steps, and allows a quantitative recovery of the drugs.
4.2.2 Stilbene-based polyphenolic compounds
Stilbene-based polyphenolic compounds, i.e. resveratrol, pterostilbene, and piceatannol, are of particular interest from a medicinal chemistry standpoint, having multiple pharmacological activities (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Chemical structure of polyphenolic-stilbene based secondary metabolites.
In particular, trans-resveratrol (3, 5, 4′-trihydroxystilbene) became popular as a result of an attempt to explain the “French paradox” [47]. Resveratrol and other polyphenolic-stilbene derivatives showed a wide range of beneficial physiological properties. They possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, cardiovascular-hepatoprotective, and anticancer activities [48, 49, 50]. In particular, the hypolipidemic and cardiovascular protective activity derived from the agonistic activity against PPARα and PPARγ receptors [51, 52] For all this benefit, resveratrol has attracted the attention of the scientific community and pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries. Indeed, several drugs and dietary supplements containing resveratrol are commercially available.
Even though resveratrol is produced naturally in plants, the extraction of resveratrol in commercial quantities is a problem, because of its low concentration, multiple steps of isolation and purification, unfriendly environmental issues, and seasonal occurrence [53]. Moreover, the preparation of resveratrol by synthesis is difficult owing to the formation of many unwanted side products [54, 55]. Only recently, the production of resveratrol in heterologous engineered microorganisms has been proposed [56]. Thus, resveratrol is still being extracted from wild Polygonum cuspidatum’s root (Japanese knotweed), grape skins and seed, and the domestic giant knotweed of China, which is the world’s largest producer [53, 56, 57, 58]. Garcia-Ayuso et al., in late 1998, found that by applying the MW irradiation to SE, the last of the extraction was drastically reduced from 8 hours to 60 minutes with comparable results to SE in yield. MASE was further optimized by testing solvents and times on bark extraction and compared to SE on the same tree sample. The results suggested that microwave extraction may be more efficient than SE.
The extraction of resveratrol by MASE from different plant materials (i.e. Arachis repens and grape seeds) has also been investigated. To exhaustively extract resveratrol from A. repens, commonly known as peanut grass, three different methodologies (conventional maceration, ultrasound-assisted extractions, and MASE) have been compared. Although sonication resulted more effectively in the extraction of resveratrol compared to MASE and maceration, MASE showed to be an excellent choice since it extracted high yields in a reduced time [59].
In another study, Dang et al. combined the aqueous two-phase extraction technique (ATPE) with MASE for the extraction of the total polyphenol content, including resveratrol, from grape seeds [60]. Microwave-assisted ATPE (MAATPE) required lower solvent concentration and less time compared with other methods such as refluxing solvent or SE. A higher level of resveratrol was obtained with MAATPE, in contrast to ATPE. The Authors also compared the effectiveness of three solvents (water, water: ethanol (1:1) and ethanol) and three extraction methods, including MASE and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and the conventional SE. MASE provided a better extraction with water and ethanol (1:1) obtaining extracts very rich in polyphenolic substances, including stilbenes.
Lastly, MASE has successfully applied also for the extraction of other polyphenolic-stilbene based compounds such as pterostilbene, mainly found in blueberries and in Pterocarpus marsupium heartwood, and ε-viniferin, found in Vitis coignetiae, a wild grapevine (Figure 4). Kim et al. reported the MASE of pterostilbene, and other derivatives, from Vitis coignetiae, using 80% ethanol at 90 W for 15 min, resulting in a stilbenoids overall yield of 0.13%, with pterostilbene the most representative compound in the extract [61]. An optimized protocol (70–150 W for 8–18 min, using 30–50% ethanol) was further developed for the extraction of viniferin from the same drug [48]. Recently, Pinero et al. disclosed a new process for recovering stilbenes from woody vine by-products such as grape stem and cane samples. MASE was carried out under different extraction conditions. The best results were achieved from grape stems, using 80% ethanol in water as an extraction solvent, a temperature of 125°C, an irradiation power of 750 W for 5 min [49].
4.2.3 Terpenoids
4.2.3.1 Artemisinin and paclitaxel
Terpenes and isoprenoids, in general, gained much attention for their physiological functions (i.e., hormones, aliphatic membrane anchors, maintaining membrane structure), ecological roles (i.e., defense compounds, insect/animal attractants), and extensive pharmaceutical applications such as flavors, fragrances, and medicines.
In particular, artemisinin and paclitaxel represented two milestones in the fight against malaria and cancer, respectively. Artemisinin (Figure 5) is a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Artemisia annua and it is a first-class drug for the treatment of drug-resistant malaria. The conventional artemisinin extraction procedure requires room temperature, heat-reflux, or SE. Hao et al., in 2002 reported a first attempt to extract artemisinin from Artemisia annua by MASE. Several solvents were explored, such as ethanol, trichloromethane, cyclohexane, n-hexane, petroleum ether, and two in-house oils. Compared with SE, supercritical CO2 extraction, and normal stirring extraction, MASE of artemisinin from Artemisia annua considerably reduced the processing time to 12 minutes and resulted in a 92.1% extraction rate (compared to several hours and 60% extraction yield obtained with Soxhlet) [50]. Later, Liu et al. applied the MASE for the isolation and quantification of artemisinin in comparison with the traditional protocols. MASE confirmed shorter extraction time necessity, reduced solvent consumption, and higher recovery of artemisinin than conventional procedures. The best extraction solvent was petroleum ether–acetone (4:1 v/v), because of the high solubility of artemisinin and adequate microwave energy absorption, at 50°C. The highest yield of artemisinin achieved was 0.55% in 30 minutes among all the extractive methods used [62].
Figure 5.
Chemical structures of artemisinin and paclitaxel.
Recently, Misra et al. developed a rapid and reliable MASE and HPTLC protocol for the analysis of artemisinin. The optimized MASE conditions required 100 mg of dried and grinded drug with a size of 14 mesh dispersed into 10 mL of toluene. The irradiation of the sample at 160 W for 120 seconds led to the extraction of 0.816% of the content of artemisinin.
Paclitaxel (Figure 5) is a member of the taxane class, and it is one of the most important anticancer drugs approved for human use against ovarian, breast, and pulmonary cancer.
Although the total synthesis of paclitaxel has been reported, its application for the commercial production of this drug is impracticable. Thus, paclitaxel is still produced by extraction from taxol biomass. The most commonly used methods for the extraction of paclitaxel require the use of methanol at ambient temperature, although other protocols requiring refluxing methanol, 1:1 methanol-chloroform at ambient temperature, and percolation using ethanol or 95% ethanol-water at ambient temperature have been reported. However, these methods require a long time (12–24 h) for a complete extraction. Incorvia-Mattina et al. reported for the first time in 1997 the use of MASE to optimize the efficiency of the extraction of paclitaxel. The effects of the biomass, solvent ratio and water content on taxane recovery were also determined. Under appropriate MASE conditions an extract equivalent to the one obtained by conventional extraction methods was produced [63].
