IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
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In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5770",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mesenchymal Stem Cells - Isolation, Characterization and Applications",title:"Mesenchymal Stem Cells",subtitle:"Isolation, Characterization and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Mesenchymal Stem Cells: Isolation, Characterization, and Applications thoroughly presents the isolation, characterization, and some applications of mesenchymal stem cells in the clinic. The book has two parts: "Isolation and Characterization" and "Clinical Perspectives and Applications." In Part I, the subsequent chapters introduce some techniques in isolation, characterization, and purification of mesenchymal stem cells in different tissues. In Part II, some applications of mesenchymal stem cells in the popular diseases, which include cartilage regeneration, spinal cord injury, and osteoarthritis, are discussed. This book provides a succinct yet comprehensive overview of mesenchymal stem cells for advanced students, graduate students, and researchers.',isbn:"978-953-51-3616-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3615-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4588-2",doi:"10.5772/65212",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mesenchymal-stem-cells-isolation-characterization-and-applications",numberOfPages:300,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8d2f6e69167ad835f02cf8848065c202",bookSignature:"Phuc Van Pham",publishedDate:"November 29th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5770.jpg",numberOfDownloads:18376,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:27,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:52,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 15th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 6th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 2nd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 2nd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 1st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"28799",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Phuc Van",middleName:"Van",surname:"Pham",slug:"phuc-van-pham",fullName:"Phuc Van Pham",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/28799/images/system/28799.png",biography:"Phuc Van Pham received his Ph.D. in Human Physiology from Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. He is currently an Associate Professor of Biology at Vietnam National University; Direct of Stem Cell Institute; Director of the Laboratory of Stem Cell Research and Application; and Vice-Director of the Laboratory of Cancer Research. He is a longstanding lecturer and translational scientist at the University, and is a member of several societies and journal editorial boards focused on stem cells as well as cellular therapy.",institutionString:"VNU-HCM University of Science",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"390",title:"Stem Cell Research",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-cell-biology-stem-cell-research"}],chapters:[{id:"55815",title:"Physical versus Immunological Purification of Mesenchymal Stem Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69295",slug:"physical-versus-immunological-purification-of-mesenchymal-stem-cells",totalDownloads:1580,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A prerequisite before dealing with any cell type is to identify it and isolate it from the heterogeneous cell population that it belongs to. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) can be found in nearly all tissues and are mostly located in perivascular niches.",signatures:"Radwa Ali Mehanna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55815",authors:[{id:"182118",title:"Dr.",name:"Radwa Ali",surname:"Mehanna",slug:"radwa-ali-mehanna",fullName:"Radwa Ali Mehanna"}],corrections:null},{id:"55360",title:"Phenotypic and Functional Mapping of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Harvested from Different Portions of the Human Arterial Tree",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68427",slug:"phenotypic-and-functional-mapping-of-mesenchymal-stem-cells-harvested-from-different-portions-of-the",totalDownloads:1246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The human arterial wall contains progenitors and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) acting as a postnatal reservoir of stem cells during lifetime. They are nestled in distinct arterial zones close to blood support, that is, the intima and the media-adventitia vasa vasorum plexus, representing vascular stem cell niches. In previous studies, MSCs were successfully isolated from fresh and cadaveric human large- and middle-sized arteries; these cells have a mesenchymal phenotype, self-renewal ability, and tri-lineage plasticity with high endothelial and smooth muscle cell differentiation potential. Here we present an overview of human MSCs derived from the vascular wall (hVW-MSCs) of different anatomical sites focusing on their phenotypic expression, multilineage potency, and stemness properties based on the localization in the arterial tree. We describe the isolation protocols as well as immunophenotyping, functional, and ultrastructure methods used to investigate these cell properties. hVW-MSCs from distinct portions of the vascular tree exhibit distinct phenotypic expression, multilineage potency, and stemness properties. This observation may contribute to explain the regional differences seen in vascular disease; moreover the different attitudes that hVW-MSCs exhibit in vascular differentiation should be taken in consideration whenever cell therapy, regenerative medicine, and tissue engineering strategies are attempted to replace tissues and organs.",signatures:"Valente Sabrina and Pasquinelli Gianandrea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55360",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55360",authors:[{id:"196382",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabrina",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabrina-valente",fullName:"Sabrina Valente"},{id:"197489",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianandrea",surname:"Pasquinelli",slug:"gianandrea-pasquinelli",fullName:"Gianandrea Pasquinelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"55767",title:"Characteristics of Full-Term Amniotic Fluid-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Different Culture Media",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69392",slug:"characteristics-of-full-term-amniotic-fluid-derived-mesenchymal-stem-cells-in-different-culture-medi",totalDownloads:1338,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Amniotic fluid contains precious therapeutic stem cells with ideal features such as they are broadly multipotent, genetically stable, and non-tumorigenic. One of the stem cells that is abundantly found in amniotic fluid is mesenchymal stem cells. Human amniotic fluid mesenchymal stem cells (hAFMSCs) had been successfully isolated from amniotic fluid obtained from second or third trimester amniocentesis. However, studies on hAFMSCs obtained during full-term delivery are still lacking. Furthermore, suitable culture media to propagate hAFMSCs for therapeutic purposes have not been fully established. Basal medium supplemented with fetal bovine serum is commonly used, and unfortunately, this condition has been associated with the risk of transmission of animal pathogens and xenogenic immune reaction. An efficient isolation and expansion method together with suitable culture conditions is essential in establishing a specific homogenous cell population, such as full-term hAFMSCs, of clinical grade. In this chapter we briefly describe the feasibility of generating hAFMSCs from full-term amniotic fluid obtained during cesarean section using serum-free medium as opposed to the conventional serum containing media. These findings would be very useful in utilizing stem cells for bench side application from a source that is accessible and devoid of ethical and safety concerns.",signatures:"Karuppiah Thilakavathy, Norshariza Nordin, Rajesh Ramasamy,\nPeyman Ghoraishizadeh, Izanwati Mohd Rawi Rohayu and Gurbind\nSingh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55767",authors:[{id:"195911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Thilakavathy",surname:"Karuppiah",slug:"thilakavathy-karuppiah",fullName:"Thilakavathy Karuppiah"},{id:"201873",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"rajesh-ramasamy",fullName:"Rajesh Ramasamy"},{id:"205278",title:"Dr.",name:"Norshariza",surname:"Nordin",slug:"norshariza-nordin",fullName:"Norshariza Nordin"},{id:"205279",title:"Dr.",name:"Gurbind",surname:"Singh",slug:"gurbind-singh",fullName:"Gurbind Singh"},{id:"205280",title:"Ms.",name:"Rohayu Izanwati",surname:"Mohd Rawi",slug:"rohayu-izanwati-mohd-rawi",fullName:"Rohayu Izanwati Mohd Rawi"},{id:"205281",title:"Mr.",name:"Peyman",surname:"Ghoraishizadeh",slug:"peyman-ghoraishizadeh",fullName:"Peyman Ghoraishizadeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"54643",title:"Stem Cells from Human Exfoliated Deciduous Teeth: Biology and Therapeutic Potential",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68173",slug:"stem-cells-from-human-exfoliated-deciduous-teeth-biology-and-therapeutic-potential",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stem cells isolated from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHEDs) are a type of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), widely investigated for regenerative treatment. They are isolated from dental pulp tissues remaining in physiologically shedding human deciduous teeth. Thus, SHEDs are easy to access and not required invasive procedure to obtain cells. SHEDs are multipotent mesenchymal stem cells; however, they possess distinct properties when compared to other MSCs. In this regard, SHEDs exhibit higher proliferative rate than bone marrow‐derived MSCs and greater osteogenic differentiation potency than human dental pulp stem cells. This chapter reviews the isolation technique and basic characteristics of SHEDs. Moreover, the intracellular signalling involved in the stemness regulation and differentiation ability of SHEDs is discussed, particularly on fibroblast growth factor, Notch, and Wnt signalling. Finally, the potential regenerative therapeutic application of SHEDs is also described.",signatures:"Waleerat Sukarawan and Thanaphum Osathanon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54643",authors:[{id:"195871",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Thanaphum",surname:"Osathanon",slug:"thanaphum-osathanon",fullName:"Thanaphum Osathanon"},{id:"195872",title:"Dr.",name:"Waleerat",surname:"Sukarawan",slug:"waleerat-sukarawan",fullName:"Waleerat Sukarawan"}],corrections:null},{id:"55235",title:"Olfactory Mucosa Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Biomaterials: A New Combination to Regenerative Therapies after Peripheral Nerve Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68174",slug:"olfactory-mucosa-mesenchymal-stem-cells-and-biomaterials-a-new-combination-to-regenerative-therapies",totalDownloads:1884,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The peripheral nerve injury after trauma is a common occurrence in both human and veterinary medicine and has severe consequences for the survival and quality of life of the patients. Despite the continuous efforts and the creation of diverse medical and surgical techniques, the harmful effects of this type of injury are far from being overcome. Regenerative medicine has been growing in the scientific milieu as a new therapeutic approach for different situations. Among the cell-based therapies explored, the mesenchymal stem cells are evidenced by their features, versatility and potential applications. The olfactory mucosa mesenchymal stem cells, components of the olfactory system and identified in the lamina propria, were newly identified and are still undergoing characterization, appearing as a new promise in the regenerative therapy of several tissues but with special emphasis on the nervous system in general and the peripheral nervous system in particular, for which they appear to have special regenerative aptitude.",signatures:"Rui Damásio Alvites, Ana Rita Caseiro Santos, Artur Severo Proença\nVarejão and Ana Colette Pereira de Castro Osório Maurício",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55235",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55235",authors:[{id:"56285",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Colette",surname:"Maurício",slug:"ana-colette-mauricio",fullName:"Ana Colette Maurício"},{id:"56291",title:"Dr.",name:"Artur",surname:"Varejão",slug:"artur-varejao",fullName:"Artur Varejão"},{id:"188034",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",surname:"Caseiro",slug:"rita-caseiro",fullName:"Rita