\r\n\tThis cell has evolved an effective defense system to counteract the challenges as it is always in an oxygen-rich environment. The evolution of hemoglobin and deformability of erythrocyte membrane adapting to its function in circulation is especially striking. Erythrocyte aging and eryptosis strike a balance - the mixed population of cells and constant recycling every 120 days is a very distinct feature. Its metabolic shunt pathways and metabolites/enzymes alter and adapt with age and changes in the microenvironment.
\r\n\r\n\tErythrocyte and its cytoskeleton responses to various situations such as infections, hypoxia, hypothermia, intrigues researchers and biologists alike. This book aims to throw light on the significance of erythrocyte and its characteristic nature and survival in different physiological situations as it plays a very crucial role.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book hopes to bring different perspectives from various aspects and provide insights into the effective mechanisms evolved by erythrocytes, to counteract the challenges faced in its oxidation environment and the further research approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-732-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-731-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-733-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1b6073b9ff3f8f63004943bd263cd04e",bookSignature:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11725.jpg",keywords:"Erythrocyte, Hemoglobin, Erythrocyte Aging, Pathways, Metabolites, Deficiencies, Membrane Changes, Band 3, Deformability, Hemolysis, Disease Conditions, Free Radical Initiators",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah, Associate Professor, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore has 20 years of research experience in Oxidative Stress Physiology and Hematology and 16 years of teaching experience. She has authored numerous journal papers and book chapters and has one published patent. She has received CSIR research fellowship and is a Member of the Society for Free Radical Research, India.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"352876",title:"Dr.",name:"Vani",middleName:null,surname:"Rajashekaraiah",slug:"vani-rajashekaraiah",fullName:"Vani Rajashekaraiah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/352876/images/system/352876.jpg",biography:"Teaching Experience: 16 years\n•\tAssociate Professor in Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Block I, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bengaluru from May 2018 till date. (Courses: Molecular Genetics, Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering). \n Research Experience: 20 years in the field of Oxidative Stress Physiology and hematology.\n Current Research focus: Blood Storage (erythrocytes, platelets) and Drug-induced Thrombocytopenia\n Total publications in SCOPUS / Web of Science: 27 and International book chapters: 04.\n Research guidance: 3 PhD students (completed); 3 PhD students guiding currently.\n \t \n Six years of research experience as JRF (CSIR) and SRF (CSIR) in the field of High Altitude Physiology and Biochemistry, specialization in Oxidative Stress Physiology, from August 2002 to 2008. \no\tPursued research under the guidance of Dr. S. Asha Devi, Professor, Dept. of \n Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore-560056, towards Ph.D in Zoology.\n Title of the thesis- “Studies on Oxidative Stress in Erythrocytes of Rats Exposed to \n Intermittent Hypobaric Hypoxia”.",institutionString:"Jain University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jain University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Furthermore, it is required to combine it with the farms’ profitability, environmental protection, food safety, and ethical concerns. Due to this, organic livestock farms are nowadays not a despicable part of the census. However, there is no consensus about the consequences of organic livestock farming systems to the sustainability of the overall food system. This lack of convergence has its roots in the effect played by the different characteristics and contexts of the farms. Moreover, some barriers are challenging the development of the sector and shaping its future perspectives. Within this context, and in view of the lack of studies addressing the sustainability of the organic livestock sector as a whole by integrating different points of view, it is very timely to conduct a thorough study of this type. Due to this, the present review was carried out, aimed at improving the knowledge about the organic livestock sector such that it will be possible to adopt a holistic view that increases our understanding of its challenges and future perspectives, with a special emphasis on the sustainability of both farms and the whole food system. This integrative knowledge and approach will help stakeholders and policy makers to make decisions, either at the farm level (implement organic farms) or making policies. Thus, they both will be able to design strategies that increase the sustainability, competitiveness, and success of organic livestock farms, looking at the sustainability of the food systems as a final and priority goal.
Animal production systems are of great importance for the sustainability of rural economies and many ecosystems. The economic importance of livestock activity is reflected by the weight of the agricultural sector in the regional gross domestic product. For example, in rural areas located in southern Europe, cattle, swine, and small ruminants sectors billed 396.46 M € in 2010, representing 36.10% of the agricultural sector production in some regions [3].
From the social point of view, it is noteworthy that in semi-arid regions, such those in the Mediterranean basin, the extensive livestock production systems are often the main activity, and even the only source of livelihood. This dependence of the sector highlights the need to protect and enhance it, as it contributes to the creation of jobs, to the rural economy, and to the fixation of the rural population, which are vital for sustainable development in rural areas worldwide [4-5].
From a cultural perspective, the particularities of the different livestock systems are crucial for the conservation of the heritage, including breeds, landscapes, and habitats of high aesthetic and environmental value [6-7], which redounds in the economic development of the rural areas.
Regarding the environment, livestock activity involves lots of environmental benefits [8], especially when it is carried out under environmentally-friendly production systems, such as the extensive, pasture-based, low-input, and/or organic systems.
However, the livestock sector also has an important environmental impact. This sector employs 30% of the overall area not covered by ice and uses around 80% of global agricultural land. It also generates most of the greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions in the agricultural sector, accounting for 14.5% of human-induced GHGs, exceeding that from transportation [9].
Moreover, it is a major consumer and polluting water resources, contributing around 30% of N and P content of watercourses [10-13]. These data are even more striking in the case of the bovine meat sector as beef is often the food of animal origin with greater ecological impact [14-18]. Moreover, various socio-economic factors have led to either the abandonment or the intensification of the farms, which threatens the conservation of valuable agro-ecosystems.
Such environmental impact, along with the increasing demand toward animal products, makes it difficult to combine profitability, competitiveness, and environmental sustainability. Consequently, it is necessary to design and implement sustainable livestock systems globally (environmentally, socially, and economically), in which organic ones have an important role to play.
The objectives of the present work is (i) to fill the existing knowledge gap with regard to the sustainability, challenges, and perspectives of the organic livestock sector, as well as regarding its contribution to the agrifood system\'s sustainability. Moreover, this study is also aimed at (ii) providing strategies and insights that will help stakeholders and policy makers to improve the sustainability of both the organic livestock sector and that of the whole food system.
To reduce the abovementioned environmental impacts, different production systems have been developed. Among them, organic livestock farms have been studied by several authors in order to assess their potential and impact on environmental [19-22] and socio-economic aspects (sustainable rural development) [23-24].
However, some results are contradictory and some papers are not conclusive, which make it difficult to generalize the advantages of the organic livestock sector at either farm level or globally. This lack of convergence in the results is due to the fact that the externalities of organic livestock farms are highly dependent on their structure, the breeds reared, as well as their management, context, and marketing strategies [23-25, 129]. In other words, it seems that there is no one-size-fits-all solution. Moreover, papers normally address specific aspects of the farms (i.e., economic, health, welfare, etc.), which does not allow an integrative picture of the situation.
In order to deal with this scenario, many points must be addressed, as [26] argued, "the concept of organic animal farming can only fulfill the criteria for sustainability if all requirements on animal health, welfare, and ecological soundness are strongly considered and controlled". Due to this, an analysis of the aspects mentioned by these authors, along with those related to the economic and social aspects, have been included in the present work.
An important part of the world forms part of the so-called "rural areas". In the case of the European Union, rural areas cover 90% of its territory, where over 23% of the European population lives in them, and another 35% lives in intermediate zones. In these areas, farming is one of the main drivers of sustainable rural development [27].
However, these areas are going through processes of depopulation that reduces the sustainability of such areas, from the social, economic, and environmental points of view. Due to this, there is a necessity to develop strategies that allow overcoming this issue. Within these strategies, organic farming has become popular, even in the legislative environment. In fact, [28] defines organic production as "a system of farm management and food production that plays a dual societal role: on the one hand it provides food products to meet specific consumer demands; on the other hand it delivers public goods that contribute to the protection of the environment and animal welfare, as well as to the development of rural areas".
As a consequence, several researchers have evaluated the contribution of organic livestock to sustainable rural development [29-30], of which most of them have been reviewed and discussed by [24]. Some of them have considered that organic production is an important pillar of sustainable rural development, since this production model generates more positive externalities than the conventional one in terms of conservation of agro-ecosystems, creation of jobs, farms’ profitability, workers´ income, and local economy.