Talebi et al. investigated the use of MASE to extract paclitaxel from the needles of Taxus baccata L. The extraction parameters were investigated resulting in 90% aq. MeOH as a solvent, a temperature of 95°C, 7 min of extraction time, and a closed-vessel system as the best performing extractive conditions [64].
Recently, another study for the extraction of paclitaxel from biomass through MASE and based on kinetic and thermodynamic analysis has been carried out. The majority of paclitaxel was recovered from the biomass (∼99%) within 6 min in a single cycle of microwave-assisted extraction at microwave powers of 50–150 W and temperatures of 30–45°C [64].
4.2.4 Phytocannabinoids
Cannabis sativa L. has always been considered a controversial plant due to its use as both medicine and illicit drug. Nevertheless, Cannabis is a good source of nutrients, fibers, and natural compounds thus, its industrial and pharmaceutical use is undoubtful. Cannabis produces a peculiar class of natural compounds, namely phytocannabinoids. The two most important and renowned phytocannabinoids are the cannabidiol derivatives (i.e. CBD, CBDV, CBDB, and CBDP) [65, 66] and the tetrahydrocannabinol derivatives (i.e. Δ9-THC, Δ9-THCV, Δ9-THCB, and Δ9-THCP) [66, 67] reported in Figure 6. Δ9-THC is responsible for the recreational use of hemp and therefore its use is banished or tightly regulated by national governments.
Figure 6.
Chemical structures of CBD-like and THC-like major phytocannabinoids present in C. sativa.
CBD-like derivatives are non-psychotropic compounds but with other recognized pharmacological properties such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticonvulsant. As an example, Epidiolex, a CBD-based anticonvulsant drug, has been approved in 2018 by Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of seizures associated with Lennox–Gastaut syndrome (LGS), Dravet syndrome, or tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) in patients 1 year of age and older.
The discovery of a plethora of pharmacological activities ascribed to CBD and other minor phytocannabinoids has increased attention from both scientists and industries for medical, nutraceutical, and cosmetic applications of these cannabinoids.
Several synthetic procedures have been developed and optimized for the industrial preparations of phytocannabinoids and in particular of CBD. However, this process suffers from several drawbacks such as the cost of the starting materials, reagents and solvents, the formation of by-products with consequent cumbersome purification procedures, and the difficulty to control the stereochemistry, the isomerism of the terpenic double bond, and the easy interconversion of CDB into THCs in the synthetic conditions.
Thus, the extraction and purification of phytocannabinoids from C. sativa remain the preferred procedure for its cost-effectiveness. Besides, tight monitoring of the chemical consistency of the extracts results therefore mandatory in producing consistent and reliable medical cannabis preparations for human uses. Recently, Nahar et al. reviewed all the procedures adopted at the present for the extraction of naturally occurring phytocannabinoids [68].
Focusing on MASE, Lewis-Bakekr et al. investigated the potential to directly extract and decarboxylate dried Cannabis material with the microwave reactor [69]. Dried plant material, suspended in ethanol, was subjected to heating with stirring in a microwave reactor at 150° C. Extraction yield for the concentrated resin was in the range of 19.6–24.4% and it resulted directly proportional to the heating time and dependent on the cultivar employed in the process. Interestingly, a complete decarboxylation of the phytocannabinoids was achieved in one step following this process and no acid forms of phytocannabinoids such as Δ9-THCA and CBDA were detected in the resulting extract. Thus, MASE proves to be a worthy method for extraction and decarboxylation of phytocannabinoids due to the possibility to apply controlled temperatures and shorter extraction times. Moreover, this procedure ensures a more consistent and reproducible Cannabis extract with consequent reproducible efficacy of the therapeutic results. Kore et al. investigated and optimized the MASE process applied to C. sativa resulting in a patent application where they disclosed an improved method for extracting and decarboxylating cannabinoids from cannabis plant material, before, during, or after extraction [70]. MASE was compared to or used in tandem with other extraction strategies such as ultrasound extraction, SE, and supercritical fluid extraction.
The effect of time and temperature was investigated first. Extraction and decarboxylation of phytocannabinoid resulted in time and temperature dependence. To obtain 100% decarboxylation, the temperature must be sustained over a period without the burning of the cannabis material or the boiling/evaporation of the solvent. Because the solvent of choice is ethanol (b.p. 78°C at 1 atm), to reach a higher boiling temperature (i.e. 100–170°C) the extraction process must be carried out in a sealed vessel and under pressure. 170°C was the highest operative temperature achieved since higher temperatures (>180°C) resulted in the microwave run abortion due to the high pressure reached within the vial.
The extraction of cannabis by MASE at 100°C, 130°C, 150°C, and 170°C for 10 minutes resulted in a 23–25% yield of extract.
Interestingly, it appeared that the addition of a second step, such as SFE, after the MASE did not change the cannabinoid profile in the extract. Thus, MASE alone can perform an almost complete extraction of the cannabinoids from the cannabis plant material. Besides, the extraction and conversion of THCA and CBDA into THC and CBD was better at a temperature above 130°C, than at 100°C.
MASE was compared with the effectiveness of the commonly employed extractive procedure, namely maceration in ethanol, SE, and SFE. The conventional extractive procedures resulted in a low concentration of Δ9-THC, THCA, and CBD, whereas the addition of the microwave step resulted in a significant increase in the concentration of CBD and THC. As expected, no THCA was detected.
To sum up, a worth general procedure for the extraction and decarboxylation of CBD and THC from cannabis plant material can be thus resumed: i) the drug is weighed and macerated in a mortar; ii) the grinded drug is charged in a microwave vial along with a stir bar; iii) the drug is submerged with ethanol and the vial is sealed; iv) the vial is irradiated with MW using the following conditions [a) Pre-stirring = 30 sec; b) run time = 10 min; c) temperature = 150°C; d) absorption = Normal]; v) the suspension is filtered, and the filtrate concentrated; iv) residual plant material may be subjected (but not necessarily) to SFE.
Drinic et al. extended these studies over other polyphenols and flavonoids as well as phytocannabinoids [71]. In particular, the effects of different extraction parameters, namely ethanol concentration, extraction time and solid/liquid ratio on extraction yield, total phenol content, total flavonoid content, antioxidant activity, reductive capacity, CBD content, and THC content were investigated. For MASE, a domestic microwave oven and a round-bottom flask connected with a condenser were used. The solid drug was mixed with the solvent (30, 50, or 70% v/v ethanol) in the selected solid/liquid ratio (S/L = 5, 10, or 15). The extraction was performed irradiating at a potency of 580 W without agitation and for a total extraction time of 10, 20, or 30 min. The results of each extraction were analyzed using response surface methodology. The influence of the three process parameters was investigated on total polyphenols yield, total flavonoids yield, antioxidant activity, and reductive capacity as well. The optimal conditions for the highest CBD content and lowest THC content resulted in 47% ethanol concentration, 10 minutes of extraction time, and an S/L ratio of 5. The model was successfully validated by preparing the Cannabis extract under the calculated conditions.