Caseiro"},{id:"196044",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui",surname:"Alvites",slug:"rui-alvites",fullName:"Rui Alvites"}],corrections:null},{id:"55402",title:"Mesenchymal Stem Cells: A Future Option for Intervening Disease Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68515",slug:"mesenchymal-stem-cells-a-future-option-for-intervening-disease-management",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Regeneration, revitalizing and reversal (RRR) are the primordial functions of the stem cells in the field of regenerative medicine. Though there are several cases of successful stem cell transplantation the reversal of metabolic diseases and the acquired secondary complications like chronic renal failure, neuropathy, stroke or vascular diseases are not well studied. The transplanted cells in many cases failed to home or graft in the host with no reason to attribute for such failures. Therefore, it becomes necessary to address these secondary complications with cellular therapy. The oxidative stress of the cells and tissues are attributed to the hostile microenvironment, not suitable for the survival of newly recruited cells. From our few animal studies and published literatures sources elsewhere, we foresee a huge potential for using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to initially combat the secondary cardiovascular and neuronal complications in the management of the metabolic diseases. However, not all the stem cells have been tested in these lines, and further we do not know, whether all the progenitor cells from various sources and origin will behave like MSCs, which needs to be studied extensively.",signatures:"Harish C. Chandramoorthy, Vishnu Balaji Radhakrishnan and\nNarasimman Gurusamy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55402",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55402",authors:[{id:"195959",title:"Dr.",name:"Harish",surname:"C Chandramoorthy",slug:"harish-c-chandramoorthy",fullName:"Harish C Chandramoorthy"},{id:"205502",title:"Dr.",name:"Vishnu Balaji",surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"vishnu-balaji-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Vishnu Balaji Radhakrishnan"},{id:"205503",title:"Dr.",name:"Narasimman",surname:"Gurusamy",slug:"narasimman-gurusamy",fullName:"Narasimman Gurusamy"}],corrections:null},{id:"57478",title:"The Proangiogenic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Their Therapeutic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68516",slug:"the-proangiogenic-potential-of-mesenchymal-stem-cells-and-their-therapeutic-applications",totalDownloads:1237,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can be isolated from many tissue types and following in vitro culture expansion, large numbers of patient-specific or allogenic cells can be produced for clinical applications. MSCs exhibit anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties and are identified as lacking major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules. Cellular-based approaches using MSCs to enhance new blood vessel formation have shown promise in preclinical models and preliminary clinical trials. Transplantation of MSCs in vivo has significantly enhanced the formation of new blood vessels and promoted the healing of chronic wounds. The proangiogenic potential of MSCs can be further enhanced through gene delivery such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) or endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) providing long-term therapeutic expression. In this chapter, we review recent advances on the isolation and characterization of MSCs and in vivo applications for promoting angiogenesis. Enhancement of angiogenesis is also required for improved healing in myocardial infarction and cerebral ischemia, and the use of MSCs in these areas will also be reviewed. Furthermore, the combination of MSCs with biomaterials has greatly improved their survival and potency with improved vascularization of tissue-engineered constructs and integration within the host. In summary, this chapter provides an overview of both the basic science supporting the proangiogenic properties of MSCs and their translational use.",signatures:"Nadeeka Bandara, Shiang Lim, Haiying Chen, Shuangfeng Chen, Le-\nXin Wang and Padraig Strappe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57478",authors:[{id:"179037",title:"Dr.",name:"Padraig",surname:"Strappe",slug:"padraig-strappe",fullName:"Padraig Strappe"}],corrections:null},{id:"55537",title:"Current Applications of Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Cartilage Tissue Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68172",slug:"current-applications-of-mesenchymal-stem-cells-for-cartilage-tissue-engineering",totalDownloads:1446,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Articular cartilage injuries caused by traumatic/mechanical progressive degeneration result in joint pain, swelling, the consequent loss of joint function, and eventually osteoarthritis. Articular tissue possesses a poor ability to regenerate that further complicates the therapeutic approaches. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have emerged as a promising alternative treatment. Recently, it has been reported that a wide variety of strategies ranging from merely using cells in the injured area to employ biofunctional substitutes in which cells are harmonizing with scaffolding and growth factors to create an engineered cartilage tissue.",signatures:"Lizeth Fuentes-Mera, Alberto Camacho, Nidia K. Moncada-Saucedo\nand Víctor Peña-Martínez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55537",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55537",authors:[{id:"196376",title:"Dr.",name:"Lizeth",surname:"Fuentes-Mera",slug:"lizeth-fuentes-mera",fullName:"Lizeth Fuentes-Mera"},{id:"198410",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Camacho",slug:"alberto-camacho",fullName:"Alberto Camacho"},{id:"204534",title:"Dr.",name:"Nidia K.",surname:"Moncada-Saucedo",slug:"nidia-k.-moncada-saucedo",fullName:"Nidia K. Moncada-Saucedo"},{id:"205441",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Peña-Martinez",slug:"victor-pena-martinez",fullName:"Victor Peña-Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"55835",title:"Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Optimizing Bone Volume at the Dental Implant Recipient Site",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68514",slug:"mesenchymal-stem-cells-for-optimizing-bone-volume-at-the-dental-implant-recipient-site",totalDownloads:1161,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Inadequate bone volume at the implant recipient site presents a clinical challenge for many dental practitioners. To overcome these problems, several approaches have been developed and are currently used, including bone grafting strategies and distraction osteogenesis. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have gained their popularity within the last two decades, with regard to promising clinical results in improving the bone architecture at the implant recipient site. The aim of this chapter was to briefly outline the accessibility properties, differentiation capacities, isolation, and characterization of MSCs with regard to optimizing bone volume in dental implantology. Additionally, potential benefits and pitfalls are discussed in comparison with the conventional bone augmentation techniques.",signatures:"Mustafa Ayna, Aydin Gülses, Jörg Wiltfang and Yahya Açil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55835",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55835",authors:[{id:"29060",title:"Dr.",name:"Aydin",surname:"Gulses",slug:"aydin-gulses",fullName:"Aydin Gulses"},{id:"177975",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Ayna",slug:"mustafa-ayna",fullName:"Mustafa Ayna"}],corrections:null},{id:"55572",title:"Stem Cell-Based Therapies for Osteoarthritis: From Pre-Clinical to Clinical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68176",slug:"stem-cell-based-therapies-for-osteoarthritis-from-pre-clinical-to-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:1321,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although many surgical and pharmaceutical interventions are currently available for treating osteoarthritis (OA), restoration of normal cartilage function remains inefficient. In fact, because of the absence of vasculature within the articular cartilage (AC), the self-potential for regeneration is very poor. Recently, researchers and clinicians have been focusing on alternative methods for cartilage preservation and repair. It has been shown that AC contains a population of stem cells or progenitor cells, similar to those found in many other adult tissues that are thought to be involved in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. In the present chapter, we review the current status of stem cells potential in the treatment of early OA and discuss the possible origin of these cells and the role they might have in cartilage repair. We also review the recent progress in the field of chondroprogenitors in cartilage.",signatures:"Hechmi Toumi, Eric Lespessailles and Marija Mazor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55572",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55572",authors:[{id:"196403",title:"Prof.",name:"Hechmi",surname:"Toumi",slug:"hechmi-toumi",fullName:"Hechmi Toumi"},{id:"196524",title:"Dr.",name:"Marija",surname:"Mazor",slug:"marija-mazor",fullName:"Marija Mazor"}],corrections:null},{id:"55988",title:"Prerequisites for Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplantation in Spinal Cord Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69554",slug:"prerequisites-for-mesenchymal-stem-cell-transplantation-in-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:1332,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We have aimed at distinguishing obligatory prerequisites for mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in spinal cord injury from those prerequisites which are unnecessary or are prerequisites that have to be further investigated. Obligatory prerequisites include the following. First, the site of injury is extensively gliotic, constituting an unsuitable medium for stem cell transplantation. It has to be dissolved by neurolyzing agents, chondroitinase ABC as an example. Second, stem cells need a suitable biomaterial scaffold for their proper integration. Third, the biomaterial scaffold necessitates a tissue filler harboring stem cells, other cells and neurotrophic factors in a combinatorial approach. Fourth, the efficiency of mesenchymal stem cells themselves has to be increased (by reducing oxidative stress-induced apoptosis, by hypoxic preconditioning, by modulating the extracellular matrix and by other measures). Prerequisites that have to be further investigated include the ideal source, mode, quantity, time point and number of injections of mesenchymal stem cells; which growth factors and cells to be used in the combinatorial approach; transforming mesenchymal stem cells into motor neuron-like cells or Schwann cells; increasing the homing effect of stem cells and how to establish a continuous drug and cell delivery system.",signatures:"Sherif M. Amr",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55988",authors:[{id:"179930",title:"Prof.",name:"Sherif",surname:"Amr",slug:"sherif-amr",fullName:"Sherif Amr"}],corrections:null},{id:"56877",title:"Mesenchymal Stem Cell in the Intervertebral Disc",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69296",slug:"mesenchymal-stem-cell-in-the-intervertebral-disc",totalDownloads:1140,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Degeneration of the intervertebral disc (IVD) is a major spinal disorder that causes back pain. Nucleus pulposus (NP) in the central of IVD dehydrates and become more fibrous in the IVD degeneration. NP cells undergo apoptosis with the degeneration of extracellular matrix (ECM) components. To replenish the NP cells and core ECM, bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs) have been highlighted in the regeneration of IVD degeneration. BMSCs differentiate into NP-like cells with the secretion of ECM components, which may not only replenish the number of NP cells but also stimulate NP reconstruction. This further maintains tissue homeostasis. Up to date, the disc progenitor cells (DPCs) have been identified with the characteristics of multidifferentiation and stem cell phenotype. These cells are involved in the IVD diseases and show regenerative potentials. However, the differences between the BMSCs and DPCs remain elusive, in particular, the cellular connection in vivo. As such, this chapter will discuss the findings of the two cell types and propose a novel concept in the understanding of the biology of IVD.",signatures:"Dan Long, Shaoyu Liang, Haiyan Liu, Xiuping Wu, Zhongyang Li,\nHaozhong Wang, Shishu Huang and Jiancheng Zeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56877",authors:[{id:"195997",title:"Dr.",name:"Shishu",surname:"Huang",slug:"shishu-huang",fullName:"Shishu Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54431",title:"Transportation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Clinical Applications",doi:"10.5772/67716",slug:"transportation-of-mesenchymal-stem-cells-for-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:1655,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cell‐processing procedures are conducted in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practices, and clinical procedures are performed by highly optimised methods. A high‐quality transportation system is essential for safe and effective handling of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) between cell‐processing and transplantation stages. For MSC transportation, either frozen cell or non‐frozen cell transportation is performed. There are many requirements for transporting a package by either type of transportation. In frozen cell transportation, some issues have yet to be resolved: the primary receptacle and cryoprotectant reagents. In non‐frozen cell transportation, control of cell metabolism and protection from environmental changes are more serious problems. Stabilisation of temperature, shock resistance, gas control, and an ultraviolet radiation (UVR) shielding technology should be considered. The transportation system should be established in compliance with the guidelines. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Construction project planning and control requires an integral and comprehensive understanding of the construction site. During the planning process, a large volume of data are collected and created to identify potential problems on the construction site and select proper construction methods and procedures in order to ensure safety and on-time delivery of the project. Such data include (1) as-planned information that describes the design and the scope of the project, (2) as-built information that describes the actual situation on the construction site, and (3) environmental information that can be used to evaluate the impact of the environment on the project and the impact of the project on the environment. At present, engineers and project managers can be overwhelmed with various information coming from different sources (as listed in Table 1); however, maintaining large-volume heterogeneous datasets would become a big burden unless they can be linked and managed together to enable efficient information retrieval and facilitate problem identification [1].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Data
\n
Usage
\n
\n\n\n
\n
2D drawings (as-designed)
\n
Design
\n
\n
\n
3D models (as-designed)
\n
Design/construction prototyping [2, 3] Site layout planning [4] Crane path and lift planning [5]
\n
\n
\n
Images/videos (as-built)
\n
Site inspection and reporting As-built modeling [6, 7] Progress monitoring [8]
Satellite images, topographic data, et al. in GIS (environmental)
\n
Site layout planning [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] Route planning [15] Data management and visualization [1, 18, 19]
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Typical datasets available on a construction project.
\n
The adoption of advanced sensing and information management technologies in construction is greatly hindered by (1) high expenses on system development yet unclear benefits of implementation [20, 21, 22], (2) inefficient visualization and oversimplified site modeling methods for coping with complicated site environment [20], (3) insufficient integration and interoperability [23, 24], and (4) technology barriers and organizational difficulties in information sharing and distribution [20, 25].
\n
Several technologies have been applied on project information management and visualization, including building information modeling (BIM) [2], augmented reality (AR) [26, 27, 28], the integration of BIM and AR, the integration of GIS and BIM, and Google Earth, as listed in Table 2.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Technology
\n
Information
\n
\n\n\n
\n
BIM
\n
3D models
\n
\n
\n
AR
\n
3D models + images
\n
\n
\n
BIM + AR
\n
3D models + images
\n
\n
\n
GIS + BIM
\n
3D models + satellite images + topographic
\n
\n
\n
Google Earth
\n
3D models + images + satellite images + topographic
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Site information management methods.
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BIM demonstrates great potential to model rich geometric and semantic information of a building object but lacks the capability to incorporate as-built and environmental information. AR has gained substantial attention lately due to its capability to combine site photos and as-planned 3D models. However, the absence of an accurate model of the surrounding environment, for example, those 3D site models generally provided by 3D GIS systems, makes AR less instrumental in construction engineering applications that demand the representation of frequent, intensive interactions and relationships between the facilities being built and the site environment, especially where the project is situated in crowded cities or environmentally fragile areas. Researchers have also leveraged on the benefits of integrating BIM and AR [29, 30, 31, 32]. Nonetheless, incorporating AR into BIM software is still practically infeasible due to inherent limitations of BIM software in handling large external datasets for real-time rendering [31].
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GIS has achieved significant success in managing large-scale heterogeneous spatial information. Considerable attention has been placed on the integration of BIM models and GIS so as to integrate the indoor as-built information and the outdoor environmental information [33, 34]. To tackle unstructured data, researchers utilized variants of Extensible Markup Language (XML) to develop shared project information models thanks to its extensibility and interoperability on the web schemas [35, 36, 37]. Both the open source BIM standard of industrial foundation class (IFC) [38, 39, 40] and Web GIS formats (including LandXML [39, 41], City Geography Markup Language (CityGML) [42, 43, 44, 45], and Keyhole Markup Language (KML) [1]) are based on XML. LandXML is mainly intended for enhancing interoperability of data utilization in the land development industry. The integration between IFC and CityGML is the most investigated approach for integrated information modeling of buildings [43]. Majority of the works have attempted to covert semantically rich IFC models to CityGML models by taking advantage of the capability of GIS to handle huge datasets with a server-based approach [34, 43]. Earlier works [43, 44, 46] in this area focused on the conversion of geometric models. Ensuing research endeavors were intended to improve the conversion of semantic information [45, 47] using semantic mapping [42, 47, 48, 49] and ontology [42, 48].
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The integration of BIM and CityGML provides an effective means to manage indoor building information and outdoor environmental information. However, it lacks the functionality to support AR modeling based on site photos or videos. In contrast, KML—which represents a markup language specialized for data modeling in Google Earth—focuses on data integration and visualization. It provides various data models to support advanced visualization techniques including AR. In [50], KML was used to visualize building energy simulation results integrated with BIM. Another related endeavor [1] proposed the use of KML and Google Earth to generate a cost-effective site information management platform which integrated site photos, 3D models, and the building environment.
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In this chapter, we introduce an augmented GIS system called GoogleEarthWork—which is conceptualized from an academia-industry joint research endeavor and prototyped by taking advantage of KML and Google Earth for managing and visualizing heterogeneous site information in support of proactive project planning and control in the particular application context of rough grading earthwork construction. GoogleEarthWork focuses on the integration of 3D models, aerial and ground images, panoramas, and GIS data of the site environment that are commonly used for earthwork construction planning. Such datasets are seamlessly synthesized to facilitate the identification of quantitative and qualitative constraints in earthwork construction planning through applying computer vision techniques. Further, GoogleEarthWork runs on an automated earthwork planner engine program, leading to the generation of an optimized earthwork execution plan.
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2. GIS-based site information management and visualization
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Google Earth has been widely used by scientists and relevant stakeholders in addressing environmental and construction planning issues thanks to its ubiquity and rich geographic information. Diversified geographical information is presented to the user through a combination of digital elevation models, satellite imagery, 3D building models, street views, and user-uploaded images. Features such as tiling and level of detail (LOD) for images and 3D models enable Google Earth to manage large datasets with ease and efficiency, eclipsing majority of BIM software. Besides, KML enriches the extensibility of Google Earth significantly by providing users a standardized language to add data and customize analyses. With temporal and spatial information associated with each object, Google Earth enables efficient information retrieval through content navigation, 3D exploration, and time window filtering.
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The GoogleEarthWork—which is prototyped based on Google Earth using KML—seamlessly integrates information contained in unordered images, geometric models, and 3D GIS system. As presented in Figure 1, the system encompasses data collection, data processing, data management, and information visualization and distribution. Aerial and ground imageries of the construction site captured with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and mobile devices are selected as major data sources for actual site monitoring and modeling. As-planned models and project schedules provide main data sources to build a virtual construction process. In addition, the 3D environment construction environment is reproduced in the visualization system. Subsequent to data acquisition, images and models need to be processed such that they are compatible with KML. Models are divided into parts in order to denote distinct construction stages in line with construction schedule.
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Figure 1.
GoogleEarthWork for earthwork construction planning.
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Photogrammetry algorithms are also used in order to align unordered images within the WGS84 coordinate system adopted in Google Earth. Panoramic views and 3D reconstruction of the construction site are produced to facilitate a better comprehension of the construction environment. The resulting 3D point cloud captures the geometry of the construction site and is thereby used for cut/fill volume takeoff, as well as measuring the hauling distance between two areas. As-planned models are converted in the KML format and time-stamped in order to visualize the construction progress. The system provides stakeholders with a visually intuitive platform to perceive the construction site and identify potential problems such as spatial limits in connection with site accesses and site layouts through integrated information visualization. By storing data on the cloud, KML enables efficient management of large volumes of data in images and models. Sharing KML documents of limited size instead of original datasets also streamlines information distribution and improves computing efficiency performances.
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2.1 Data collection and preprocessing
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Google Earth provides project managers with free high-resolution satellite images and topographic information of the environment around a construction site. Such information is essential to plan for site accesses, site layouts, and traffic flows. As-planned information in 2D/3D drawings is crucial for scope definition, quantity takeoff, and progress monitoring. For earthwork projects specifically, the as-designed surface is required to take off cut/fill volumes. Besides, the structures being built also affect site accessibility and traffic flows.