In this regard, it is fair to mention that most of the benefits provided by the organic production model in relation to rural development seem to be due to both their participation in short marketing channels [31-32] and obtaining a higher price (“price premium”) for their organic products [33-34]. According to the authors cited, this premium price is necessary for organic farms profitability, especially during the years of conversion, because the farms’ incomes are often reduced and costs increased [31-32]. However, there is controversy on the relationship between the condition of being organic and short marketing channels, but in general terms, such relationship is weak [24, 35].
However, few studies addressed the potential role of organic livestock production systems (studies usually mix agriculture and livestock) towards sustainable development, despite having been proposed to be models of it [30]. Furthermore, such studies show contradictory results and did not adopt a holistic approach (social, economic, and environmentally public policies), which is really needed. Due to this, [24] summarized the studies published with regard to organic livestock sector and discussed them with the results of the case study they carried out addressing organic beef cattle farms located in southwestern Europe.
Studies dealing with this topic paid special attention to the number of jobs created, salaries paid, and the profitability of the farms. Thus, authors such as [36] found no increased presence of labor in organic livestock farms when compared with conventional holdings. On the contrary, [24] found that organic beef cattle farms (mainly those that also fattened their calves) used more labor. However, these last authors stated that this was mainly due to both the higher degree of business diversification of these farms and the fact that for many of the farmers, the farm under study was not the only source of income. Both aspects increased the necessity to hire external workforce. Moreover, [24] found that the salaries paid by the organic farms were lower than those of the conventional ones, which is contrary to the findings of the review carried out by [23]. However, these two last studies did not focus only livestock farms, such that results cannot be compared precisely.
[37] concluded that organic dairy farms may contribute more to the local economy and economic development of rural communities located in the northeast and upper midwest of the U.S. than average and similar-size conventional dairy farms. As they stated, in Vermont, organic dairy farm sales revenue would result in greater state-wide impacts of 3% in output, 39% in labor income, 33% in gross state product, and 46% in employment relative to the impacts from an equivalent level of sales revenue to conventional dairy farms. In Minnesota, these economic impacts are 4, 9, 11, and 12% greater.
Later, [24] found that organic beef cattle farms that fattened their calves performed better from the economic point of view. These authors compared these full-cycle organic farms with (i) conventional farms that scarcely fattened their calves and (ii) organic farms with no fattening period. This comparison allowed them to conclude that the differences were mainly due to the consequences that some differential factors had on overall economic performance, more than the condition of being organic. These factors were the following: most of the farms that fattened their calves were full-cycle (they were part of an association that had the organic crops, the mill, the livestock farms, the trucks, and even established contracts with supermarkets). Moreover, they all received the subsidies for organic farming (in the other organic group of farms they did not), and they sold their fattened calves at a price 25% higher than that of the conventional ones. However, as the production cycle (and the age at which calves were slaughtered) was longer, these farms showed lower economic performances when it was calculated per year.
In summary, the authors have come to the conclusion that many of the benefits provided by organic production in relation to rural development are not due to the mere fact produced under the ecological model, but to sell their products through short marketing channels [31-32] and to obtain a higher price (“price premium”) for organic products [33-34]. This is especially important during the years of conversion because farm incomes are often reduced, and its costs increased.
Moreover, the pathway followed by the products (marketing channels) has a great impact on the sustainability of the food system. Thus, transportation accounted for 17.43% of the total energy consumed by the Spanish food sector in 2000 [38]. In this sense, it is important to comment that short marketing channels (and “local” products) are commonly thought to have lower environmental impacts. However, the concentration of supply can lead to lower emissions of GHGs of short marketing channels, in which small amounts of products are transported by vehicle or fuel. In fact, [38] found that most of that 17.43% of energy consumed by transport comes from road transport due to their lower energy efficiency per load transported.
Pasture-based and low-input livestock systems (e.g., the organic systems) are key to the ecosystems in which they are integrated as they provide with numerous benefits, such as increased carbon sequestration, improved quality of the pastures, and reduction of scrub invasion and risk of fire [5, 8, 39].
According to [28], livestock production is fundamental to the organization of agricultural production on organic holdings in so far as it provides the necessary organic matter and nutrients for cultivated land and accordingly contributes towards soil improvement and the development of sustainable agriculture. [40] completed this view arguing that organic livestock provides organic nutrients that are recycled at the farm level, allowing the production of on-farm inputs, which increases their sustainability. Similarly, [41] claimed that when cattle are introduced in environmental systems, increased efficiency and sustainability occurs. However, organic livestock farms do not always present a significant cultivated area, so that their differences with conventional farms with regard to this parameter may be few [24]. Moreover, mixed crop-livestock farms could miss out on potential economies of scale. To overcome these interactions, organic mixed crop-livestock farms could be a solution, since [42] observed that these farms exploited the diversity of herd feed resources more efficiently than the rest of the groups, which varied in both their degrees of mixing these two components and their organic/conventional status.
In relation to water resources, some authors have found that its use is more efficient in organic farms, and that water retention is increased, leading to higher resistance to drought [43]. Moreover, in these farms, land degradation is prevented and soil fertility increased [44]. These aspects are of particular interest in semi-arid areas, where water shortages often occur, and both soils and pastures are poor. Additionally, it has been shown that agrobiodiversity is greater in organic agro-ecosystems [20, 21, 45], which greatly increases the number of interactions between system components and their complexity. Therefore, their resilience is increased, which is key for their adaptation and resistance against pests, diseases, and climate change. In parallel, their higher degree of business diversification make them less vulnerable in the face of market changes [25, 44, 129].
When looking at comparisons between organic livestock farming systems and conventional ones, several authors have shown that organic systems have a greater potential to preserve the environment, mainly with regard to biodiversity [19-21]. These positive externalities are the consequence of many factors, such as the reduced use of inputs, better nutrient recycling, less use and exploitation of non-renewable/external resources, and finally, ecotoxicity.
These aspects are of great importance, since the increasing degradation of the agricultural soils and the reduction in the supplies of fresh water are two of the most serious problems that humankind is facing. These problems pose an impediment to achieving food security, especially if one takes into account the growing population and demand for animal products. It is even more relevant in developing countries and in semi-arid areas characterized by pasture-based (low-input/pasture-based/extensive) production systems. According to several authors [46-47], organic livestock systems have the potential to contribute to the sustainability of these areas.
Due to the advantages provided by organic livestock production, it would be logical to think that this production model allows facing the two main challenges of the food system: sustainability and food security. In this sense, [48] stated that a shift to organic production will be increasingly necessary for the renewal of resources (mainly water and soil) and to secure sustainable food security. However, there is much debate in this sense [49], due to the lower production that organic production often shows, the increased need for agricultural land for organic production, and the scarcity of organic fertilizers of good quality.
Regarding the environmental impact in terms of GHGs and energy use, extensive and low-input farms (including the organic ones) tend to be more sustainable [50-52]. Among other reasons, this is due to lower consumption of fossil fuels and energy. However, some studies conclude that emissions in organic systems may be higher than those of the conventional ones [16], because they have lower production per unit of input. In this sense, [22] showed that the product carbon footprint in dairy cow organic farms was significantly higher than that of the conventional farms [1.61±0.29 vs. 1.45±0.28kg of CO2 equivalents (CO2 eq) per kg of milk].
This divergent results are showing that the differences among studies are mainly due to the productive system under study, its context, the experimental design work, and the units and limits of the study (farm level, hectare, unit of product, food system, etc.), more than their conditions of being organic.
One of the aspects that plays a great effect on greenhouse emissions of the farms is the quality of the feed. In this sense, [53] measured the GHGs from enteric fermentation and manure on organic and conventional dairy farms in Germany in order to assess the effect of different feeding practices. In general terms, lower emissions from enteric fermentation were found when feed quality and feed intake was increased (which normally means feedstuff, instead of pastures). In general terms, results depended strongly on the calculation methodology, especially those related to enteric fermentation. Moreover, differences between the methods were particularly prominent when high amounts of fiber-rich feedstuff were used. As feed quality management on farms influences milk yield and enteric CH4 emissions, these aspects should be part of advisory concepts that aim at reducing GHG emissions in milk production.
In line with these results, [22] stated that feed demand per kilogram of milk, high grassland yield, and low forage area requirements per cow are the main factors that decrease PCF (product carbon footprints). They observed that the interaction between GHG mitigation and the farm\'s profitability is key for improving efficiency and sustainability. Thus, for organic farms, a reduction of feed demand of 100 g/kg of milk resulted in a PCF reduction of 105 g of CO2 eq/kg of milk and an increase in incomes of approximately 2.1 euro cents (c)/kg of milk. For conventional farms, a decrease of feed demand of 100 g/kg of milk corresponded to a reduction in PCF of 117 g of CO2 eq/kg of milk and an increase in management incomes MI of approximately 3.1 c/kg of milk. Accordingly, farmers could achieve higher profits while reducing GHG emissions.