Alongside the pharmaceutical uses of Cannabis extracts, hemp seeds are widely employed to produce hemp oil. However, the content of Δ9-THC in the processed hemp seed oils must be under the limits imposed by the jurisdictions of each State. Indeed, although the hemp seeds produce negligible amounts of THC, their outer surface can be contaminated with the enriched in the phytocannabinoids resin secreted by the seeds’ bracts. The presence of Δ9-THC in the final hemp seed products had led to intoxication symptoms in the final consumers. Thus, nowadays the content of THC in hemp products is tightly regulated. Yang et al. investigated the effectiveness of various chemical procedures for the extraction of Δ9-THC from three brands of hemp seeds and how the extractive methods could influence their commercialization [72]. Four extraction methods were employed, namely, i) microwave extraction, ii) sonication, iii) SE and iv) SFE. As already investigated by Kore et al., the extraction was performed in ethanol at 150°C with stirring, obtaining a complete conversion of CBDA and THCA into the corresponding neutral form. Hemp seeds were macerated in a mortar, transferred into a microwave vessel, and suspended in ethanol. The suspension was irradiated at 150°C with stirring for 20 min in a closed vessel. The yield of the resin (27–38%) achieved was comparable to the other three extraction procedures. In contrast, SE provided higher yields of Δ9-THC and CBD than the other procedures, resulting in a more robust and appropriate extraction methodology for the testing of hemp seed products. Since the same solvent was used in all the compared extractions, the differences in the number of phytocannabinoids can be attributed to the extraction methods themselves. The results suggest that prolonged heating and solvent cycling in extracting phytocannabinoids from lipid-rich materials such as hemp seeds is mandatory.
5. Conclusion
MASE has rapidly risen during the latest decades as a method for the extraction of secondary metabolites or compounds of pharmaceutical and nutraceutical interest. The use of microwave can generate peculiar, and otherwise impossible to reach extraction mechanisms. As a result, a reduction of the extraction time, improvement of the extraction efficiency, high reproducibility, and robustness of the procedure can be achieved. An increase of the sample throughput is in addition possible, thus it can be considered as the elective technique when a high number of samples have to be processed specially during the first stage of the NADD process, and for evaluating the quality of the natural matrices [9, 29]. For these reasons, MASE has proven to be effective in all aspects, including economical and practical, compared to traditional extraction techniques, especially over SE. Conversely, in MASE the development of the method must be carefully assessed, and all the variables and factors described above must be thoroughly considered to provide some extraction selectivity. Hence, DoE, response surface methodology, and other statistical approaches are of great help to quickly determine the best conditions to achieve the highest yield of the metabolite of interest from the natural source. However, in the past year, the application of MASE in scalable industrial processes has always encountered several limitation due to the presence of some technological barriers, mainly related to the design of safe instrumentation. Thanks to the technological progress witnessed in recent years, the first industrial-scale ovens finally became commercially available [73, 74].
Food, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical industries would be benefited from this emerging technology of MASE, which is an excellent substitute for traditional methods such as SE, and other environmentally benign technologies. The promise to be the technique that can respond to the necessities in this field will make MASE the extraction method of choice for the next years.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"MASE, plant material, natural matrices, secondary metabolite, bioactive compounds, plant productivity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74664.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74664.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74664",totalDownloads:23,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 24th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 9th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 20th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 31st 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The extraction of secondary metabolites from plants, and natural sources in general, is a cornerstone in medicinal chemistry and required the development of sustainable extraction techniques. Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction (MASE) is a promising extractive methodology being more effective than traditional extraction techniques. It offers higher and faster extraction performance ability with less solvent consumption and protection toward thermolabile constituents. For these reasons, MASE resulted in a suitable extractive methodology in all aspects, including economical and practical, compared to traditional extraction techniques, especially over Soxhlet or solid–liquid extraction. In this chapter, a brief theoretical background about the use of microwave energy for extraction has been presented for better understanding. Then, the potential of MASE for the extraction of secondary metabolites from natural resources, for evaluating the plant productivity and for evaluating the quality of the natural matrices will be reviewed. The discussion is supported by reporting recent applicative examples of MASE applied to the extraction of the most representative chemical classes of secondary metabolites, with a special focus on some drugs or compounds of pharmaceutical and nutraceutical interest.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74664",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74664",signatures:"Valeria Cavalloro, Emanuela Martino, Pasquale Linciano and Simona Collina",book:{id:"10089",title:"Microwave Heating",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Microwave Heating",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Gennadiy Churyumov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy Churyumov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction (MASE)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Procedure set-up",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Solvent",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Liquid-Solid (L/S) ratio",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Time",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Temperature and microwave power",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. MASE procedures successfully applied to secondary metabolites extraction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Evaluation of plant productivity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Extraction of secondary metabolites for drug discovery or commercial purposes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.2.1 Alkaloids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.2.2 Stilbene-based polyphenolic compounds",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.2.3 Terpenoids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"4.2.3.1 Artemisinin and paclitaxel",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.2.4 Phytocannabinoids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Medina-Franco JL. Discovery and Development of Lead Compounds from Natural Sources Using Computational Approaches. In: Evidence-Based Validation of Herbal Medicine. Elsevier; 2015. p. 455-475.'