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For as-built information, site photos have been widely used on a construction site for updating construction progress and reporting safety issues or other problems. However, images collected by different personnel are barely reused due to lack of efficient image management tools. It is desirable to automatically organize images with locations in a GIS system, but the positioning accuracy of mobile devices is inadequate for two main reasons, namely, (1) low-end localization sensors embedded in mobile devices and (2) multipath effect of radio frequency signals. In general, the camera pose obtained from a consumer-grade mobile device does not satisfy the need for geo-referencing and AR applications. Higher positioning accuracy can be obtained from aerial images taken by UAV due to high-grade localization sensors embedded and lessened multipath effects. After bundle adjustment [51], the camera pose can be further improved. By taking the optimized geo-location of aerial images as references, ground imageries can also be precisely aligned in the physical coordinate system. In addition, 3D reconstruction from images is instrumental in quantifying cut/fill volumes of earthmoving jobs and fixing distances and slopes of haul roads in earthwork construction planning. Most recent research endeavors [52] have demonstrated the cost-effectiveness of UAV photogrammetry for earthwork volume estimation.
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Structure from motion (SfM) [53] has been well studied in photogrammetry and computer vision domains to reconstruct the 3D structure of the scene from image collections and to recover the pose of these images. Taking unordered images as inputs, SfM outputs the precise image position and orientation, plus 3D reconstruction of the site as point cloud or model. Besides, high-resolution panoramas stitched from aerial photos are cost-effective substitutes for outdated low-resolution satellite images. As an incremental approach, SfM is suitable for processing construction site photos collected on an irregular basis along the time line. However, it requires redundant images in order to ensure “realism” of the scene. This is usually not assured when ground photos are taken by different personnel on a construction site. Therefore aerial images taken by UAV are used to materialize connecting and aligning scattered ground images. With a sequence of imageries taken on the construction site, the system implements the SfM procedure, starting from the first aerial imagery and taking it as the reference in subsequent processing of images taken by cell phones on the ground.
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The direct output of SfM includes the camera pose and a 3D point cloud of the object. A much denser 3D reconstruction of the object can be achieved using stereo matching subject to coplanar constraints [54]. To visualize the 3D reconstruction in GoogleEarthWork, a mesh model of the object is also produced. Further, panoramic images are generated by projecting original aerial photos onto the mesh model. An example is given in the subsequent section.
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\n
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2.2 Information integration with KML
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Based on XML, KML uses a tag-based structure with nested elements to manage data and information associated with an object in a hierarchical manner. Different from CityGML which is designed to represent geometric objects, the strength of KML lies in visualization on a web-based GIS platform. It defines basic elements to represent geometric objects, raster images, as well as their visual effects. Elements predefined in KML are divided into several categories according to their functionality: Feature for vector and raster geo-data, Geometry for 3D objects, AbstractView for navigation, TimePrimitive for date and time, and others for visualization style, LOD, and so on. As for GIS, geo-referencing elements are the most important for defining one object. Each object needs to be geo-referenced by <Location > and < Orientation > elements. A < Scaling > element is also available if scaling is necessary. The detailed information can be found through the KML reference; those elements intensively used in this research are listed in Table 3.
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\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Element
\n
Function
\n
Objects
\n
\n\n\n
\n
<Model>
\n
3D model representation and visualization
\n
3D models
\n
\n
\n
<GroundOverlay>
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Raster data alignment and overlay on Google Earth terrain
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Panoramic mosaics
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\n
\n
<PhotoOverlay>
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Image placement and orientation for AR visualization
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Original images
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\n
\n
<Camera>
\n
Camera position and orientation for AR and navigation
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Image pose
\n
\n
\n
<TimeStamp> <TimeSpan>
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Associate date/time for 4D exploration of objects and activities
\n
Schedule
\n
\n
\n
<ExtendedData>
\n
Customized data organization and visualization
\n
Documents, webs, et al.
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Intensively used KML elements in GoogleEarthWork.
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Objects defined with elements in the Feature category are listed on the navigation panel of the Google Earth interface for interactive selection. These elements include <GroundOverlay> and <PhotoOverlay> for images, as well as <Placemark>, <NetworkLink> for geometries and models. <GroundOverlay> elements are used to align satellite images or panoramic images over the 3D terrain model. <PhotoOverlay> elements are capable to align normal images with the 3D environment for AR visualization. A 3D model can be placed under <Placemark> or <NetworkLink> elements. Geometric objects can be represented either with primary basic shapes predefined in KML or hyperlinks of models in KML files or XML-based COLLADA files [55]. <Folder> and <Document> are elements that can be used repetitively to efficiently organize hierarchical contents.
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Aerial images (which are taken by UAV) provide a unique view angle of the construction site with fewer obstacles. Besides, these images can be taken on a periodical basis to capture updates and progress on site. The stitched panoramic image has much higher resolution than satellite images available in Google Earth. The <GroundOverlay> element can be applied to replace the outdated lower resolution satellite image with high-resolution mosaics made of most recent images. To support real-time visualization, large panoramic images are preprocessed and managed with special elements designated for visualization in different levels of detail.
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On a construction site, ground imageries are usually taken at “random” locations and angles. Consequently, they are fragmented in nature and only used as evidence shown in documents in practice. However, by aligning the image at the exact location and orientation in relation to 3D models and the site environment, fragmented information provided by individual images can be well organized and seamlessly integrated. Different from real-time AR technologies which demand considerable computing resources and remain too expensive to implement on site, the <PhotoOverlay> element in KML affords a pragmatic approach for realizing cost-effective AR experiences and efficient site photo management. Each <PhotoOverlay> object is defined by (1) a <Camera> element specifying the position and orientation of the image, (2) a <ViewVolume> specifying the field of view (FOV) of the image, (3) a <Icon> element to store the link to the image, and (4) an optional <TimeStamp> element stating the date when the image is captured. Given the rotation angles of the camera (omega, phi, and kappa) obtained from photogrammetry software, the heading, tilt, and roll can be derived with equations presented in [1]. The view volume of the image can also be derived from the estimated focal length and the image size. The image capturing date and time can be readily extracted from the header of the image file; thereby, a time stamp can be added to each image to show actual progress. This also enables retrieval and viewing of images only relevant to a particular time frame.
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An example of information integration in GoogleEarthWork through using KML is presented in Figure 2; ground images captured with cell phones and digital cameras, aerial images collected using UAVs, and 3D models are embedded in the Google Earth platform so that the surrounding environment of the construction site is also rendered in a cost-effective fashion.
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Figure 2.
Integrated project data management and visualization.
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2.3 Constraints identification in earthwork planning
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Analytical simulation or optimization for construction operations planning requires knowledge of practical constraints on the construction site so as to make a sufficient problem definition. In rough grading, a certain volume of earth needs to be excavated at one area and filled at another. Accessibility issues during project execution become the primary concern for earthwork construction planners, especially when only limited accesses between site areas are available at the very beginning of the project. Moreover, earthmoving operations need to be executed in a safe, efficient manner, accommodating many concurring construction activities on site.
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These site constraints can be categorized into quantitative constraints and qualitative constraints, as listed in Table 4. A quantitative constraint can be defined with a number; by contrast, qualitative constraints cannot be quantitatively represented in GoogleEarthWork. The two basic constraints in earthwork construction planning are (1) cut/fill volume takeoff and assignment and (2) site accessibility and haul path planning. Besides, in order to improve project performance in terms of cost and duration, a solid plan needs to consider more factors. For instance, swell/shrinkage factors account for earth volume changes during excavation and compaction. These factors have a direct impact on quantity takeoff. The haul distance, road surface condition, and slope impact earthmoving productivity. Site layout design and concurring construction activities also potentially introduce spatial constraints. For example, certain areas on site are reserved for trenching and utility installation, hence remain temporarily unpassable to trucks in earthmoving.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Quantitative constraints
\n
Qualitative constraints
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\n
Cut/fill volume for each area
Soil swell/shrinkage factors
Traveling distance/time between areas
Unit cost
\n
\n
\n
Access to/on the site
Site layout from the design
Other construction activities
Road condition
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Typical quantitative and qualitative constraints for earthwork projects.
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GoogleEarthWork assists project planners in identifying abovementioned constraints more efficiently through information integration and visualization. Among them, cut/fill volumes can be readily acquired from a dense 3D reconstruction of the construction site. The slope of the terrain can be evaluated based on the 3D reconstruction if necessary. For instance, in Figure 3, the volume of the stockpiles can be precisely estimated from 3D reconstruction using Pix4D as presented in Figure 3(a). The relative positioning accuracy is evaluated using the width of the paved road in front of the house. The average width out of 20 measurements is 8.008 m. Detailed measurements can be found in Figure 3(b). Compared with the actual width 8 m, the average error is about 8 mm, and the standard deviation is around 29 mm. Note, the absolute positioning accuracy was not evaluated in this research due to unavailability of ground truth references. Nonetheless, the visualization effect of GoogleEarthWork proves that positioning accuracy is sufficient and acceptable for construction planning and monitoring purposes.
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Figure 3.
GoogleEarthWork features demonstration: (a) earth volume survey from automated 3D reconstruction and (b) relative positioning accuracy evaluation.
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Obviously, site photos provide valuable information to identify qualitative constraints. The accessibility issues, site layout constraints, and road conditions can also be assessed with high-resolution panoramic images and/or ground photos on computer. As these images are geo-located, GoogleEarthWork enables rapid identification of constraints at a particular spot. From Figure 4, it is straightforward to define one access road (pattern fill), four storage areas (solid lines), and three stockpiles (dashed lines) on the construction site directly from high-resolution panoramic image overlay.