Regarding the environmental externalities of the different livestock species and sectors, dairy cows are those that have received more attention. [54] studied the productive, environmental and economic performances of organic and conventional suckler cattle farming systems. They found that the reduction in the use of inputs resulted in a 23% to 45% drop in NRE (non-renewable energy) consumption/ha, 5-20% of which is a drop in non-renewable energy per ton of live weight produced. The authors stated that, however, the shift to organic farming does not significantly affect gross GHG emissions per ton of live weight produced, but suggested that net GHG emissions could be lower for organic farming systems due to the carbon sequestration in grasslands. Contrary to the results that are normally found when GHGs are measured per kg of product, the lower productivity per hectare (fewer animals reared per hectares) allowed a reduction from 26% to 34% in net GHG emissions per hectare of farm area in the study of [54].
[55] reviewed studies that compared different beef production systems using life cycle analysis (LCA). They classified such systems by three main characteristics: origin of calves (bred by a dairy cow or a suckler cow), type of production (organic or non-organic), and type of diet fed to fattening calves (roughage-based -<50% concentrates, or concentrate-based -≥50% concentrates). They observed that organic farms had lowers GWP (global warming potential) and use of energy (on average 7% and 30%, respectively) than that of the non-organic systems. However, they showed higher eutrophization potential, acidification potential, and land use per unit of beef produced. Lower GWP (on average 28% lower), energy use (13% lower), and land use (41% lower) were found per unit of beef for concentrate-based systems when compared with roughage-based systems. Although these results are not giving the whole picture (because aspects such as biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and others were not included in all the studies), the authors came to interesting conclusions that we cite literally:
Environmental impacts were lower for dairy-based than for suckler-based beef
GWP was similar for organic and non-organic beef
GWP, energy use, and land use were lower for concentrate- than roughage-based beef
Dairy-based beef showed the largest potential to mitigate environmental impacts of beef
Marginal grasslands unsuitable for dairy farming may be used for production of suckler-based beef to contribute to the availability and access to animal-source food
The study of [56] studied the potential environmental impacts of four different types of organic dairy farms, paying special attention on the farm´s structure (the percentage of grassland on total farm area, and feeding intensity). The results showed that farms with high feeding intensity tend to show ecological advantages with regard to their climate impact and their demand for land. On the contrary, low-input farms showed to be better with regard to animal welfare, milk quality, and ammonia losses. But more interestingly, when they assessed the overall environmental index of the farms, low-input and mixed ones showed the best results. Finally, the authors pointed out the necessity of using a wider range of environmental parameters, since results may differ greatly between studies, farms, and systems.
[57] measured the carbon footprint of the organic dairy sector, based on farm data from six European countries. The results showed that the main contributor to the farm´s carbon footprint was enteric fermentation, which has much to do with the feed management, as exposed earlier.
To sum up, high-quality feedstuffs reduce enteric methane emissions, and this is important because these emissions account for a high proportion of total GHGs (45% of them in the study of [57]). However, one must keep in mind that the environmental impact of the farms belongs to just one pillar of global sustainability. Hence, with regard to feed, other factors must be taken into account, such as the competence with human food.
Regarding the methodological aspects of the assessment of farm sustainability, it must be remembered that the different parameters, frameworks, and approaches available, as well as the limit of the study and the context of the farms, make it difficult to integrate results and make conclusions. In this sense, [57] stated that the method for calculating the carbon footprint could be improved, since this calculation does not take account of carbon sequestration. This aspect is very important for extensive livestock systems (either organic or not), especially for ruminant ones, since cattle grazing captures 20% of the CO2 released into the atmosphere by deforestation and agriculture worldwide [58]. If carbon sequestration were included in the evaluations (as done by [25, 129]), extensive farms and sensitive ecosystems would show better results in the evaluations of their environmental impact, which could lead to higher public support, competitiveness, and sustainability.
In relation to the organic beef cattle sector, [25, 129] carried out a comparative assessment of the sustainability of organic and conventional beef cattle farms located in agroforestry systems and rangelands of southwestern Spain. It is worthy to mention that conventional farms where extensive, pasture-based, and low-input; and that all farms had cows, either with presence of a fattening period of the calves or just selling them at the weaning age. These two last productive orientations where selected as they are representative of the sector and the area under study. The results showed that organic farms had a higher overall sustainability, especially with regard to the environmental dimension. In this sense, the authors reported that the agro-ecosystem management (agricultural practices) and farm structures were slightly more environmentally friendly. For example, organic farms tend to implement more measures to reduce erosion and to improve soil fertility, also developing better dung management that avoided nitrogen fluxes and allowed farmers to elaborate compost. Only clear differences where found regarding the use of pesticides, herbicides, and/or mineral fertilizers. This is consistent with the findings of [59] in smaller organic beef cattle farms located in a more humid area (northwestern Spain).
Hence, the presence of an approach and configuration of the farms oriented to organic principles (namely, the environmental systems) found in the study of [25, 129] was really scarce, since the improvement and/or maintenance of the ecosystem did not constitute an important driver nor a motivation of the farmers to run their organic adventure. A higher degree of farmer’s engagement and awareness toward the sustainability of the agrifood sector is needed. Specifically, the implementation of such sustainable management practices of the agro-ecosystem, such as diversification (the integration of crops, livestock, and trees), are advisable for sustainable land use management [60, 61] and reduce their carbon footprint [57]. Also, these measures deserve to be taken into account by policy makers due to their positive agro-environmental and socio-economic externalities [24].
With regard to swine, Dourmad et al. (2014) evaluated the environmental impacts (per kg of pig live weight and per ha of land used) of 15 European pig farming systems, comparing them with their conventional counterparts, among other types of farming systems, from which “traditional” was an interesting classification worthy of being mentioned since they account for an important part of the livestock sector and rural economy of many areas. This system was defined as “using very fat, slow-growing traditional breeds and generally outdoor raising of fattening pigs”. When looking at the results, one can observe that the main differences were found between the traditional systems and the rest of farms. Environmental impacts were, in general terms, lower for conventional farms, when they were measured by kg of pig produced. Conversely, when expressed per ha of land use, mean impacts were 10% to 60% lower for traditional and organic systems, depending on the impact category. These results are in line with those abovementioned, and as previously explained, they are mainly due to the higher land occupation per kg of product and the longer productive times.
Another important point that [62] mentioned was the effect of the autochthonous breed on the environmental impact of the farms. They stated that the use of traditional local breeds, with reduced productivity and feed efficiency, results in higher impacts per kg of live weight. [63] added that the effects of the use of autochthonous breeds have not been adequately demonstrated with regard to some topics (different than the preservation of the genetic heritage and traditional landscape—aesthetical values). Due to this, [24] and [63] highlighted the necessity to deeply study the interactions and effects of the different livestock systems, especially those with beef cattle, since the scientific literature in addressing this sector is scarce. In line with this argument, [64] mentioned that agricultural practices affect biodiversity in a higher degree than the breeds itself.
Due to these results, context, and the scientific literature available that addressed the topic, [25, 129] came to the conclusion that the externalities of organic farms (when compared with the conventional ones), are highly dependent on their production system, their context (socioeconomic, environmental, political, and institutional), and their marketing strategies. These conclusions can also be found in other studies, such as the review of [23] about the organic sector as a whole and its relationship with rural development.
Therefore, the future strategy of research and innovation in organic farming must prioritize productivity gains that address the farms as a whole, while paying major attention to secure the positive ecological performance organic agriculture can provide, since the environmental benefits it provides are absolute goods and cannot be relativized by the fact that yields are currently lower than in conventional agriculture. Moreover, there is a high potential for reducing the yield gap between organic and conventional farms through agricultural research [47].
With regard to the legislative side, it is very important to note that regulations on organic production embrace a wide variety of organic farms; they allow using different animal breeds, structures, agro-ecosystem managements, feeding strategies, and marketing strategies. As a consequence, organic the livestock farm’s success and perspectives are really different from one place to another. For example, [65] found that the situation in North Germany was in contrast to the region in the south, where the variability of amount and proportion of the different feed types is predominantly independent of the milk yield. Many factors shape these differences, such as the ecosystems on which farms are based and consumers’ demands and willingness to pay.