},{id:"B2",body:'Newman DJ, Cragg GM. Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs over the Nearly Four Decades from 01/1981 to 09/2019. J Nat Prod. 2020 Mar;83(3):770-803.'},{id:"B3",body:'Herbal Medicine Market Value to Surpass USD 129 Billion Revenue Mark by 2023 at 5.88% CAGR, Predicts Market Research Future. Market Research Future GlobeNewswire. 2019.'},{id:"B4",body:'Hert J, Irwin JJ, Laggner C, Keiser MJ, Shoichet BK. Quantifying Biogenic Bias in Screening Libraries. Nat Chem Biol. 2009;5(7):479-83.'},{id:"B5",body:'Popovici V, Bucur LA, Schröder V, Gherghel D, Mihai CT, Caraiane A, et al. Evaluation of the Cytotoxic Activity of the Usnea barbata (L.) F. H. Wigg Dry Extract. Molecules. 2020 Apr;25(8):1865.'},{id:"B6",body:'Freysdottir J, Omarsdottir S, Ingólfsdóttir K, Vikingsson A, Olafsdottir ES. In vitro and in vivo immunomodulating effects of traditionally prepared extract and purified compounds from Cetraria islandica. Int Immunopharmacol. 2008;'},{id:"B7",body:'McCauley EP, Piña IC, Thompson AD, Bashir K, Weinberg M, Kurz SL, et al. Highlights of marine natural products having parallel scaffolds found from marine-derived bacteria, sponges, and tunicates. J Antibiot (Tokyo). 2020 Aug;73(8):504-25.'},{id:"B8",body:'Verpoorte R, van der Heijden R, Memelink J. Engineering the plant cell factory for secondary metabolite production. Transgenic Res. 2000;9(4-5):323-43; discussion 321.'},{id:"B9",body:'Martino E, Della Volpe S, Cavalloro V, Amri B, Kaab LBB, Marrubini G, et al. The use of a microwave-assisted solvent extraction coupled with HPLC-UV/PAD to assess the quality of Marrubium vulgare L. (white horehound) herbal raw material. Phytochem Anal. 2019;30(4).'},{id:"B10",body:'Borges A, José H, Homem V, Simões M. Comparison of Techniques and Solvents on the Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Potential of Extracts from Acacia dealbata and Olea europaea. Antibiotics. 2020 Jan;9(2):48.'},{id:"B11",body:'Zhang Q-W, Lin L-G, Ye W-C. Techniques for extraction and isolation of natural products: a comprehensive review. Chin Med. 2018 Dec;13(1):20.'},{id:"B12",body:'Li Y, Fabiano-Tixier AS, Vian MA, Chemat F. Solvent-free microwave extractionof bioactive compounds providesa tool for green analytical chemistry. Trends Anal Chem. 2013;47:1-11.'},{id:"B13",body:'Vinatoru M, Mason TJ, Calinescu I. Trends in Analytical Chemistry Ultrasonically assisted extraction ( UAE ) and microwave assisted extraction ( MAE ) of functional compounds from plant materials. Trends Anal Chem. 2017;97:159-78.'},{id:"B14",body:'Xue H, Xu H, Wang X, Shen L, Liu H, Liu C, et al. Effects of Microwave Power on Extraction Kinetic of Anthocyanin from Blueberry Powder considering Absorption of Microwave Energy. 2018;2018.'},{id:"B15",body:'Vats T, Mishra A. Sustainable Syntheses with Microwave Irradiation. Encycl Inorg Bioinorg Chem. 2016;'},{id:"B16",body:'Marco B, Agnese C, Giuseppe T. Quality Preservation and Cost Effectiveness in the Extraction of Nutraceutically-Relevant Fractions from Microbial and Vegetal Matrices. In: Scientific, Health and Social Aspects of the Food Industry. InTech; 2012.'},{id:"B17",body:'Chan C-H, Yusoff R, Ngoh G-C, Kung FW-L. Microwave-assisted extractions of active ingredients from plants. J Chromatogr A. 2011 Sep;1218(37):6213-25.'},{id:"B18",body:'Ibrahim NA, Zaini MAA. Solvent selection in microwave assisted extraction of castor oil. Chem Eng Trans. 2017;56:865-70.'},{id:"B19",body:'Xu W, Chu K, Li H, Zhang Y, Zheng H, Chen R, et al. Ionic Liquid-Based Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Flavonoids from Bauhinia championii (Benth.) Benth. Molecules. 2012 Dec;17(12):14323-35.'},{id:"B20",body:'Du F-Y, Xiao X-H, Xu P-P, Li G-K. Ionic liquid-based microwave-assisted extraction and HPLC analysis of dehydrocavidine in corydalis saxicola Bunting. Acta Chromatogr [Internet]. 2010 Sep;22(3):459-71. Available from: https://akjournals.com/doi/10.1556/achrom.22.2010.3.9'},{id:"B21",body:'Vigani B, Rossi S, Gentile M, Sandri G, Bonferoni MC, Cavalloro V, et al. Development of a mucoadhesive and an in situ gelling formulation based on κ-carrageenan for application on oral mucosa and esophagus walls. II. Loading of a bioactive hydroalcoholic extract. Mar Drugs. 2019;17(3).'},{id:"B22",body:'Martino E, Ramaiola I, Urbano M, Bracco F, Collina S. Microwave-assisted extraction of coumarin and related compounds from Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pallas as an alternative to Soxhlet and ultrasound-assisted extraction. J Chromatogr A. 2006 Sep;1125(2):147-51.'},{id:"B23",body:'Xue H, Xu H, Wang X, Shen L, Liu H, Liu C, et al. Effects of Microwave Power on Extraction Kinetic of Anthocyanin from Blueberry Powder considering Absorption of Microwave Energy. J Food Qual. 2018;2018:1-13.'},{id:"B24",body:'Routray W, Orsat V. Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Flavonoids: A Review. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2012 Feb;5(2):409-24.'},{id:"B25",body:'Pimentel-Moral S, Borrás-Linares I, Lozano-Sánchez J, Arráez-Román D, Martínez-Férez A, Segura-Carretero A. Microwave-assisted extraction for Hibiscus sabdariffa bioactive compounds. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2018 Jul;156:313-22.'},{id:"B26",body:'N. Politis S, Colombo P, Colombo G, M. Rekkas D. Design of experiments (DoE) in pharmaceutical development. Drug Dev Ind Pharm [Internet]. 2017 Jun 3;43(6):889-901. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03639045.2017.1291672'},{id:"B27",body:'Camel V. Microwave-assisted solvent extraction of environmental samples. TrAC Trends Anal Chem [Internet]. 2000 Apr;19(4):229-48. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165993699001855'},{id:"B28",body:'Sanchez-Prado L, Garcia-Jares C, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Microwave-assisted extraction of emerging pollutants in environmental and biological samples before chromatographic determination. TrAC Trends Anal Chem [Internet]. 2015 Sep;71:119-43. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165993615001442'},{id:"B29",body:'Granata MU, Bracco F, Catoni R, Cavalloro V, Martino E. Secondary metabolites profile and physiological leaf traits in wild and cultivated Corylus avellana under different nutritional status. Nat Prod Res. 2019 Oct;1-8.'},{id:"B30",body:'Martino E, Collina S, Rossi D, Bazzoni D, Gaggeri R, Bracco F, et al. Influence of the extraction mode on the yield of hyperoside, vitexin and vitexin-2′′- O -rhamnoside from Crataegus monogyna Jacq. (hawthorn). Phytochem Anal. 2008 Nov;19(6):534-40.'},{id:"B31",body:'He M, Min J-W, Kong W-L, He X-H, Li J-X, Peng B-W. A review on the pharmacological effects of vitexin and isovitexin. Fitoterapia [Internet]. 2016 Dec;115:74-85. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0367326X16304488'},{id:"B32",body:'Tang X, Zhu D, Huai W, Zhang W, Fu C, Xie X, et al. Simultaneous extraction and separation of flavonoids and alkaloids from Crotalaria sessiliflora L. by microwave-assisted cloud-point extraction. Sep Purif Technol [Internet]. 2017 Mar;175:266-73. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1383586616307110'},{id:"B33",body:'Madej K. Microwave-assisted and cloud-point extraction in determination of drugs and other bioactive compounds. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2009 Apr;28(4):436-46.'