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Figure 4.
Qualitative constraints identification in GoogleEarthWork: geo-relationship between accesses, stockpiles, storage area, and the building identified from high-resolution panoramic images stitched from aerial photos.
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3. Earthwork optimization and planning
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Given identified quantitative and qualitative constraints, the analytical method presented in [56, 57] will be introduced for automated earthwork construction planning. This method provides an analytical approach to plan rough grading operations while making problem formulation and modeling more intuitive and simplified by the use of material flow networks. To a certain extent, it can potentially eliminate temporal-spatial conflicts (such as trucks are not allowed to haul on ungraded areas) in generation of an optimized yet more practically feasible work plan. The two-phase approach splits earthwork optimization and earthwork planning into two distinct, logically connected problems. The two problems were commonly combined in previous methods; thus representing time-dependent constraints such as temporal-spatial conflicts in field operations would result in overcomplicated mathematical models which had reduced application values of the developed models in reality.
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The architecture of the two-phase approach is illustrated in Figure 5. At the bottom, an earthwork optimizer based on a material flow network is developed to optimize earthwork operations subject to identified quantitative and qualitative constraints. The optimization result is then taken as the primary input for ensuing analysis by the earthwork planner, which generates haul jobs, defines inter-job relationships, and produces the project network model for project scheduling and control.
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Figure 5.
Scheme for embedding automated earthwork planning system in GoogleEarthWork.
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\n
3.1 Earthwork optimizer
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The earthwork optimizer in GoogleEarthWork (Figure 6) models site constraints and earthwork operations with a flow network model. Those quantitative constraints are defined as attributes associated with nodes, while qualitative constraints are represented in the network structure as follow: To establish such a model, the construction site is first divided into cells. For simplicity, the site can be divided into regular square cells. The links between cells can be derived directly by connecting a cell with its neighbor cells sharing four common edges. The division of the site into cells needs to consider the design, the site layout, elevation changes, and accesses. For example, defining separate cells at a specific position is preferred if abrupt elevation change occurs, thus resulting in definition of irregular cells. Occasionally, treating a particular site area as one node is preferable if it has limited access. In short, the identification of these problems requires integration of information on design, actual construction site, and the surrounding environment. Once the site has been digitized into a cell model, the next step is to establish the flow network model incorporating various quantitative and qualitative constraints.
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Figure 6.
Flow network model for earthwork optimization and state presentation in GoogleEarthWork. (a) Typical constraints on a construction site, (b) quantitative constraints and qualitative constraints modeled as attributes and network structure, respectively, and (c) optimized earth flow network used to represent the state of the system.
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Prior to delving into the core of the earthwork optimizer in GoogleEarthWork, several important concepts need to be clarified. A graph model\n\n\n\nG\n=\n\n\nV\n,\nE\n\n\n\n\n\n is made of a set of vertices V and a set of edges E which defines the connectivity between the vertices. Given a list of vertices \n\n\n\nV\n=\n\n\n\nv\n1\n\n,\n\nv\n2\n\n,\n⋯\n,\n\nv\ni\n\n,\n⋯\n,\n\nv\nj\n\n,\n⋯\n,\n\nv\nn\n\n\n\n\n\n\n, an edge between vertex \n\n\n\nu\n∈\nV\n\n\n\n and vertex \n\n\n\nv\n∈\nV\n\n\n\n is defined as \n\n\nu\nv\n\n\n. For a directed graph, edge \n\n\nu\nv\n\n\n and edge \n\n\nv\nu\n\n\n represent reversed directions. A flow network is defined as follows based on the directed graph:
\n
A flow network is a directed graph, where each vertex is assigned with a demand \n\nd\n\nv\n\n\n and each edge \n\n\nu\nv\n\n\n is assigned with a capacity \n\n\n\n\nc\nuv\n\n>\n0\n\n\n\n, a unit cost \n\n\na\nuv\n\n\n, and a flow \n\n\nx\nuv\n\n\n.
\n
The demand is the amount of flow that is required by this vertex. If \n\n\n\nd\n>\n0\n\n\n\n, the vertex is demanding material to flow in. It is also called a sink node. On the contrary, it is a supplying vertex also named as source node if \n\n\n\nd\n<\n0\n\n\n\n. Otherwise, the vertex will be a transshipment node with \n\n\n\nd\n=\n0\n\n\n\n. The capacity \n\n\nc\nuv\n\n\n indicates the maximum flow allowed on each edge. The cost \n\n\na\nuv\n\n\n is the unit cost to transport each flow unit through individual edges, respectively. The flow\n\n\nx\nuv\n\n\n specifies the amount of flow on each edge.
where \n\n\n\nx\n=\n\n\n\nx\nuv\n\n|\n\n\nu\n,\nv\n\n\n∈\nE\n\n\n\n\n\n represents the flow variables indicating the amount of flow on an edge. The optimal flow \n\n\nx\nmin\n\n\n can be found by applying the minimum-cost flow algorithms [58] which minimize the cost function defined in Eq. (2) subject to capacity constraints and balance constraints defined in Eq. (3) and Eq. (4), respectively:
Traditional methods model haul jobs directly by adding links only between cut and fill cells. These methods require predefined hauling paths which may not be explicitly specified in earthwork planning, as hauling paths can be included as variables to be optimized in addition to earth volume assignment variables between cut and fill cells. In [56], a new method is introduced to deal with the issue without increasing the complexity of problem formulation. In contrast to linking cut cells to fill cells directly, this method links neighbor cells irrespective of whether they are cut or fill cells, while the exact hauling path for each haul job will be fixed by optimization along with the source cell (cut), the destination cell (fill), and the volume to handle for each haul job.
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The quantitative constraints such as cut/fill volumes and the traveling speed are directly modeled as the demand \n\n\nd\nv\n\n\n for each node and the unit cost \n\n\na\nuv\n\n\n for each edge, respectively. The capacity of flow on an edge is typically unlimited unless there is a special need, for example, to limit the total amount moved to a storage area. The qualitative constraints are modeled implicitly in the network structure. They are embedded by adding or removing specific arcs at specific directions. In the following subsections, we will elaborate typical site constraints for earthwork including accessibility, reserved areas, and haul road conditions.
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Accessibility constraints: Site accessibility constraints are the most common on a construction site. The access between cells may be blocked by waterways, ponds, other facilities, and so on. Prohibiting moving material from one cell to another may be justified in certain areas in order to ensure traffic safety and provide adequate space for other construction activities. This can be imposed by removing certain directional arcs between cells in the site grid model in order to moderate earth flows.
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Reserved area constraints: Reserved areas for temporary facilities, such as fuel stations, parking yards, and rest areas, require grading as well, but trucks generally are not allowed to pass through these areas once the temporary facilities are established. They can be treated as special cases of accessibility constraints. Taking the example presented in Figure 8, the site is divided into regular cells. Among them, cell 3 and cell 5 cover the area where a structure is being built. After the excavation in this area, there will be a substantial elevation change. Passing through this area is thus not allowed. Considering this area is a net cut area (the total demand is negative); only material flows leaving this area (red dash rectangle) are permitted. Similarly, only material flows entering an area are allowed if this area is a net fill area.
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Haul road condition constraints: It is noteworthy that the truck hauling speed on rough ground and treated ground varies significantly. In the flow network model, haul road conditions can be modeled by adjusting the unit cost \n\n\na\nuv\n\n\n of particular edges which represent haul road sections in the flow network. Shortening total project duration is the objective in construction planning in general. Thus, the traveling time can be used to directly model the cost.
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Once the model is established, it is optimized with established minimum-cost flow algorithms [59]. As a result, the earthwork optimizer produces a flow network that defines the amount of flows (defined by \n\nx\n\n) between adjacent cells. Because it does not model haul jobs directly, the result cannot produce the final execution plan which defines each haul job in terms of source, destination, volume, and haul path. Next, the earthwork planner is introduced which generates the final execution plan based on the optimized earth flow network.
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\n
\n
3.2 Earthwork planner
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The optimized earth flow network specifies quantity and direction to move material along inter-cell edges (haul roads) in the site system. However, temporal or spatial constraints arising from sequencing earthmoving jobs can be missed in this representation. At the beginning of earthwork operations, only limited accessibility is available. Access to an area is enabled in the middle of the earthmoving process once its neighbor areas are graded. Thus an additional network is required to define the accessibility between areas considering the progress of the project over time. In the remainder of this chapter, the optimized earth flow network is denoted as \n\n\nG\nop\n\n\n, and the network to represent the accessibility is named as \n\n\nG\nac\n\n\n.
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In this step, the classical planning model in automated planning theory is adopted for earthwork project planning in GoogleEarthWork. The state transition system for the earthwork planner is defined with a triple \n\n∑\n=\n\nS\nΑ\nγ\n\n\n, where.
\n
\n\n\nS\n\n is defined with a tuple of two directed graphs \n\n\n\nG\nac\n\n\nG\nop\n\n\n\n, where \n\n\nG\nop\n\n\n is the optimal earth flow network and \n\n\nG\nac\n\n\n is a directed graph representing the accessibility between cells.
\n
\n\n\nΑ\n\n is the action space defined as haul jobs. Each haul job can be represented with \n\n\n\nWF\n=\n\nCut\nFill\n\n\nP\nV\n\n\n which specifies the cut and fill cells, together with the volume V and the hauling path P. For example, a haul job \n\n\n\nWF\n=\n\nCut\nFill\n\n\nP\nV\n\n\n indicates 20 units of material which are transported from Cell 1 to Cell 2 passing through Cell 3 and Cell 4.