Additionally, the different criteria of the certification bodies (public and private) act in the same way, since they usually decide whether some exceptions to the regulations can be applied at the farm level. Due to this, it is important to unify criteria. Also, the cost of certification is not affordable for many farmers (especially small farmers, which play a great role in sustainability and food security). Fortunately, nowadays, many efforts are being made to both facilitate the market of organic products worldwide (i.e., agreements between the European and American (USDA) standards) and to reduce cost of certification (i.e., by means of Participatory Guarantee Systems).
Moreover, organic regulations and private standards do not cover marketing aspects (key in the social, economic, and environmental sustainability), so that it is difficult to evaluate to contribution of the organic livestock sector to the sustainability of the food system.
Some studies have assessed the consequences of converting livestock farms to the organic system. Their feasibility and success depend upon the structure and context of the previous (conventional) farm. To cite an example, ruminants pasture-based farms such as those located in southwestern Europe and in the Mediterranean basin (especially those oriented to meat production) may be easily converted into organic ones since conventional and organic farms are quite similar [66-67]. On the contrary, species that are mainly reared under intensive production systems will have to go through a difficult process of conversion, e.g., poultry, swine, and dairy cows. And in parallel depending on the farmers´ motivations for converting, the situation of the farms, and their perspectives vary.
As monogastric production systems are not so linked to land as ruminants ones are, and due to the higher prices of organic feedstuffs, it is far more difficult for farmers to convert to produce under the organic system. In this sense, swine rearing under free range production systems (such as those of the dehesa ecosystem in southwestern Spain) appears to be the system that could be converted to the organic model successfully. However, the weaning period seems to be the bottleneck of this sector, because many veterinary interventions are usually needed.
Moving from species to farms structure, it is interesting to note that mixed livestock production systems are those with a higher resilience (also economically), which would allow an easier transition to the organic system [25, 129]. Accordingly, [68] claimed that co-grazing sows with heifers can diminish the parasite burden of the heifers, and that the pig inclination for rooting can be managed in a way that makes ploughing and other heavy land cultivation more or less superfluous. With regard to poultry, there is an indication that quite big flocks can be managed efficiently in a way where the flock act as weeders in other crops or fight pests in orchards. This integration of feed resources of the farms with the different livestock species is possible due to their different grazing habits [69, 70], and is pivotal for the sustainability of the agro-ecosystems and rural areas [25, 129].
However, the consequences of the conversion process and externalities of organic farms may be very changing, since they depend on many factors [66, 23, 25, 35, 129], such as the socioeconomic and environmental context of exploitation, the climate and topography of the land, the production system under study, the species reared, the regulations on course, the influence of private standards of certification, the availability of organic inputs and prices thereof, the development of the organic industry and marketing channels, and the consumer’s behavior (demand and willingness to pay). In order to deal with these uncertainties, researchers have conducted studies that have evaluated the ease of conversion of different conventional farming systems to the former one: for dairy goats [71] and dairy cattle [72]. Therefore, before making conclusions about the adequacy of organic livestock farming, one must establish the limits of the study (local or global scale), its objectives, and motivations. Later, a multidisciplinary assessment of farm sustainability, a SWOT analysis, and an assessment of the feasibility of success along with a study of farms competitiveness must be carried out, as proposed by [67, 73].
In relation to organic beef cattle farms, although there is controversy, studies mainly show that organic farms have worse economic results than their conventional counterpart when they are studied by farm and year since they used to have longer production cycles when the farms are under the Common Agricultural Policy\'s (CAP) conditions [25, 59, 129] or not [74]. They are also more dependent on both subsidies and premium prices. Finally, higher production costs (mainly derived from feeding and during the conversion period) have also been observed [25, 59, 74-75, 129].
[54] analyzed the productive, environmental and economic impacts of the conversion process of conventional suckler cattle farms. They reported that the ban on chemical fertilizers led to a drop in farm area productivity and meat production (by 18% to 37% for the latter) and farm income (more than 20%). These drops were not compensated by the increase in the meat selling price (+5% to +10%). However, the use of inputs was reduced (by -9% to -52%), which is really important for the sustainability of pasture-based/low-input ruminant farms.
With regard to milk production, [76] found that organic systems had greater milk production. However, it seems that milk production per animal [77] and agricultural area [40, 78-79] is lower in organic farms.
Although at first glance, this lower milk production seems negative, this could have very positive implications and advantages. Firstly, cows could have a longer productive life (longevity), which in turn could make animals produce more liters in their entire life, thus reducing the environmental and economic impact of rearing heifers. Secondly, the increase of the productive capacity of the cows has been followed by health problems such as increased somatic cell counts and mastitis, as well as reduced fertility rates and tolerance to heat stress, which could be reduced if cows reduce their production level. Moreover, such reduction would help to reduce the amount and/or proportion of non-structural carbohydrates given to the animals, which would reduce the risk of acidosis, lameness, and other secondary disorders. In this sense, [76] observed that cattle on conventional farms were fed approximately twice as much grain as cattle on organic farms. All these advantages match part of the goals set in the Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda for Organic Food and Farming set by the European Technology Platform (TP Organics) [80]: improved health, robustness, and longevity.
Moreover, as the price of organic milk seems to be more stable [81], the consumption of mothers\' milk by calves may be a profitable strategy in farms where milk is not the main marketable product. Thus, [82] found that the consumption of mothers\' milk by calves resulted in high weaning weights at 3 months of age, and Keifer et al. (2014) found that organic dairy cows farms performed economically better than the pasture-based conventional farms analyzed.
Not all is about ruminants. Other sectors, such as rabbits, have also been studied. Thus, [83] showed that the effects on zootechnical parameters are due to the production system and genetics. They found that hybrid rabbits reared under conventional housing had the highest average daily gain, and local grey and organic, the lowest.
Despite the abovementioned low productivity in organic farms, their higher environmental externalities should drive a higher support by the rural development measures of the EU\'s CAP [24, 84-85], since they play a greater role in the conservation of traditional landscapes and ecosystems by means of a “greener” agro-environmental management, which is finally of great importance for the sustainable development of the surrounding rural areas, where the agricultural sector remains an essential driver of the rural development of this area [27]. In this sense, [84] have claimed the necessity to recognize in a higher degree the role of the extensive livestock systems on environmental and cultural heritage preservation.
Animal nutrition constitutes an important pillar of organic livestock production. Thus, [86] found that feeding strategies among Wisconsin organic dairy farms were major determinants of herd milk production and income over feed costs. These findings may serve current organic and transition farmers when considering feeding management changes needed to meet organic pasture rule requirements or dealing with dietary supplementation challenges.
In relation to organic feedstuffs, the most important obstacles are the difficulty to find them and their prices. This situation is aggravated by the farms’ high external dependence of feedstuff due to decoupling between crops and livestock. These facts reduce the organic livestock farms´ adaptability, and their access to feed additives and materials of high quality. As a result, the organic livestock sector face a big challenge that, along with other factors, has lead to a situation characterized by organic livestock farms without organic products, which reduces their profitability and future perspectives of success. This has been observed either in beef cattle [25, 129], dairy cows farms [87], or other species [88].
One possible solution for overcoming this barrier would be the use of local agricultural by-products for animal nutrition since their price is usually low, and according to [89], they allow to add to their economic value, while providing an environmentally sound method for disposal of the by-product materials. Also, it would lead to either an increase in the incomes for the organic business that sell such by-products or a reduction in the expenditure related to their disposal.
European regulations limited the use of many feed additives, such as mineral preparations, with the aim that organic livestock farms rely on soil minerals. However, their levels can be low in some areas, which can lead to some mineral deficiencies, as observed by [90] in organic calves. This limitation is especially important in the case of dairy cattle, since nutritional requirements of cows are really high. Due to this, researchers are looking for new feedstuffs that are both allowed and useful for the organic livestock sector, such as minerals sources (seaweed in [91]), different pastures (birdsfoot trefoil by [92]), and fat supplements [93].
As the ration for organic herds has been required to be 100% organic by the European regulations, [94] investigated the possible effects of 100% organic feed on the energy balance in Swedish organic dairy herds as indicated by blood parameters, and concluded that the legislative restrictions "did not appear to have had any detrimental effects on the metabolic profiles of organic cows in early lactation and there was no evidence that organic cows were metabolically more challenged or had a severe negative energy balance".
However, the feed resources of the own farm are usually scarce and/or of poor quality in many areas. Thus, [46] pointed out that the availability of the forages in semi-arid areas, such as the Mediterranean basin, is seasonal, and that its quality is not always optimal. Due to this, the supplementation of the animals is frequently needed. Nevertheless, their availability is low, because for the feed industry it is really costly to turn organic or to create an organic line of products, as they must separate the conventional and the organic lines of productions, and the profitability of this investment is very questionable. Moreover, the bureaucracy would increase the workload of the companies, thus reducing their agility and profitability. In this sense, more concrete instructions for the inclusion of feed additives should be introduced in the regulations.