},{id:"B34",body:'Belwal T, Pandey A, Bhatt ID, Rawal RS. Optimized microwave assisted extraction (MAE) of alkaloids and polyphenols from Berberis roots using multiple-component analysis. Sci Rep [Internet]. 2020 Dec 22;10(1):917. Available from: http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-57585-8'},{id:"B35",body:'Pellati F, Benvenuti S. Determination of ephedrine alkaloids in Ephedra natural products using HPLC on a pentafluorophenylpropyl stationary phase. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2008 Sep;48(2):254-63.'},{id:"B36",body:'Brachet A, Christen P, Veuthey J-L. Focused microwave-assisted extraction of cocaine and benzoylecgonine from coca leaves. Phytochem Anal. 2002 May;13(3):162-9.'},{id:"B37",body:'Nowak J, Woźniakiewicz M, Klepacki P, Sowa A, Kościelniak P. Identification and determination of ergot alkaloids in Morning Glory cultivars. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2016 May;408(12):3093-102.'},{id:"B38",body:'Petruczynik A. Analysis of alkaloids from different chemical groups by different liquid chromatography methods. Open Chem [Internet]. 2012 Jun 1;10(3):802-35. Available from: https://www.degruyter.com/view/journals/chem/10/3/article-p802.xml'},{id:"B39",body:'Xie D-T, Wang Y-Q , Kang Y, Hu Q-F, Su N-Y, Huang J-M, et al. Microwave-assisted extraction of bioactive alkaloids from Stephania sinica. Sep Purif Technol. 2014 Jun;130:173-81.'},{id:"B40",body:'Ganesapillai M, Singh A, Subba Rao B, De D, Juneja U. EXTRACTION OF ALKALOIDS FROM MICROWAVE DRIED ADATHODA VASICA LEAVES - A COMPARATIVE STUDY. Int J Pharma Bio Sci. 2015;6(1):121-39.'},{id:"B41",body:'Pan X, Niu G, Liu H. Microwave-assisted extraction of tea polyphenols and tea caffeine from green tea leaves. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif [Internet]. 2003 Feb;42(2):129-33. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0255270102000375'},{id:"B42",body:'Xiong W, Chen X, Lv G, Hu D, Zhao J, Li S. Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of bioactive alkaloids from lotus plumule using response surface methodology. J Pharm Anal. 2016 Dec;6(6):382-8.'},{id:"B43",body:'Zhou S, Wu X, Huang Y, Xie X, Lin Y, Fan H, et al. Microwave-assisted aqueous two-phase extraction of alkaloids from Radix Sophorae Tonkinensis with an ethanol/Na2HPO4 system: Process optimization, composition identification and quantification analysis. Ind Crops Prod. 2018 Oct;122:316-28.'},{id:"B44",body:'Fernández P, Lago M, Lorenzo RA, Carro AM, Bermejo AM, Tabernero MJ. Microwave assisted extraction of drugs of abuse from human urine. J Appl Toxicol [Internet]. 2007 Jul;27(4):373-9. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jat.1216'},{id:"B45",body:'Fernández P, Lago M, Lorenzo RA, Carro AM, Bermejo AM, Tabernero MJ. Optimization of a rapid microwave-assisted extraction method for the simultaneous determination of opiates, cocaine and their metabolites in human hair. J Chromatogr B [Internet]. 2009 Jun;877(18-19):1743-50. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1570023209003055'},{id:"B46",body:'Fernández P, Seoane S, Vázquez C, Bermejo AM, Carro AM, Lorenzo RA. A rapid analytical method based on microwave-assisted extraction for the determination of drugs of abuse in vitreous humor. Anal Bioanal Chem [Internet]. 2011 Oct 7;401(7):2177-86. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00216-011-5279-6'},{id:"B47",body:'Rimando AM, Kalt W, Magee JB, Dewey J, Ballington JR. Resveratrol, Pterostilbene, and Piceatannol in Vaccinium Berries. J Agric Food Chem. 2004 Jul;52(15):4713-9.'},{id:"B48",body:'Kim H-K, Do J-R, Lim T-S, Akram K, Yoon S-R, Kwon J-H. Optimisation of microwave-assisted extraction for functional properties of Vitis coignetiae extract by response surface methodology. J Sci Food Agric. 2012 Jun;92(8):1780-5.'},{id:"B49",body:'Piñeiro Z, Marrufo-Curtido A, Vela C, Palma M. Microwave-assisted extraction of stilbenes from woody vine material. Food Bioprod Process. 2017 May;103:18-26.'},{id:"B50",body:'Hao J, Han W, Huang S, Xue B, Deng X. Microwave-assisted extraction of artemisinin from Artemisia annua L. Sep Purif Technol. 2002 Sep;28(3):191-6.'},{id:"B51",body:'Giampietro L, Angelo AD, Giancristofaro A, Ammazzalorso A, Filippis B De, Matteo M Di, et al. Effect of Stilbene and Chalcone Scaffolds Incorporation in Clofibric Acid on PPAR Agonistic Activity. Med Chem (Los Angeles). 2014;10:59-65.'},{id:"B52",body:'De Filippis B, Linciano P, Ammazzalorso A, Di Giovanni C, Fantacuzzi M, Giampietro L, et al. Structural development studies of PPARs ligands based on tyrosine scaffold. Eur J Med Chem. 2015;89:817-25.'},{id:"B53",body:'Mei Y-Z, Liu R-X, Wang D-P, Wang X, Dai C-C. Biocatalysis and biotransformation of resveratrol in microorganisms. Biotechnol Lett. 2015 Jan;37(1):9-18.'},{id:"B54",body:'Quideau S, Deffieux D, Douat-Casassus C, Pouységu L. Plant Polyphenols: Chemical Properties, Biological Activities, and Synthesis. Angew Chemie Int Ed. 2011 Jan;50(3):586-621.'},{id:"B55",body:'Saraswati S. Velu, Noel F. Thomas, Jean-Frederic F. Weber. Strategies and Methods for the Syntheses of Natural Oligomeric Stilbenoids and Analogues. Curr Org Chem. 2012 Apr;16(5):605-62.'},{id:"B56",body:'Donnez D, Jeandet P, Clément C, Courot E. Bioproduction of resveratrol and stilbene derivatives by plant cells and microorganisms. Trends Biotechnol. 2009 Dec;27(12):706-13.'},{id:"B57",body:'Nopo-Olazabal C, Hubstenberger J, Nopo-Olazabal L, Medina-Bolivar F. Antioxidant Activity of Selected Stilbenoids and Their Bioproduction in Hairy Root Cultures of Muscadine Grape (Vitis rotundifolia Michx.). J Agric Food Chem. 2013 Dec;61(48):11744-58.'},{id:"B58",body:'Almagro L, Belchí-Navarro S, Sabater-Jara AB, Vera-Urbina JC, Sellés-Marchart S, Bru R, et al. Bioproduction of trans-Resveratrol from Grapevine Cell Cultures. In: Natural Products. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2013. p. 1683-713.'},{id:"B59",body:'Garcia L, Garcia R, Pacheco G, Sutili F, Souza R De, Mansur E, et al. Optimized Extraction of Resveratrol from Arachis repens Handro by Ultrasound and Microwave: A Correlation Study with the Antioxidant Properties and Phenol Contents. Sci World J. 2016;2016:1-10.'},{id:"B60",body:'Dang Y-Y, Zhang H, Xiu Z-L. Microwave-assisted aqueous two-phase extraction of phenolics from grape ( Vitis vinifera ) seed. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 2014 Oct;89(10):1576-81.'},{id:"B61",body:'Kim J-S, Ha T-Y, Ahn J, Kim H-K, Kim S. Pterostilbene from Vitis coignetiae protect H2O2-induced inhibition of gap junctional intercellular communication in rat liver cell line. Food Chem Toxicol. 2009 Feb;47(2):404-9.'},{id:"B62",body:'Liu C-Z, Zhou H-Y, Zhao Y. An effective method for fast determination of artemisinin in Artemisia annua L. by high performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light scattering detection. Anal Chim Acta. 2007 Jan;581(2):298-302.'},{id:"B63",body:'Mattina MJI, Berger WAI, Denson CL. Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Taxanes from Taxus Biomass. J Agric Food Chem. 1997 Dec;45(12):4691-6.'},{id:"B64",body:'Lee S-H, Kim J-H. Kinetic and thermodynamic characteristics of microwave-assisted extraction for the recovery of paclitaxel from Taxus chinensis. Process Biochem. 2019 Jan;76:187-93.'},{id:"B65",body:'Citti C, Linciano P, Forni F, Vandelli MA, Gigli G, Laganà A, et al. Analysis of impurities of cannabidiol from hemp. Isolation, characterization and synthesis of cannabidibutol, the novel cannabidiol butyl analog. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2019;175.'},{id:"B66",body:'Linciano P, Citti C, Luongo L, Belardo C, Maione S, Vandelli MA, et al. Isolation of a High-Affinity Cannabinoid for the Human CB1 Receptor from a Medicinal Cannabis sativa Variety: Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabutol, the Butyl Homologue of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol. J Nat Prod. 2020;83(1):88-98.'},{id:"B67",body:'Citti C, Linciano P, Russo F, Luongo L, Iannotta M, Maione S, et al. A novel phytocannabinoid isolated from Cannabis sativa L. with an in vivo cannabimimetic activity higher than Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol: Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabiphorol. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):1-13.'},{id:"B68",body:'Nahar L, Uddin SJ, Alam MA, Sarker SD. Extraction of naturally occurring cannabinoids: an update. Phytochem Anal. 2020 Sep;pca.2987.'},{id:"B69",body:'Lewis-Bakker MM, Yang Y, Vyawahare R, Kotra LP. Extractions of Medical Cannabis Cultivars and the Role of Decarboxylation in Optimal Receptor Responses. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2019 Sep;4(3):183-94.'},{id:"B70",body:'Kotra LP, Lewis MM, Wasilewski E, Grover H. Decarboxylated Cannabis Resins, Uses Thereof and Methods of Making Same. WO/2018/000094, 2018.'},{id:"B71",body:'Drinić Z, Vladić J, Koren A, Zeremski T, Stojanov N, Kiprovski B, et al. Microwave-assisted extraction of cannabinoids and antioxidants from Cannabis sativa aerial parts and process modeling. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 2020 Mar;95(3):831-9.'},{id:"B72",body:'Yang Y, Lewis MM, Bello AM, Wasilewski E, Clarke HA, Kotra LP. Cannabis sativa (Hemp) Seeds, Δ 9 -Tetrahydrocannabinol, and Potential Overdose. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2017 Jan;2(1):274-81.'},{id:"B73",body:'Li Y, Radoiu M, Fabiano-Tixier A-S, Chemat F. From Laboratory to Industry: Scale-Up, Quality, and Safety Consideration for Microwave-Assisted Extraction. In 2012. p. 207-29.'},{id:"B74",body:'Périno S, Pierson JT, Ruiz K, Cravotto G, Chemat F. Laboratory to pilot scale: Microwave extraction for polyphenols lettuce. Food Chem. 2016;204:108-14.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Valeria Cavalloro",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Pavia, Italy
Department of Drug Science, University of Pavia, Italy
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10089",title:"Microwave Heating",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Microwave Heating",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Gennadiy Churyumov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy Churyumov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"143502",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrielli",email:"federico.gabrielli@unicam.it",fullName:"Federico Gabrielli",slug:"federico-gabrielli",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"HER2-Driven Carcinogenesis: New Mouse Models for Novel Immunotherapies",slug:"her2-driven-carcinogenesis-new-mouse-models-for-novel-immunotherapies",abstract:null,signatures:"Cristina Marchini, Lucia Pietrella, Cristina Kalogris, Chiara Garulli, Federico Gabrielli, Elena Quaglino, Manuela Iezzi, Serenella M. Pupa, Elda Tagliabue and Augusto Amici",authors:[{id:"63448",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela",surname:"Iezzi",fullName:"Manuela Iezzi",slug:"manuela-iezzi",email:"m.iezzi@unich.it"},{id:"139607",title:"Dr.",name:"Augusto",surname:"Amici",fullName:"Augusto Amici",slug:"augusto-amici",email:"augusto.amici@unicam.it"},{id:"143496",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Marchini",fullName:"Cristina Marchini",slug:"cristina-marchini",email:"cristina.marchini@unicam.it"},{id:"143498",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",surname:"Pietrella",fullName:"Lucia Pietrella",slug:"lucia-pietrella",email:"lucia.pietrella@gmail.com"},{id:"143499",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Kalogris",fullName:"Cristina Kalogris",slug:"cristina-kalogris",email:"cristina.kalogris@unicam.it"},{id:"143501",title:"Dr.",name:"Chiara",surname:"Garulli",fullName:"Chiara Garulli",slug:"chiara-garulli",email:"chiara.garulli@gmail.com"},{id:"143502",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",surname:"Gabrielli",fullName:"Federico Gabrielli",slug:"federico-gabrielli",email:"federico.gabrielli@unicam.it"},{id:"143503",title:"Dr.",name:"Maura",surname:"Montani",fullName:"Maura Montani",slug:"maura-montani",email:"maura.montani@unicam.it"},{id:"143504",title:"Dr.",name:"Elda",surname:"Tagliabue",fullName:"Elda Tagliabue",slug:"elda-tagliabue",email:"elda.tagliabue@istitutotumori.mi.it"},{id:"155534",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Quaglino",fullName:"Elena Quaglino",slug:"elena-quaglino",email:"elena.quaglino@unito.it"},{id:"155535",title:"Dr.",name:"Serenella M.",surname:"Pupa",fullName:"Serenella M. Pupa",slug:"serenella-m.-pupa",email:"Serenella.Pupa@istitutotumori.mi.it"}],book:{title:"Oncogene and Cancer",slug:"oncogene-and-cancer-from-bench-to-clinic",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"139449",title:"Prof.",name:"Vadym",surname:"Kavsan",slug:"vadym-kavsan",fullName:"Vadym Kavsan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"140705",title:"Dr.",name:"Chung-Hang",surname:"Leung",slug:"chung-hang-leung",fullName:"Chung-Hang Leung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"141970",title:"Dr.",name:"Dik-Lung",surname:"Ma",slug:"dik-lung-ma",fullName:"Dik-Lung Ma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142883",title:"PhD.",name:"Patrizia",surname:"Casalini",slug:"patrizia-casalini",fullName:"Patrizia Casalini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142889",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiziana",surname:"Triulzi",slug:"tiziana-triulzi",fullName:"Tiziana Triulzi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142890",title:"Dr.",name:"Marilena V.",surname:"Iorio",slug:"marilena-v.-iorio",fullName:"Marilena V. Iorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"143504",title:"Dr.",name:"Elda",surname:"Tagliabue",slug:"elda-tagliabue",fullName:"Elda Tagliabue",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"143720",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexey",surname:"Stepanenko",slug:"alexey-stepanenko",fullName:"Alexey Stepanenko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"155273",title:"Mr.",name:"Victor Pui-Yan",surname:"Ma",slug:"victor-pui-yan-ma",fullName:"Victor Pui-Yan Ma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"155274",title:"Mr.",name:"Ka-Ho",surname:"Leung",slug:"ka-ho-leung",fullName:"Ka-Ho Leung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15790}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"53",title:"Genomics",slug:"genomics",parent:{title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"},numberOfBooks:14,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:301,numberOfWosCitations:99,numberOfCrossrefCitations:73,numberOfDimensionsCitations:170,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"genomics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9394",title:"Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Test Methods",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9ee7e597358dbbfb5e33d0beb76e6fff",slug:"genotoxicity-and-mutagenicity-mechanisms-and-test-methods",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9394.