\n
\n\n\ny\n\n is a map from \n\nS\n×\nA\n\n to \n\nS\n\n where the optimal earth flow network and the accessibility are updated after performing an action (i.e., completing a haul job.) This includes the following:
Updating the volumes of each cell on \n\n\nG\nop\n\n\n
Updating the flow between adjacent cells on \n\n\nG\nac\n\n\n
Updating accessibility on \n\n\nG\nac\n\n\n after some cells are graded
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In the classical planning model, actions are sequentially taken by selecting an action and updating the state as presented in Figure 7. The procedure consists of four steps with the first three steps corresponding to deliberation functions and the fourth step corresponding to state transition functions. Because actions are required to satisfy all material flow constraints (flow direction and flow quantity on each edge), which are already determined in the optimized flow network, the final plan is extracted from a searching space that is already optimized. The detailed explanation of the planner can be found in [56, 57].
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Figure 7.
The procedure of the earthwork planner. The deliberation functions include a cut/fill cell selection module and a haul job generation model.
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\n
\n
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4. Case study
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In this section a campground grading project located in Northern Alberta, Canada, is used to demonstrate the application of earthwork optimization and automated planner functions. The size of the campground is around 2000 m long and 650 m wide. The total volume of material to be handled is 584,308 bank cubic meters (\n\nbcm\n\n). The site layout is presented in Figure 8 with color bands denoting deep excavation (>3 m), medium height excavation (1.5–3 m), shallow excavation (<1.5 m), shallow fill (<1.5 m), and medium-depth fill (1.5–3 m). On the west side and east side, respectively, there are two storm water storage ponds, which also provide the two primary sources for fill material in site grading. Note during construction, only limited access to the two ponds is allowed. Pond 1 has one access point on its east side; Pond 2 has two access points on its north and west sides, respectively.
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Figure 8.
Rough grading construction site: drawing and layouts.
\n
A temporary haul road aligned with a future permanent road is established to facilitate the earthmoving process. Average truck speed differs when a truck hauls on the temporary road or the rough-graded ground. A fleet consisting of a 40 T excavator with a production rate of 190 \n\nbcm\n\n per day and CAT 740B trucks with 20 \n\nbcm\n\n\nvolume capacity are employed on this project. The combined loading, dumping, and waiting time is assumed to be 20 minutes. The truck hauling speed limit, irrespective of truck haul (full) and truck return (empty), is averaged at 27 km/h on temporary haul road and \n\n18\n\nkm\n/\nh\n\n on rough ground, respectively. Besides, hourly rates of the excavator and the truck are \n\n140\n/\nhr\n\n and \n\n135\n/\nhr\n\n. The hourly rate for an equipment operator is around \n\n60\n/\nhr\n\n regardless of the type of the equipment.
\n
The construction site is divided into cells (100 m × 100 m) for material flow network optimization and AON network development. The cell size is defined by the user after assessing site topology and application need. Mathematically, the smaller the cell size, the more accurate the result would be. However, too small cell size is not suitable for current application of earthwork planning and construction management. Four times the truck width is recommended as cell dimension for planning mining haul road, which was used for earthwork planning in GoogleEarthWork due to safety concerns [60]. To incorporate the two ponds in the flow network model, irregular shaped cells instead of squared cells are used for representing the ponds, their neighboring areas, and the boundaries. In this case, Pond 1 is treated as one cell node, and Pond 2 is divided into two cell nodes. Single-directional arcs flowing out of pond cells are defined so to avoid trucks passing through the ponds. The traveling time per truckload between adjacent cells is defined as the unit cost of hauling in optimization analysis. The final flow network definition is presented in Figure 9.
\n
Figure 9.
Flow network model for the case study. Two ponds are split into irregular cells.
\n
The earthwork Optimizer and the earthwork Planner in connection with GoogleEarthWork were implemented based on the open source Library for Efficient Modeling and Optimization in Networks (LEMON) graph algorithm library with its LGF file format denoting flow network definition [61]. Taking the flow network model as input, an optimized earth flow network was obtained as the result of minimum-cost flow optimization. Next, eight sub-flows were identified from the optimized earth flow network based on weakly connected component analysis. In the end, a total of 129 jobs were generated. The proposed system not only enables automated project planning but also automated project network analysis and resource-loaded scheduling simulation analysis. Once the work breakdown structure and the project network are produced, they can be readily used to perform scheduling and cost analysis with existing tools. Based on the automated planner, the cost and duration were estimated to be $3,491,632 and 149 work days, respectively.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
In this chapter, we conceptualize an augmented GIS system called GoogleEarthWork for earthwork planning based on Google Earth and demonstrate great potential in site information management and visualization, especially the integration of site photos, 3D models, and 3D surrounding environment of the construction site. The system is capable of facilitating the identification of (1) quantitative constraints by image-based 3D reconstruction and (2) qualitative constraints through interactive VR and AR visual inspection within Google Earth. Coupled with an automated earthwork planning system, GoogleEarthWork holds the potential to provide an integrated project planning solution that assists project managers in information collection, data analysis, and construction planning. It also enables higher-level project management analyses such as scheduling and simulation by automatically generating project execution plans (e.g., AON network model). The results provide project managers with a sufficient basis for the development of a practical, dynamic plan. As construction unfolds and the site evolves over time, additional constraints can be further imposed in order to keep the plan up to date.
\n
At present, application of GoogleEarthWork is confined to rough grading earthwork construction. In the future, the system along with its underlying methodology can be customized for other application domains. More importantly, a formal definition of the GoogleEarthWork application framework allows the representation of domain knowledge and facilitates the implementation of advanced planning techniques (such as resource-constrained scheduling optimization or operations simulation) in the specific application domain. This will ultimately result in optimized construction plans for performance improvement in field productivity and safety. Though automated tools have been proposed for site information processing, human interactions still remain crucial in site constraint identification and planning problem definition in reality. A comprehensive information system that assists project managers in updating site constraints through site information integration and visualization is thus indispensable to refining problem definitions and identifying practical constraints. In the near future, GoogleEarthWork will be further augmented with advanced quantitative methods and emerging AI techniques.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This research was substantially funded by Mitacs Canada and Ledcor Canada through a Mitacs Accelerate Internship grant (Project ID: IT06594). The authors sincerely acknowledge Sam Johnson, Senior Construction Manager of Graham Construction Canada, for sharing information and insight on earthwork planning and Dr. Eric Loo, the Director of Business Development of Mitacs for facilitating the research.
\n
\n',keywords:"Google Earth, Keyhole Markup Language, earthwork construction, automated planning",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64408.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64408.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64408",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64408",totalDownloads:1135,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:42,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 4th 2018",dateReviewed:"October 14th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 15th 2018",datePublished:"November 13th 2019",dateFinished:"November 15th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter introduces GoogleEarthWork which is an augmented geographic information system (GIS) based on Google Earth to manage and visualize heterogeneous site information, especially 3D models, aerial and ground images, panoramas, and GIS data of the site environment. The concept is to realize a highly automated end-to-end earthwork construction planning system that is able to generate project management deliverables from heterogeneous information and enhance the usefulness and intelligence of GIS for better project planning and control in earthwork construction. With identified constraints from the augmented Google Earth, the earthwork planning problem is formulated, and an optimized executable plan can be automatically generated, including work breakdown structure and project network model. Demonstration cases are provided to prove concepts of and illustrate functionalities of GoogleEarthWork in support of earthwork construction planning in realistic settings.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64408",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64408",book:{id:"7362",slug:"geographic-information-systems-and-science"},signatures:"Duanshun Li, Ming Lu and Rod Wales",authors:[{id:"266107",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Ming Lu",slug:"ming-lu",email:"mlu6@ualberta.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"266109",title:"Dr.",name:"Duanshun",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Duanshun Li",slug:"duanshun-li",email:"duanshun@ualberta.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"266110",title:"Mr.",name:"Rod",middleName:null,surname:"Wales",fullName:"Rod Wales",slug:"rod-wales",email:"rod.wales@ledcor.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. GIS-based site information management and visualization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Data collection and preprocessing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Information integration with KML",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Constraints identification in earthwork planning",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Earthwork optimization and planning",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Earthwork optimizer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Earthwork planner",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Case study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Li D, Lu M. Integrating geometric models, site images and GIS based on Google Earth and Keyhole Markup Language. Automation in Construction. 2018;89:317-331. DOI: 10.1016/j.autcon.2018.02.002\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Ahar S. 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1. Introduction
The 2030 Agenda adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 and defined by the subscribing members as “a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity” has identified 17 goals in order “to take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently needed to shift the world onto a sustainable and resilient path” [1]. The goals refer to different fields of social and economic development and must be addressed through an integrated approach, aimed at achieving sustainable progress. The United Nations Inter Agency Expert Group on SDGs (UN-IAEG-SDGs) has developed 169 global targets, and 234 indicators that have to be monitored—as a global reference framework—in the period 2015–2030. In particular, Goal 11 deals with the urban sustainability issue and emphasizes how cities play an essential role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals since half of the world population and three-quarters of the European population live in urban areas. All over the world, cities are responsible for the largest share of energy consumption and carbon emissions, for the growing pressure on the environment and the related public health issues [2].1 The governance of urban space, therefore, represents a crucial development factor capable of posing worldwide challenges and opportunities. Several aspects must be considered in a systemic, inclusive and integrated way to ensure that cities thrive in a sustainably. It is vital to ensure that the population living, working or passing through the city has access to mobility, quality housing and safe conditions, both in terms of structural stability of public and private buildings and infrastructures, and protection from crime, violence and harassment.