A correct nutritional management is the basis for an optimal health status and, as a consequence, adequate levels of productivity. Furthermore, this productivity has been identified as key to reduce the GHG emissions from livestock. Due to this, policy makers should seriously address this topic since many conventional companies of the feed sector have a really good portfolio of feed additives that are not susceptible for having not-allowed products (such as GMO or residues of antibiotics), and could improve rumen fermentation (thus reducing the enteric methane emissions), reduce the use of antibiotics (reducing the environmental pollution and public health issues related to them), which would increase the efficiency of the livestock sector, and finally, the competitiveness and sustainability of it. Good examples of additives would be limiting amino acids (such as methionine in dairy cows), chelated (also called "organic") minerals, salts of organic acids, yeasts, essential oils, and fat supplements, among a large list of them. Specifically, organic minerals allow a correct nutritional management, reduce the exploitation of resources, and reduce environmental pollution.
As a consequence of the growth in the number of organic farms worldwide, many veterinarians are encountering this method of production. However, they normally suffer from lack of knowledge with regard to the management of animal health suitable to this type of production, such that it "sustains and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible" (according to IFOAM). The focus is to achieve and maintain high herd health and welfare status with low usage of veterinary medicines [95]. The EC regulations for organic farming [28] state that organic livestock should be treated preferably with phytotherapeutic products. However, almost no phytotherapeutic product is registered for livestock, and information regarding veterinary phytotherapy is really scarce [96].
As health and welfare of organic livestock are highly interrelated, veterinarians not only must avoid livestock illness, but also maintain the animals´ physical, mental, social, and ecological well-being [97]. However, the combination of "natural behavior/living" with optimal health and welfare status is not easy, as [98] and [99] interestingly stated, extensive production systems (e.g., free range production) expose livestock to increased disease challenge, and "a healthy system does not automatically mean good welfare for the individual". However, outdoor housing also has benefits [100]; outdoor housing with functional wallows and access to grass and roots or outdoor runs and roughage can enhance pig welfare and reduce pen-mate-directed oral activity and aggression, which is a really important issue in piglet production.
[99] came to the conclusion that animal health is as good or better than in conventional farming, with the exception of parasitic diseases, and that organic farming systems have a "welfare potential", but organic farmers must deal with the dilemmas and take animal welfare issues seriously. [101] explores how the special organic conceptions of animal welfare are related to the overall principles of organic agriculture. They identified potential routes for future development of organic livestock systems in different contexts (northwestern Europe and tropical low-income countries). Moreover, as outdoor-reared animals make more use of the farm’s feed resources, negative consequences can also be found with regard to food safety. Thus, it has been demonstrated that a significant number of organic eggs had dioxin contents that exceeded the EU standard [102].
When one analyzes the health and welfare status of different livestock species, one rapidly realizes that the control of intestinal parasites and to achieve adequate nutritional management are the main bottlenecks and challenges.
Regarding ruminants, [103] also identified these two issues as challenging after studying organic goats. Later, [77] observed lower calf mortality, less incidence of mastitis, fewer rates of spontaneous abortions, and reduced ectoparasite loads in organic farms. However, internal parasite control was again detected as a weak point (greater prevalence was observed in organic farms). Fortunately, animals in the organic system exhibited lower parasitic resistance to anthelmintics, which gives hope to improve herd health status by means of future strategies. [104] reviewed the prevalence of zoonotic or potentially zoonotic bacteria, antimicrobial resistance, and somatic cell counts in organic dairy production; and they found contradictory results in relation with in bacterial outcomes and Somatic Cell Count (SCC) between conventional and organic farms.
Later, [105] discussed the effects of weaning calves at an older age on welfare and milk production. They claimed that foster cow systems with additional milking might be a promising alternative since calves can satisfy their sucking motivation and have social contact to mothers/adult cows; and additionally, weaning stress might be reduced and milking the cows when suckling calves could lead to an increased total milk production. However, this system has economical consequences that must be assessed carefully. Due to this, the authors concluded that further research is needed to reconcile consumers\' demands and the possibilities of farmers using such systems.
With regard to animal welfare, [106] assessed the welfare state of dairy cows in European farm systems (extensive and/or low-input farms compared with organic ones) using the Welfare Quality® assessment protocol. Farms had mainly an acceptable and enhanced overall welfare state, although specific problems were found (injuries and discomfort of the lying areas, mutilations, poor human-animal relationship, or insufficient water provision). [107] indicated that most of the organic and conventional farms would have been unlikely to achieve many criteria of audit and assessment programs currently used in the U.S. dairy industry. The parameters recorded were the following: neonatal care, dehorning, pain relief, calf nutrition, weaning, age at weaning, pain relief after and during dehorning, size of the calving area, body condition score, animal hygiene scores, hock lesions, and use of veterinarians. [108] explored how calf welfare is approached in six different organic dairy farms and how far the concept of naturalness is implemented. They observed differing understandings of "naturalness" and welfare, which lead to such diversity of organic farms in aspects that should be shared. In this sense, [82] found that some farmers had difficulties accepting negative implications of suckling systems such as stress after weaning.
The reliance of veterinary drugs is a hot topic that globally is trying to be reduced. In organic farms, where limitations in the use of veterinary drugs are higher, health-related problems can occur, thus undermining the farm’s profitability. To reduce these situations, [94], through the CORE Organic ANIPLAN, carried out a study with organic dairy farms of seven European countries, aiming at minimizing medicine use through animal health and welfare planning. Overall, after the implementation of the plan, there was a reduction in the total treatment incidence, and an improvement of the udder health situation across all farms. Hence, these authors concluded that the plan applied "can be regarded as a feasible approach to minimizing medicine use without the impairment of production and herd health under several organic dairy farming conditions in Europe".
Regarding beef cattle, [24, 59] found less use of veterinary medicines. These results are in line with those of [76], who found that the use of outside support and vaccinations were found to be less prevalent on organic dairy farms than on conventional farms. These last authors found little difference in the average reported somatic cell count and standard plate count.
In relation with monogastrics, parasites also constitute a concern. Due to this, the topic was also addressed under the framework of the COREPIG project, a pan-European project on organic pig production focused on the "Prevention of selected diseases and parasites in organic pig herds". One of the results of this project has been the publication of review papers that have provided really valuable information and reflections on the current status and challenges of the swine sector. [109, 110] reported that sows are kept in a variety of different production systems, "with some countries having totally outdoor management at pasture, some keeping animals indoors with concrete outside runs, and others having combinations of these systems". Although reports suggest that relatively few health and welfare problems are seen, the problem of parasites is also a concern within this sector (they are more prevalent in the organic sector). According to the arguments above exposed by [98] and [99], the authors discussed that organic sows had more behavioral freedom, but may be exposed to greater climatic challenges, parasite infestation, and risk of body condition loss. So that, again, the combination of welfare, health, and productivity poses an issue. Even, public health could be compromised, [110] highlighted the high exposure to
[111] also studied the health and welfare of suckling and weaned piglets in six EU countries. For this purpose, these authors used animal-based parameters from the Welfare Quality® protocol, and showed the main issues prevailing in these farms. [112] studied issues related to weaning in piglets, and they concluded that diseases around weaning are multifactorial so that "in order to solve problems around weaning, the complexity and the individuality of farm systems need to be taken into account".
Furthermore, it has also been reported that some disorders in pigs are less frequent under the organic system, namely, respiratory problems, skin lesions (including abscesses and hernias) and tail wounds. However, joint lesions, white spot livers, and parasitic infections were more common among organic pigs [100]. Due to this, although organic herds consumed three times less antibiotics than conventional ones, the reduction of anthelmintics seems to be more complicated. However, these researchers did not find any difference in mortality rate nor if more pigs in need of treatment in the organic herds.
Fortunately, it seems that some strategies to control the parasites in organic production are coming to scene. Thus, [100] recommended to rotate outdoor areas with as long interval as possible, i.e., by including the pigs in the crop rotation. Furthermore, they stated that an increase in the number of specialized organic farms will help carry out other management strategies needed to maintain the good health of the pigs: implementation of age-segregated production and buying piglets from only one or few units.