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8992",title:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88ec966a7a8eecaf5cdbdc8b20295737",slug:"gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9377",title:"Non-Coding RNAs",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff4f15e339216fa9426d2b9fdf3b5901",slug:"non-coding-rnas",bookSignature:"Lütfi Tutar, Sümer Aras and Esen Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9377.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158530",title:"Dr.",name:"Lütfi",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"lutfi-tutar",fullName:"Lütfi Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6582",title:"Chromatin and Epigenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"afa23decc7c15bdf48cfeebb5f0c38fb",slug:"chromatin-and-epigenetics",bookSignature:"Colin Logie and Tobias Aurelius Knoch",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212809",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Colin",middleName:null,surname:"Logie",slug:"colin-logie",fullName:"Colin Logie"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"68430",title:"Dr.",name:"Tobias Aurelius",middleName:null,surname:"Knoch",slug:"tobias-aurelius-knoch",fullName:"Tobias Aurelius Knoch",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68430/images/system/68430.png",biography:"Born in the Rhein-Neckar region Mannheim/Heidelberg, Germany, Dr. Knoch studied Physics, Mathematics, and Biology at the University of Heidelberg. In 1998, he graduated in (bio-)physics with 'Three-Dimensional Organization of Chromosomes domains in Simulation and Experiment”, followed by his dissertation 'Approaching the Three-Dimensional Organization of the Human Genome' both at the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, in 2002. In 2002/2004 Dr. Knoch founded his group Biophysical Genomics located at the Kirchhoff Institute for Physics, University of Heidelberg, and until today at the Cell Biology Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. His work is focusing on the determination and understanding of genome organization from the DNA sequence level to the entire nuclear morphology. Therefore, approaches from theoretical physics have been combined with molecular biology in highly interdisciplinary projects ranging from advanced DNA sequence analyses, parallel high-performance computer modelling of genomic architectures, and new image analysis methods, to advanced fluorescence in situ hybridization and high-resolution chromatin conformation interaction genome mapping. Major achievements have been: an artefact-free in vivo labelling method of nuclear chromatin, the first system-biological genome browser (GLOBE 3D Genome Browser), the set-up of one of the largest desktop computing grids, and last but not least the final determination of the general structural organization of higher mammalian genomes leading to a consistent systems genomics view of genomes from genotype to phenotype. All this has resulted in patents, publications, the foundation/coordination of international interdisciplinary cooperative networks, and consortia. He also (co-)founded many initiatives improving institutional/university study and management performance including the science outreach to the public and industry. Besides, he also conducts environmental and human ecology research, has achieved law-changing contributions in the human-rights sector, is an increasingly recognized artist in the fine arts, and last but not least has founded and is running two companies in the renewable energy production and development sector. His achievements have resulted in prestigious scholarships, awards, and prices as early as 1983.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Erasmus University Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Netherlands"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6987",title:"Antisense Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d60550dc1e3afbb083fe61925b33caa",slug:"antisense-therapy",bookSignature:"Shashwat Sharad and Suman Kapur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6987.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80113",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashwat",middleName:null,surname:"Sharad",slug:"shashwat-sharad",fullName:"Shashwat Sharad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8029",title:"Transcriptome Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"19e7bd55dd90a5187ee806a307ef112d",slug:"transcriptome-analysis",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7995",title:"Epigenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33c1f5868ce0c29fbde6eafdc50af702",slug:"epigenetics",bookSignature:"Rosaria Meccariello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7995.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143980",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosaria",middleName:null,surname:"Meccariello",slug:"rosaria-meccariello",fullName:"Rosaria Meccariello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8605",title:"DNA Repair",subtitle:"An Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f32305a1299fabc5119b721f69cc97cb",slug:"dna-repair-an-update",bookSignature:"Maddalena Mognato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8605.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41691",title:"Dr.",name:"Maddalena",middleName:null,surname:"Mognato",slug:"maddalena-mognato",fullName:"Maddalena Mognato"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8891",title:"Gene Editing",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25f0d7de56709fc0558c0bb8212a0d03",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8891.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7331",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",subtitle:"Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"436fdc4857ca5c7f496e439de1034b6b",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",bookSignature:"Aditi Singh and Mohammad W. Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7331.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240724",title:"Dr.",name:"Aditi",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"aditi-singh",fullName:"Aditi Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6788",title:"In Vivo and Ex Vivo Gene Therapy for Inherited and Non-Inherited Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cc5d9c7226ec72dfaf15a41133b3d46",slug:"in-vivo-and-ex-vivo-gene-therapy-for-inherited-and-non-inherited-disorders",bookSignature:"Houria Bachtarzi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6788.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178430",title:"Dr.",name:"Houria",middleName:null,surname:"Bachtarzi",slug:"houria-bachtarzi",fullName:"Houria Bachtarzi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1719",title:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein",subtitle:"Examples from Current Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"204480b394b0ba9a43580a1e04d53c50",slug:"genetic-manipulation-of-dna-and-protein-examples-from-current-research",bookSignature:"David Figurski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1719.