Moreover, the presence of green spaces and public spaces, the protection of the cultural and natural heritage, the redevelopment of run-down areas, the relationship between the city and peri-urban and rural areas are as crucial as the aspects mentioned before. Yet, to be able to proceed in this direction it is essential to work according to an integrated approach that addresses the physical and structural aspects of the city, as well as the intangible ones. These last ones range from social and cultural aspects to those related to work and local economies, within broader processes that activate latent or already existing projects and social energies, which very often require policies from below. This process has already been triggered with the 2007 Leipzig Charter together with the related integrated urban development strategies that at a national, regional and local level focused on the cultural and architectural qualities of cities, conceived as strong tools for social inclusion and economic development useful to positively affect economic prosperity, social balance and the environment, within a coordinated process between spatial, sectorial and temporal aspects of urban areas. This process continued with the Toledo Declaration of 2010, which suggested a transversal, multidimensional and holistic design approach to achieve multiplying, complementary and synergistic effects, solving conflicts and finding the right balance between temporal (short, medium, long term) and spatial (region, metropolitan area, city, neighborhood) needs. These recommendations are reiterated and strengthened in the newborn Renovation Wave strategy, part of the European Green Deal promoted by Brussels which places the redevelopment of the building stock in a relevant position as an essential measure for decarbonization and reduction of emissions and as a tool for boosting the economy and European competitiveness. The new Renovation Wave strategy aims to double the urban regeneration rate, currently at 1%. According to Brussels estimates, a significant share of 35 million renovated and regenerated buildings could be reached by the end of the decade [3]. This situation would lead not only to significant ecological and energy benefits, but also to social ones considering that a recent report on sustainable recovery asserts that building renovation offers the greatest employment leverage: 12–18 local jobs for every million investments. This potential would create by 2030 as many as 160,000 new jobs in the EU construction sector [4].
More specifically, the Renovation Wave strategy will prioritize action in three areas: decarbonization of heating and cooling; tackling energy poverty and energy inefficiency; renovation of public buildings (schools, hospitals and offices). It will do so through several measures that make energy redevelopment operations easier and faster.2 “The green recovery starts from home,” said Energy Commissioner Kadri Simson, “with this initiative we will face the numerous obstacles that today make the restructuring complex, expensive and slow, slowing down many necessary interventions” [5].
Furthermore, the recent COVID-19 emergency sets before us a new vision of residential heritage, having highlighted its limits—in particular those of the public residential heritage. Therefore, urban regeneration offers the opportunity to rethink housing models. Today, more than ever, the challenges posed by epidemiological and climate changes bring to light more intangible realities which are more oriented towards generative social action. These realities require the involvement of actors, not only of the construction sector but also of the local community through the implementation of complex and long-lasting social projects, which must be designed to support first of all the most vulnerable groups.
2. Italian intervention policies
In Italy, the evolution of the concept of urban regeneration can be re-read within the relevant legislation, that marks the transition from the concept of recovery to the concept of rehabilitation, within the legislation presented and approved in the period between the 90’s and the early 2000s. Indeed, national legislation moves from integrated intervention programs to urban redevelopment programs (L. 179/1992); from urban recovery programs (L. 493/1993) to district contracts (D.M. n. 1071–1072, del 1° dicembre 1994); from urban regeneration and sustainable development programs (D.M. dell’8 ottobre 1998) to urban rehabilitation programs (L. 166/2002).
It is precisely the building and urban rehabilitation programs (L. 166/2002) that introduce, alongside the concept of transformation of physical space, that of performance, especially linked to the concept of efficiency, taking into consideration also economic and social issues, including physical deterioration. In 2015, all these experiences led to the Piano nazionale per la riqualificazione sociale e culturale delle aree urbane degradate (national plan for the social and cultural redevelopment of deteriorated urban areas), where the concept of rehabilitation gained, within the concept of redevelopment, the meaning of quality not only of the physical heritage, but also of the intangible one. Still, in Italy, the concept of urban regeneration has been introduced only in recent decades, addressed by national and local policies (regional legislation) as a matter of territorial governance ascribed to the concurrent jurisdiction of States and Regions. In these policies, a strategic vision from above based on urban planning and programming comes along with a bottom-up regeneration process of common goods which starts directly from the citizens. Within the 2007–2013 programming of structural funds, which conceived intervening on cities as one of the priority actions, the term urban regeneration was reinterpreted as an integrated approach to urban development, capable of overcoming the fragmentation and sectoral nature of interventions in this field. This approach has found further confirmation in the 2014–2020 fund programming. The urban regeneration issue can also be found related to the measures on land consumption and on reuse of built land, where the term is intended, above all, as the recovery of the existing building heritage (DDL. C.2039 “Containment of land consumption and reuse of land built “approved by the Chamber on May 12, 2016). In the Code of public contracts (D.Lgs. 50 del 2016) instead, we find the concept of urban regeneration combined with horizontal subsidiarity interventions (art. 189) and administrative bartering (art. 190), where social partnership contracts are introduced based on projects proposed by an individual or associated citizens.
In recent years, several regional regulations in the field of urban planning and construction have been introduced within the framework of urban regeneration with a strategic vision of territorial planning, implemented through complex plans and programs. Many regional regulations reveal that the regulatory concept of urban regeneration differs more and more from that of building recovery and urban planning, and is gradually including complex actions for the urban, environmental and social rehabilitation of degraded urban areas. Examples are the regional law of Emilia-Romagna (L.R. n.24, 21 dicembre 2017) on the protection and use of the territory, the regional law of Tuscany (L.R. n.65, 10 novembre 2014), which lays down rules for the government of the territory, the regional law of Lazio, (L.R. n.7, 18 luglio 2017) containing regulations for urban regeneration and building recovery, just to name a few.
The law L. n. 158 dell’8 ottobre 2017—containing measures for the support and enhancement of small municipalities, as well as regulations for the redevelopment and recovery of their historic centers—complies with the goals mentioned above, where the concept of regeneration takes on a connotation of territorial and environmental protection and where small municipalities are recognized as a resource due to their role as a territory presidium, especially about their role in contrasting hydrogeological instability and in preserving and protecting common goods.
Urban regeneration, which is gaining an important space in regional legislation, still struggles to find a precise definition in the national one, where it is addressed as an emergency measure by the D.L. 18 Aprile 2019, n. 32—“ Disposizioni urgenti per il rilancio del settore dei contratti pubblici, per l’accelerazione degli interventi infrastrutturali, di rigenerazione urbana e di ricostruzione a seguito di eventi sismici” (urgent regulations for the relaunch of the public contract sector, for the acceleration of infrastructural interventions, urban regeneration and reconstruction following seismic events). The decree fosters the reduction of land consumption in favor of regenerating the existing building heritage by encouraging the redevelopment of degraded urban areas. Eventually, the unified text of the D.D.L. on urban regeneration, which is now under discussion, provides a state fund of 500 million euros per year until 2040 to co-finance regional tenders for the urban regeneration plans presented by the municipalities, thanks to an alliance between state, regions, municipalities and private individuals.3
3. Sustainable urban regeneration
In this context marked by a European policy strongly focused on energy saving and consumption reduction, the existing building stock and its redevelopment play an important role, especially the energy requalification of public housing (ERP) [6]. By public housing we refer to the residential real estate built, directly or indirectly, by the State, to be assigned, at particularly good economic conditions, to citizens with low incomes or who find themselves in poor economic conditions. The law regulating public housing identified three areas of intervention onto which allocate the available economic resources: subsidized housing of exclusive public ownership, assisted housing in property and/or with controlled rent and housing with agreements on surface or property rights. The fact that the European public housing heritage is plentiful and assorted, is a clear expression of the cultural and economic differences of our continent. In Europe, a significant share of the housing stock was built in response to the demand for housing following the Second World War. To date, more than 220 million buildings, representing 85% of the European building stock, were built before 2001. The majority of them are not energy efficient, as a result of old technologies and bad insulation—and account for around 40% of total European energy consumption and 36% of greenhouse gas emissions [3]. The physical (technical-functional), social and economic conditions of degradation that characterize the public building heritage demand the identification of immediate intervention strategies. The aim of the research is to show how certain strategies, in particular bioclimatic, modular and low-cost ones applied to the small building scale, can become the main tools for rehabilitating relevant parts of the contemporary city. For this reason, the research work described in this essay aims to give back urban quality to the suburban fabric which hosts public residential buildings through an architectural, energetic, bioclimatic and environmental requalification. This operation provides an attempt to read the peripheral palimpsest, through punctual and diversified interventions involving the description of the physical space, of the biophysical one and the understanding of bioclimatic phenomena, which cannot be separated from the understanding of the social space. Throughout the research, the role of the architect has been reconsidered as a social role that requires the ability to listen, interpret and explore the peripheral space, with the intent of setting shared and experimental assumptions to which reference can be made to overcome with the method and analytical scientificity the contradictions and conflicts of extended urban peripheries. Every overall transformation program, each detailed project is declined in this sense by associating several reinterpretations of the space and considerations on the possible scenarios of transformation, to develop, through a critical synthesis, an innovative conception of urban peripheral environment. This environment is meant to dialog with the consolidated city and to connect the redevelopment process to the cultural, social and technological transformations that affect society and urban form and that emphasize the need for new ideas, innovative models and relevant examples.
Overall, the analyses and evaluations of this research work start from the identification of the problems within the analytical phase and then explore the feasibility of intervention scenarios that can help to achieve greater urban quality. At the heart of the work, there are three research survey directions concerning:
The ability to measure oneself with the characters of the places and the territory;
An environmentally sustainable and energetically and ecologically efficient transformation-development;
The reconstruction-enhancement of the public space.