Finally, the aquaculture growing sector has also been assessed from the organic side. [113], after studying the open aquaculture systems, reported that both organic and conventional systems present unresolved and significant challenges with regard to the welfare and to environmental integrity, due to many issues such as water quality, escapes, parasites, predator control, and feed-source sustainability. Finally, they concluded that under the current situation, open net-pen aquaculture production cannot be compatible with the principles inherent to organic farming.
Organic livestock farms (when pasture-based and low-input) are perceived as socially more acceptable than intensive ones because they provide many environmental services, such as reducing the risk of fire, improving soil fertility and pastures quality, as well as biodiversity and carbon sequestration. Moreover, they have lower environmental impact linked to land use change (deforestation) and to the use of energy (extraction, manufacturing feedstuff, transportation, etc.) [19-22]. Furthermore, they do not compete with humans for food, which could be another argument to buy organic as the concern about food security has become mainstream. Note that around 70% of the grains used by developed countries are fed to animals and that livestock consume an estimated one-third or more of the world\'s cereal grain, with 40% of such feed going to ruminants, mainly cattle [114].
However, out of the farm gate, the lack of development of the marketing channels and industry, low consumers awareness of organic products, and their low willingness to pay a premium price for them hinder the demand for organic animal products. As a consequence, most of the farmers are not able to sell their products to the organic market and at a price that allow them to cover their production costs; one can easily find many organic farms without organic products [25, 88, 129]. In the case of livestock, this situation is due to: (i) the difficulty to find organic feedstuff and its cost and (ii) low consumer demand linked to low level of knowledge, awareness, and willingness to pay premium prices. Specifically, in the beef sector, the demand for organic weaned calves (not fattened) was almost non-existent, which make it very difficult to carry out the market of organic beef [25, 129].
In the few cases in which producers can manage to sell their products as organic, such scarcity of developed channels causes the price differential between organic and conventional products to be still high, feeding a loop characterized by reduced per capita consumption and low presence of organic products in the supermarkets [115-116]. As a consequence, demand and willingness to pay consumers for organic products is reduced [117], especially in relation to beef and in countries such as Spain [118-119], despite being one of the first producers in Europe. In order to reduce the cited price differential and increase consumption, a wider distribution of these products is key.
In the case of beef, this little demand is partly due to the fact that consumers do not perceive clearly the differences between organic and conventional meat [115]. Therefore, [120] showed that there is a clear need to excel in organic meat products, quality, and environmental contribution. However, it is can be complex to define and evaluate the quality characteristics of a meat product, especially when the benefits of organic meat over conventional are not clear from the sensory, nutritional, and health aspects[115], particularly when they are compared with conventional extensive systems, such as those present in the pasture.
In summary, it is necessary to note that the demand for organic meat could stagnate due to the following reasons: price differential with conventional meat, inelasticity of demand for this product, and limited knowledge and awareness about the product by consumers. Fortunately, there are strategies that could solve this weak domestic demand, such as exporting. However, meat export is not a strategy easy to carry out due to the cost of transportation and storage, the bureaucracy, and the needed know-how.
Moreover, the approach should not be to just find the markets for organic products, but other additional strategies must be studied. Firstly, it must be taken into account that there is a change in consumer preferences towards local [121-123] and more sustainable [122, 124] products. Moreover, the level of knowledge and awareness about organic products is really low in some countries and regions in Europe [119], leading to the fact that consumers find it hard to differentiate between organic, local, traditional, and sustainable [122, 125-127]. Additionally, one cannot assume that all consumers believe that all organic products are totally complying with the organic principles (many consumers may have not even heard about such principles) and that the organic principles match with the internal triggers and values of the consumers.
To overcome this diversity in the market, organic products should try to be linked to other quality standards. The products with more added value (they would be more than organic) and the growing consumer preferences towards them have both been called ‘organic-plus’, and have been described by some authors [124]. Within this trend, environmental sustainability, freshness, and local economy are attributes of relevance. In other words, the consequences of the agrifood system (marketing channels, distribution) are becoming important for a growing number of consumers. However, these topics are not covered by the organic regulations, and most of the organic products have been produced and marketed through the mainstream agrifood system; conventional marketing channels characterized by the concentration of production, exporting most of the production, low domestic consumption, and concentration in supply centers and large retail chains. This orientation of organic production into conventional marketing channels and production systems (monocultures and agrochemicals) has been well-documented and is known as “conventionalization” of the organic production and “input substitution” [128].
As a consequence, this type of production (despite being organic) does not always provide consumers with products as fresh, local, and sustainable as they desire, nor positively impact environmental protection and/or rural development in such degree, as was explained above.
In summary, it seems that organic products are not the solution for many consumers that really want to access sustainable products. If organic companies and/or policy makers do not take into account these aspects, the growth of the organic sector, as well as their positive externalities, will be limited.
Organic livestock farming (especially its organic principles than regulations) may be a useful strategy to overcome the challenges of the agricultural sector (sustainability, food security, and food safety) while matching with consumers´ tendencies (animal welfare, health, environmental protection, etc.). Furthermore, organic livestock farming could be also an interesting strategy for the eternal rural development issue and the farms’ decreasing profitability.
However, the combination of complying with organic regulations and objectives and principles of organic farming while increasing overall sustainability is not an easy task. Due to this, it is inappropriate to generalize the benefits of organic livestock farming itself, since the feasibility of implementing organic livestock production systems and their consequences varies greatly, and are site and time-specific. Therefore, it must be remembered that any production system that does not evolve from its initial state (i.e., defined by law) and do not take into account both the time and spatial scales cannot be sustainable worldwide and for a long time. Due to this, a SWOT study along with an assessment of the future effects and difficulties of organic farms under specific contexts is really needed. By doing so, it will be possible to design site-specific and successful options that comply with organic regulations and principles, while being sustainable.
Moreover, some topics must be addressed in order to increase the organic livestock farm’s success. Firstly, it has been observed that most of the farmers do not focus on sustainability nor environmental improvement, and that many farms are easily complying with the organic regulations without carrying out environmentally-friendly management practices in their agro-ecosystems. Due to this, improved education and training of farmers and consultants regarding conservation agriculture and GHG mitigation are really needed.
Secondly, there is a need to design feeding strategies that provide adequate nutrition, especially in areas with environmental constraints, such as arid and semi-arid areas. Moreover, regulations should both unify criteria and facilitate the production of feed additives by companies, because the consequences of it could be really important and positive for the organic livestock sector and for the sustainability of the food system.
Thirdly, the knowledge of the veterinarians with regard to animal health management must be improved as fast as the sector is growing. Related to this, more light must be shed on the relationship between animal welfare, "natural living-behavior", and animal health. Furthermore, health care protocols must be developed for each species, including research on alternative and complementary methods of disease prevention.
Fourthly, CAP schemes should be improved in order to reward systems that produce positive externalities in a greater extent despite being low in productivity, since the agricultural sector remains an essential driver of rural areas. These systems contribute to environmental, cultural, and heritage conservation, which finally lead to revitalized rural areas and overall sustainability (from the economic, social, and environmental standpoints).
Finally, and more urgently, special attention must be paid on the marketing strategies of organic products (organic plus products and marketing channels) since this is the main constraint of the sector, and it is the point where there are more possibilities for improvement for both farm profitability and overall sustainability of the food system.
Nanotechnology is regarded as a new discipline that has a significant influence on human life in several respects with various applications [1]. Current nanoscience research is based on nanoparticle synthesis. Metal nanoparticles are used for a wide range of applications including biosensors, organic marking, cancer therapy, textiles, household and industrial applications etc. Silver nanoparticles AgNPs are mostly used in wound dressings, care of the eye, oral hygiene, biomaterials of bone substitutes, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory drugs as well as in the coating of catheter products as anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial agents [2]. Silver is a stable and non-hazardous antibiotic agent used for centuries [3]. Most antimicrobials have many disadvantages including low stability, environmental toxicity and the lack of specificity towards the target microorganisms [4]. Few other antimicrobials are extremely irritating and expensive to develop [5].
Silver has the unusual property of binding cellular components that are far larger than nuclear acids [6]. AgNPs may be synthesized employing physical, chemical and biological processes. The majority of the physical and chemical processes of synthesizing nanoparticles have many disadvantages such as low yield, strong reducing agents, energy-intensive mechanisms, uneven particle size and aggregate instability, hazardous waste production, difficulty to scale up and expensive organo-metallic precursors are required [7]. Biological approaches for the synthesis of nanoparticles are regarded as more stable and efficient [8]. For several nanoparticles like gold, silver, platinum and palladium, titanium dioxide, magnetite and cadmium sulphide, the most possible bio-factories are bacteria. Bacteria-mediated AgNPs synthesis is preferred in comparison with other techniques.