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104812",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Figurski",slug:"david-figurski",fullName:"David Figurski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:14,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32799",doi:"10.5772/33525",title:"GC3 Biology in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes",slug:"gc3-biology-in-eukaryotes-and-prokaryotes",totalDownloads:1495,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"dna-methylation-from-genomics-to-technology",title:"DNA Methylation",fullTitle:"DNA Methylation - From Genomics to Technology"},signatures:"Eran Elhaik and Tatiana Tatarinova",authors:[{id:"95992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:"Valerievna",surname:"Tatarinova",slug:"tatiana-tatarinova",fullName:"Tatiana Tatarinova"},{id:"105570",title:"Dr.",name:"Eran",middleName:null,surname:"Elhaik",slug:"eran-elhaik",fullName:"Eran Elhaik"}]},{id:"64396",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81847",title:"MiRNA-Based Therapeutics in Oncology, Realities, and Challenges",slug:"mirna-based-therapeutics-in-oncology-realities-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1087,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Ovidiu Balacescu, Simona Visan, Oana Baldasici, Loredana Balacescu, Catalin Vlad and Patriciu Achimas-Cadariu",authors:[{id:"195763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ovidiu",middleName:null,surname:"Balacescu",slug:"ovidiu-balacescu",fullName:"Ovidiu Balacescu"},{id:"196758",title:"Dr.",name:"Loreadana",middleName:null,surname:"Balacescu",slug:"loreadana-balacescu",fullName:"Loreadana Balacescu"},{id:"196770",title:"Prof.",name:"Patriciu",middleName:null,surname:"Achimas",slug:"patriciu-achimas",fullName:"Patriciu Achimas"},{id:"269553",title:"MSc.",name:"Oana",middleName:null,surname:"Baldasici",slug:"oana-baldasici",fullName:"Oana Baldasici"},{id:"269554",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Visan",slug:"simona-visan",fullName:"Simona Visan"},{id:"279298",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin",middleName:null,surname:"Vlad",slug:"catalin-vlad",fullName:"Catalin Vlad"}]},{id:"42536",doi:"10.5772/35029",title:"Studying Cell Signal Transduction with Biomimetic Point Mutations",slug:"studying-cell-signal-transduction-with-biomimetic-point-mutations",totalDownloads:1918,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"genetic-manipulation-of-dna-and-protein-examples-from-current-research",title:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein",fullTitle:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein - Examples from Current Research"},signatures:"Nathan A. Sieracki and Yulia A. Komarova",authors:[{id:"102665",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Komarova",slug:"yulia-komarova",fullName:"Yulia Komarova"},{id:"109090",title:"Dr.",name:"Nathan",middleName:"A.",surname:"Sieracki",slug:"nathan-sieracki",fullName:"Nathan Sieracki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66606",title:"Introductory Chapter: Transcriptome Analysis",slug:"introductory-chapter-transcriptome-analysis",totalDownloads:1744,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"transcriptome-analysis",title:"Transcriptome Analysis",fullTitle:"Transcriptome Analysis"},signatures:"Miroslav Blumenberg",authors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}]},{id:"42537",title:"Recombineering and Conjugation as Tools for Targeted Genomic Cloning",slug:"recombineering-and-conjugation-as-tools-for-targeted-genomic-cloning",totalDownloads:1438,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"genetic-manipulation-of-dna-and-protein-examples-from-current-research",title:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein",fullTitle:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein - Examples from Current Research"},signatures:"James W. Wilson, Clayton P. Santiago, Jacquelyn Serfecz and Laura N. Quick",authors:[{id:"124557",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"james-wilson",fullName:"James Wilson"}]},{id:"67830",title:"Antisense Therapy: An Overview",slug:"antisense-therapy-an-overview",totalDownloads:996,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Shashwat Sharad",authors:[{id:"80113",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashwat",middleName:null,surname:"Sharad",slug:"shashwat-sharad",fullName:"Shashwat Sharad"}]},{id:"67086",title:"Application and Development of CRISPR/Cas9 Technology in Pig Research",slug:"application-and-development-of-crispr-cas9-technology-in-pig-research",totalDownloads:1109,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Huafeng Lin, Qiudi Deng, Lili Li and Lei Shi",authors:null},{id:"38875",title:"How RNA Interference Combat Viruses in Plants",slug:"how-rna-interference-combat-viruses-in-plants",totalDownloads:3569,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"functional-genomics",title:"Functional Genomics",fullTitle:"Functional Genomics"},signatures:"Bushra Tabassum, Idrees Ahmad Nasir, Usman Aslam and Tayyab Husnain",authors:[{id:"147560",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyab",middleName:null,surname:"Husnain",slug:"tayyab-husnain",fullName:"Tayyab Husnain"}]},{id:"64492",title:"Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy",slug:"antisense-oligonucleotides-a-novel-developing-targeting-therapy",totalDownloads:2255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Sara Karaki, Clément Paris and Palma Rocchi",authors:[{id:"273516",title:"Dr.",name:"Palma",middleName:null,surname:"Rocchi",slug:"palma-rocchi",fullName:"Palma Rocchi"},{id:"275051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Karaki",slug:"sara-karaki",fullName:"Sara Karaki"},{id:"282578",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"clement-paris",fullName:"Clement Paris"}]},{id:"65601",title:"Epigenetic Modifications in Plants under Abiotic Stress",slug:"epigenetic-modifications-in-plants-under-abiotic-stress",totalDownloads:915,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"epigenetics",title:"Epigenetics",fullTitle:"Epigenetics"},signatures:"Garima Singroha and Pradeep Sharma",authors:[{id:"142882",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradeep",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"pradeep-sharma",fullName:"Pradeep Sharma"},{id:"281215",title:"Dr.",name:"Garima",middleName:null,surname:"Singroha",slug:"garima-singroha",fullName:"Garima Singroha"}]},{id:"63505",title:"Resetting Cell Fate by Epigenetic Reprogramming",slug:"resetting-cell-fate-by-epigenetic-reprogramming",totalDownloads:588,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"chromatin-and-epigenetics",title:"Chromatin and Epigenetics",fullTitle:"Chromatin and Epigenetics"},signatures:"Molly Pui Man Wong and Ray Kit Ng",authors:[{id:"243618",title:"Dr.",name:"Ray Kit",middleName:null,surname:"Ng",slug:"ray-kit-ng",fullName:"Ray Kit Ng"},{id:"257535",title:"Dr.",name:"Molly Pui Man",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"molly-pui-man-wong",fullName:"Molly Pui Man Wong"}]},{id:"62990",title:"CRISPR-ERA for Switching Off (Onco) Genes",slug:"crispr-era-for-switching-off-onco-genes",totalDownloads:582,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Ignacio García-Tuñon, Elena Vuelta, Sandra Pérez-Ramos, Jesús M\nHernández-Rivas, Lucía Méndez, María Herrero and Manuel\nSanchez-Martin",authors:null},{id:"69649",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",totalDownloads:372,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",title:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",fullTitle:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits"},signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"genomics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/143502/federico-gabrielli",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"143502",slug:"federico-gabrielli"},fullPath:"/profiles/143502/federico-gabrielli",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()