Furthermore, bacteria mediated AgNPs are simpler to grow and environment friendly. Both intracellular (biomass) as well as extracellular (cell extracts) synthesis of silver nanoparticles can be performed. Intracellular approaches include the release of synthesized nanoparticles through ultrasonication and additional reactions with specific detergents. It is therefore essential that the AgNPs are synthesized with extracellular methods because of their easy downstream processing that supports large-scale development [7, 9, 10]. There is now a prevalence of multiple tolerance to antibiotics by various clinical infections and pathogens of the urinary tract, caused by excess antibiotics and by an accumulation of antibiotics in the system. This kind of resistance is exhibited by
In broader terms, nanoparticles can be synthesized either by (i) Top- down approach, or (ii) Bottom- up approach [15]. Based on the reaction conditions and operation, these two classes can be further categorized as physical, chemical and biological methods [15].
Top- down approach
In this method, larger molecules are broken down into smaller units which are then transformed into suitable nanoparticles [15] According to a study, the synthesis of the spherical magnetite nanoparticles that uses natural iron oxide is performed through top- down method which produces particle sizes ranging from 20 nm to 50 nm [15].
Bottom- up approach
This method works in reverse to the top- down approach as nanoparticlessynthesised using this approach are formed from smaller and relatively simpler substances that form clusters and are subsequently converted into desired nanoparticles. This technique is also known as building up approach. Sedimentation and reduction technique fall under this category which include sol gel, green synthesis, spinning and biochemical synthesis [15].
Green synthesis of nanoparticles refers to the synthesis of nanoparticles through biological routes such as those with the help of microorganisms, enzymes, fungus plants or using various plant products [16, 17] Conventional physical or chemical methods of nanoparticle synthesis often produce byproducts that are hazardous to the environment which is one of the key reasons to opt for a more suitable alternative, that is, the green synthesis or green technology [16]. Other aspects by which green synthesis is more superior than the physical and chemical methods are that they are cost efficient and consume less energy [16].
Bottom- up approach is employed in biological- based synthesis of nanoparticles that requires the use of stabilizing and reducing agents [16]. The process of biologically synthesizing nanoparticles is basically divided into three steps: (i) the choice of a suitable solvent medium used, (ii) the choice of a suitable reducing agent that is eco- friendly and environmentally benign, and (iii) the choice of a non- toxic capping agent that can stabilize the synthesized nanoparticles [16].
Prokaryotes as well as eukaryotes are used in the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles such as silver, gold, platinum, iron, and metal oxides such as zinc oxide and titanium oxide [17].
Nanoparticles have an antimicrobial activity that is capable of overcoming typical resistant mechanisms, including inactivation of the enzymes, reduction of cell permeabilities, modification of target sites/enzymes, and increasing efflux by excessive expression of efflux pumps to escape antimicrobial activity [19, 20]. In addition, NPs combined with antibiotics have a synergistic impact on bacteria, prevent biofilm formation and are used in combating multidrug-resistant organisms [20, 21]. Many features of the nanoparticles provide alternatives to conventional antibiotics. First, with the high volume-surface ratio of nanoparticles, the interaction area with the target species is increased. NP can function as nanoscale molecules that communicate with bacterial cells, regulate penetration of cell membranes and interfere with molecular pathways [22, 23, 24]. Secondly, nanoparticles may enhance the inhibitory effects of antibiotics. Saha et al. [25] reported that gold nanoparticles conjugated with ampicillin, streptomycin, or kanamycin could lower the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of the antibiotic counterparts against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Gupta et al. [26] have shown a synergistic impact on multi-drug-resistant
The complexity of the physicochemical properties, including the scale, form, chemical changes, solvent and environmental factors may influence the antibacterial properties and interfere with the bacteria during the preparation of nanoparticles [27]. Finally, antibiotic and nanoparticle combinations have diverse antimicrobial pathways for overcoming antibiotic resistance [28]. Thus, nanoparticles are regarded as next-generation antibiotics.
Nanoparticles, primarily metallic, have proved effective against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria in both in vitro and in vivo studies [29]. Even though the antimicrobial mechanisms that are based on the size, shape, zeta-potential, ligands, and material used are not fully understood [28, 29, 30] some of the currently accepted mechanisms include (1) disruption of membrane potential and integrity through direct contact with bacteria; (2) activation of the host immune responses; (3) inhibition of biofilm formation; (4) generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS); and (5) induction of intracellular effects to inhibit RNA and protein synthesis [21, 27]. Nanoparticle coatings on implantable devices, urinary catheters, wound dressings, bone cement, or dental implants/materials can function as nanoparticle-based antibiotic delivery systems [31, 32]. Furthermore, nanoparticles can be used as vectors to transfer and deliver higher doses of drugs to infected sites [21]. Thus, the combination of NPs and antimicrobial agents may be beneficial in fighting the ongoing crisis of antimicrobial resistance [20]. The combination of nanoparticles and antimicrobials could thus help to combat the current anti-microbial resistance crisis [20].
Nanoparticles with antimicrobial activity that combat
Antibiotic resistance is often associated with biofilm formation and an active quorum sensing machinery within a bacterial cell. Biofilm plays a crucial role by evading the action of antibiotics that hinder their entry in the cell membrane surface as a result rapid dissemination of resistance may occur. Almost all bacteria posses biofilm and it may remain in an inert state by modulating the epigenetic changes within its genome allowing them to develop adaptive resistance as a result. Exopolysaccharide capsular fractions, extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), also provide structural integrity that works as a barrier, restrict the antibiotic action by modulating the cellular integrity, further promote antimicrobial resistance. Several evidences have shown the capability of nanoparticle to disrupt the cell membrane, hinder biofilm formation and dispute the active quorum-sensing systems. The design of biologically active nanoparticle has to be made in such a way that it must circumvent the barrier function to elicit their activity. The most predominant and promising strategy could be to interfere with the cellular signaling mediated by quorum sensing molecules such as Acyl homoserine lactone (AHLs) for Gram-negative bacteria and peptides of Gram-positive bacteria. (Figure 1).
Mechanism of antimicrobial activity by nanoparticles.
The mechanism of the nanoparticle often dealt with the synthesis of N-acetylated homoserine lactonase proteins (AiiA) capable of modulating signals by preventing the stimuli from reaching its cognate receptor site, as a result, the intracellular signaling affects the communication. The activity of quorum quenching could be enhanced by coupling the drug moieties into a nanoformulation. Enormous alternatives are available, capable enough to elicit its activity by employing dendrimers, chitosan and liposome coating to give effective drug delivery. Siddhardha et al. [39], have recently evaluated the anti-biofilm property of the chrysin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles and their role in combating infections caused by
Nanoparticles were further characterized and assessed for their ability as an anti-biofilm compound against
Silver nanoparticles have been identified as an excellent antibacterial agent with potential medical applications. Green nanoparticle synthesis has emerged as a viable alternative to overcome the limitations of traditional methods of nanoparticle synthesis [40]. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) employs plant constituents such as sugars, fats, flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenols have become an alternative to the rational chemical formulation. To date, green synthesis of AgNPs is carried out by using fruit extract of
Paradoxically Mechanism of action of AgNPs for eliciting antibacterial efficacy is a controversial topic. Several research papers have shared certain assumptions such as Ag ions get released by the AgNPs and submerged around the cell surface affecting the penetration barrier of the cell wall or cell surface by dismantling the cellular permeability. It has been reported that AgNPs can affect DNA replication while interacting with thiol moieties of protein molecule initiate protein deactivation with the concomitant liberation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [42].
Other hypotheses suggest that the receptor musking capabilities of AgNPs due to their size which might restrict the biofilm formation in
Certain Gram-negative bacteria are more susceptible to AgNPs because of their hallmark cellular architecture, which is the presence of an outer membrane coating over the polymeric peptidoglycan layer. On the other hand, the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria is much narrower than that of gram-positive bacteria, hence, the thick cell wall might reduce the penetration of NPs into cells. Moreover, the antibacterial effects of AgNPs on gram-negative and gram-positive cell emphasize that uptake of AgNPs is crucial to elicit its antibacterial effect.
Silver nanoparticles, smaller than 10 nm can directly alter cell permeability, enter bacterial cells and cause cell damage by employing the abovementioned strategies. Most of the noxious biofilm formers, rapidly develop exopolymeric substances which protect bacteria from both Ag + and NPs activity by hindering their transport. Researchers have observed that 100% reduction or mortality of bacteria did not occur in the biofilm state, whereas, AgNPs with the same concentration, enabled their effect by killing all planktonic cells. However, the polymeric biofilm hinders the use AgNPs, due to its complicated cellular architecture. Diffusion coefficients of AgNPs are generally related to size, shape and physicochemical characteristics, which governs their mobility and bioavailability in biofilm structure. The diffusion coefficient decreases with increasing molar mass make it harder for larger AgNPs to counter biofilm formation. Inter and Intracellular transport through bacterial biofilm can be impacted for particles >50 nm. Chemical constituents of NPs can also arouse adsorption augmentation of AgNPs in the biofilm, by interfering with their diffusion profile. Lastly, electrostatic intricacy among bacteria and AgNPs could influence charged nanoparticles’ penetration through biofilm [44].
Silver is being considered to be a potent antimicrobial agent. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are the most promising inorganic NPs employed to treat a variety of bacterial infections. Synthesis of AgNPs could be achieved by green syntheses such as using plant or microbial extracts. AgNPs mediated cell death, causing cell wall disruption has become one of the most striking opportunities for the antimicrobial researcher to evaluate its efficacy
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) prove to be one of the key elements for the defense strategy against various high-density bacterial infections. Unfortunately, AMPs are sparingly soluble and have possess poor enzymatic stability, often get churned into pieces before they cross the biological barrier due to their low permeability. Immobilization of AMPs onto NPs can be an exciting way for drug delivery. Polymyxin B is the most used AMP, as it has a good antibacterial activity, it modulates the LPS in the outer membrane present within Gram-negative cells. It has been demonstrated recently that AgNPs coupled with polymyxin-B removed endotoxin contamination from the surgical solutions and downregulated the biofilm formation on the blades used for surgical procedures.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles are utilized in food as additives, supplements, containers, and packaging; in the energy sector as fuels and catalysts; in consumer electronics, semiconductors, and air filters; in biomedical engineering; and in drinking water.
Plant constituents such as
Recently, the antibacterial efficacy of Zn NPs was assessed for
Zinc nanoparticles minimize the use of toxic substances in NPs fabrication and modulate the antibacterial efficacy and biomedical applications. Several studies have reported the efficacy of ZnO NPs against various pathogenic bacteria. It has been observed that the shape and size of ZnO NPs dependent on several physicochemical characteristics such as reaction kinetics, annealing temperature and pH. ZnONPs exhibit a strong antimicrobial efficacy for
Green synthesis of Zn NPs could be initiated by rapid mixing of the aqueous solution of 0.01 M zinc acetate dehydrate with above mentioned any of the leaf extracts. This process is further followed by constant stirring till the appearance of white suspension. The pH needs to be adjusted till the ZnO NPs precipitate is completely dissolved. Finally, the spectra exhibites an absorption band with a resolution of 1.0 nm between 350 and 500 nm, which confirms the formation of ZnO NPs. Physicochemical parameters regulate the green synthesis of inorganic metal NPs. Hence, several physicochemical parameters are optimized such as pH, temperature; reaction time and concentration of the metal ions [51].
Zinc oxide NPs are characterized for their bactericidal activity by affecting planktonic cell growth and their proliferation. Like AgNPs the mechanism is to produce ROS with an adjunct to its Zn2+ release in a liquid medium, which hinders the enzymatic activity and normal physiological process within a healthy bacterial cell. The stability of these oxides is achieved by their high density, high melting point, high thermal conductance and conductivity. Besides ZnO, rare-earth NPs have become one of the alternative treatment choices and their oxide forms differ in chemistry from the main group elements as well as transition metals because the 4
Moreover, ZnO NPs impregnated with antibiotics have shown better efficacy to act as an antimicrobial agent against almost every noxious biofilm formers under the group of ESKAPE pathogens viz.
Nanoparticle alloys made by the combination of Ag and Au may.be used to enhance the effects of a drug. Even tough they have antimicrobial effects when used alone, once they are used in combination their effects get enhanced [30, 53]. It has been reported that AgNPs face difficulties in functionalizing with biomolecules and drugs, to overcome this limitation in monometallic NPs, alloy/bimetallic NPs have been introduced which possess improved electronic, optical and catalytic properties [54, 55]. AuNPs are considered to be good vectors for the delivery of pharmacologic compounds. The combinatorial effect of nanoparticle alloys increases efficacy- in biological media, gold enhances the functionalization improves the stability along with the antimicrobial activity of silver [56, 57]. Fakhri et al. [38] found that antibiotic (tetracycline) along with the bimetallic nanoparticles (Au-AgNPs.) showed a synergetic effect, with greater antimicrobial activity. Baker et al. [58] in their study have reported antimicrobial activity of bimetallic AgAuNPs against
For overcoming antibiotic resistance, NPs can be customized and packaged with various antimicrobial agents. NPs use several mechanisms to combat bacterial resistance. If NPs are used in combination with antibiotics, there is very less chance that bacteria can develop resistance [60, 61]. Thus, NPs in combination with antibiotics can be a promising strategy to overcome bacterial resistance. Additionally, NPs are effective antimicrobial delivery systems, and may reduce the dosage and toxicity of antibiotics [24]. Very low concentrations of AgNPs and antibiotics have been synergistically found to inhibit various pathogens such as
Although there is an immense progress in the field of nanotechnology, but the consequent health effects that are related to the exposure to nanoparticles remain largely unexplored. Researchers have started to characterize the risks associated with nanoparticle exposure. [65]. Impact of NPs on beneficial bacteria in humans should be of high concern [66, 67]. It has been reported that NPs can cause hemeolysis thus, may impair blood coagulation [68]. The precise mechanism of toxic effects of NPs is not so clear, but it has been observed that nanoparticles larger in size pose a greater threat on human health. In most of the invitro studies conducted on AgNPs, it has been observed that AgNPs are more toxic for cell lines [69, 70]. Deposition of AgNPs has been observed in many organs such as liver, lungs, spleen which has been linked to organ damage [24]. In blood and urine of burn patients elevated levels of Ag have been reported, this may be due to leaching from Ag wound dressing (Acticoat®),which is composed of Ag nanocrystals, into the blood stream [67, 71].
Neurotoxicity has been associated with Al2O3 NPs which interact with cellular components [33]. CuONPs have been observed to induce oxidative damage. CuO NPs induce hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity through the generation of free radical-mediated oxidative stress [20, 72, 73]. DNA damage has been associated with ZnO or TiO2 NPs thus, limiting their use [24]. Hagens et al. [74] have reported that NPs that are administered intravenously could get accumulated in bone marrow, colon, lung, liver, spleen as well as lymphatic system. Inhalation of NPs has been associated with cytotoxicity in the lungs [75].
In various
Silver and Zinc NPs have the ability to interact with and influence the growth of a variety of microorganisms. Therefore, Ag and Zn NPs could be employed as a broad-spectrum antibiotic agents to combat bacterial infections. Plant extracts are used to make Ag and Zn NPs, which is cost-effective and eco-friendly. The antibacterial action of Ag and Zn NPs appears to be attributed to their structure, ultrasmall size, and increased surface area, which allows them to damage and pass the bacterial membrane that is responsible for intracellular damage. It has been described that NPs in combination with antibiotics can be a promising strategy to overcome bacterial resistance. Synthesis of Ag and Zn NPs via green-synthesis methods and mechanisms of action against bacteria have been elucidated. We have also shed light on toxicity associated with the use of NPs. Ultimately, it can be conluded that both Ag and Zn sNP have broad-spectrum antibiotic activity against bacteria, making them prospective therapeutic agents for bacterial infections and multidrug-resistant pathogens.
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
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\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
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Meanwhile, decision-making periods of location choice and determining areal densities are conducted without quantitative spatial/technical analyses. Those urban matters bring along new planning paradigms like smart growth (SG) and new urbanism. SG is a land use planning paradigm which indicates that traffic problems should be minimized by transit alternatives, effective demand management and providing a balance between land use and transportation planning. This study aims to apply SG strategies to the land use planning process and evaluate the accuracy of land use planning decisions in the perspective of sustainable transportation. In order to reveal the effects of land use planning decisions on the available transportation infrastructure, two scenarios are investigated for 2030. In the first scenario “do nothing” option is considered, while the residential area densities and trip generation rates are regulated based on SG strategies in the second scenario. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"94",type:"subseries",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",keywords:"Environmental protection, Socio-economic development, Resource exploitation, Environmental degradation, Climate change, Degraded ecosystems, Biodiversity loss",scope:"\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/143099",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"143099"},fullPath:"/profiles/143099",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()