Given the first research direction, the operational strategic lines address:
The broadening of the analysis framework concerning the anthropic, biophysical and bioclimatic factors to support the development of meta-project scenarios;
The optimization the control system of environmental components in the development phase of the intervention program-project;
The maximization of instrumental skills to verify the quality and eco-efficiency levels of the architectural project and urban reality;
The development of verification steps concerning the different degrees of quality and environmental sustainability to be assigned to the different phases of the project;
The optimization of systems for monitoring and controlling the behavior of outdoor, intermediate and confined spaces.
Regarding the implementation of the second research axis, the following operational strategic lines have been identified:
to optimize the specific conditions of mobility-transport connecting the periphery with the consolidated city;
to enhance-protect the local landscape-vegetation assets;
to enhance the soil conditions in terms of site orography, lithology and stratigraphy;
to optimize local hydrogeological conditions, considering rainwater runoff;
to introduce morphological-typological solutions aimed at integrating residential functions and extra-residential activities;
to organize and manage the material, energy and information flows at the district level;
to introduce innovative building solutions aimed at energy and ecological efficiency.
Finally, the third research axis aims at:
controlling and enhancing greenery in its role as a filter between environmental factors and functionality of outdoor spaces;
using outdoor spaces for meeting and social occasions within the general reorganization of paths and mobility;
enhancing the relationship between mobility, vegetation, bioclimatic and urban furniture in the design of in-between outdoor spaces;
maximizing psycho-perceptive comfort conditions related to the morphology of the intermediate outdoor spaces;
maximizing energy and ecological efficiency of the public space.
4. Sustainable technologies, hypotheses and solutions for two case studies in Rome, Italy
The case studies illustrated in the essay focus on the analysis and regeneration of two types of ERP multi-storey buildings, in linea (linear) and a torre (tower) blocks located in two different peripheral areas of the city of Rome.
The two-building typologies are taken into consideration using their similarities from an administrative and legal point of view and of their differences on a typological and environmental level and about their relationship with the context (Figure 1). The case studies analyzed are chosen to be representative of the respective building typology which recur in the ERP Roman context. The choice to study buildings located in peripheral areas is linked to the desire of investigating distressed urban areas [7], areas where it is even more urgent and necessary to intervene and where regeneration processes have a reorganization potential that transcends the architectural level and bring along positive effects on the socio-economic conditions of the inhabitants.
Figure 1.
Territorial framework: two ERP case studies in Rome.
Specifically for the tower high rise building typology, an ERP condominium was identified—part of a plot of four twin condominiums—in the north-western suburbs of Rome, XIII–XIV municipality, while for the linear multi-storey building typology an ERP condominium was identified—which is repeated 18 times with different orientations according to Piano di zona 02v—in the north-eastern outskirts of Rome, IV municipality. Both buildings were designed in the late 70s and built in the 80s in distressed urban areas of the city that differ in density (150 inhabitants/ha in Torrevecchia and 98 inhabitants/ha in San Basilio), in the degree of marginality compared to the adjacent context and the rest of the city as well as in the plano-volumetric system.
The methodology adopted in this research allows, once the different hypotheses have been identified, to evaluate both the technical (energy savings that would result) and economic feasibility, as well as to verify the overall compliance with national and local regulations.
The methodological approach followed for both case studies provides for an analysis of the context and the current situation of the buildings starting from a territorial and urban framework with a specific focus on mobility, facilities and greenery. Subsequently, demographic, socio-economic and housing demand surveys were carried out. Ultimately, an environmental and micro-climatic analysis both of the entire context and the building under examination was carried out and finally, the architectural and technological components underwent a thorough examination. The aim is to detect critical issues at the building and housing level and to subsequently define the typological and functional program and the overall intervention strategies in line with technological and environmental requirements. The definition of the general morphological-functional characteristics of the intervention about the interaction model between microclimatic factors and the context led to the preliminary design. This initial design stage was developed according to studies and technical validations set at a meta-design level, followed by a functional study and the reinterpretation of housing schemes and supplementary facilities, according to the social demand. At last, a summary report on the identified demand/performance system was drafted: clarification of the environmental technological requirement system and its related design choices. The different strategies and design solutions underwent a definitive design elaboration of the building system and its subsystems and components in line with the environmental context and their interrelations with the transformations induced by the intervention.
5. Tower high rise building typology in Torrevecchia, Rome
The Torrevecchia district (Figure 2), built with funding from law L. n. 584 of 1977, is an area of approximately 24 ha with 1074 accommodations for 3600 inhabitants located in the north-west area of Rome in the Primavalle district, XIII–XIV municipality. It is owned and managed by the autonomous institute of popular housing (IACP), a specific Italian institution to promote, build and managing public housing to assign to citizens on low income rented at controlled rates. The architects P. Barucci, L. Passarelli and M. Vittorini were in charge of its design and execution. Until the 1960s Torrevecchia was part of the agro romano, and during the 1970s the area was affected by strong urbanization. The district is defined to the south by via di Boccea, to the west by via di Casal del Marmo, to the east by via Mattia Battistini and to the north by via Trionfale.
Figure 2.
Aerial view of Torrevecchia district (source: Google Earth).
The plano-volumetric scheme is developed around a central square defined by four 15-storey high tower buildings (76 apartments) on which a group of offices and a bar overlook. Long 4/5 storey buildings (192 apartments) branch off from the central square with three levels of housing and a ground floor meant for shops, which were never realized.
Thanks to a progressive series of shifts, these volumes tend to spread out towards the extremity of the area thus creating in-between them two green spaces large enough to host respectively a small public park and a sports field. Car parking spots are located on the external side of the linear storey buildings, thus remaining outside of the central green areas defined by the building volumes.
Overall, the architectural solutions adopted in the different buildings are rather simple and they all respond to the constraints set by the standards imposed by law and by the economic means: prefabricated concrete panels and ribbon windows with metal frames.
5.1 Analysis
The IACP complex is commonly known as the “Bronx” due to its architectural aspect (poor architectural-spatial, environmental and energy quality of the buildings) and the socio-economic conditions of the area. The complex is strongly marked by economic precariousness, by the absence of public spaces and areas for meeting and socializing, by the absence of life and services at ground zero, and eventually by lack of maintenance and building degradation.
According to 2011 ISTAT census data (the Italian National Institute of Statistics, which is the main producer of official statistics in Italy), one out of four residents appear to be unemployed and 9 out of 10 people have reached a level of education below the middle school. The social hardship index, which provides a measure of the possible social-occupational drawbacks, is among the highest in Rome.
An analysis of mobility and facilities (Figure 3) reveals a lack of good quality common spaces, a poor and inefficient transport system that makes nearby facilities not accessible. The Battistini metro station (line A), which connects the district with the city centre, is 2 km far from the complex and can be reached in approximately 25 min on foot and in 15 min by public transport. Of the 12 bus lines covering the area, only 4 connect Torrevecchia with the city centre.
Figure 3.
Torrevecchia district: overall analysis.
Data regarding facilities shows that compulsory schools are insufficient to serve the catchment area. Conversely, there are four technical/professional schools within a 2 km radius of the area under examination. The entire area suffers from a serious lack of facilities which is revealed by the presence of one pharmacy for every 24,500 inhabitants, as opposed to what is required by the Italian law L.362/91 (Art. 1), which is one every 12,500 inhabitants.
Torrevecchia still preserves evident signs of the past rural vocation. The valley between the IACP complex and the Quartaccio district is the least urbanized part of the neighborhood. Despite several green expanses, still not affected by irregular urbanization, the neighborhood is in fact devoid of proper public parks. The only two parks, the Insugherata Nature Reserve and the Pineto Urban Regional Park, are more than 2 km away from the centre of Torrevecchia. Out of more than 65 ha of green areas, only 3% are organized in equipped areas.
Air quality is significantly and positively affected by the abundance of proximity greenery (parks and reserves), although uncultivated and derelict. The average concentration of nitrogen dioxide NO2 is about 32.13 μg/m3, far lower than the annual limit value for human health protection, established by D.Lgs. 155/2010 which provides for a maximum limit of 40 μg/m3. As for fine particles, according to what is reported by a PM2.5 map obtained from a dispersion model, the average annual concentration is 18.31 μg/m3, which is far lower than the limit value of 25 μg/m3 (D. Lgs. 155/2010 in force since 2015).
As regards the microclimatic conditions (Figure 4), in the summer season, the area is affected by winds coming from south west (speed of 16 km/h) which considerably contribute to cooling the south-west area that is most of the time subject to direct radiation during the day, given the poor vegetation and the low building heights. The square to the north-east receives just as much radiation, but the layout of the surrounding buildings prevents it from adequate ventilation. In the winter season, the cold wind coming from north east (speed of 9 km/h) sharpens the perception of comfort in the north-east square, which remains cold and in the shade all day long taking into account average winter temperatures of about 7°C. Throughout the day, the south-west square catches the sunlight in its highest part since the shadows cast by the storey buildings are reduced compared to the width of the square.
Figure 4.
Solar analysis: the tower building in Torrevecchia district.
The tower buildings, especially on the higher floors, enjoy summer ventilation from the south-west but suffer from winter ventilation on the north-east façades, which correspond exactly to the façades with a higher percentage of openings.
The tower buildings, 43.2 m high and with a floor area of approximately 4140 m2, house 76 accommodations (48 units of 60 m2 and 28 of 45 m2) for 248 estimated occupants. A comparison between current users and the availability of floor area, results in 16.7 m2 per person. According to the national legislation, the building should thus house no more than 207 inhabitants. The 60 m2 apartments feature a double exposure while the 45 m2 apartments have a single-exposure. The 60 m2 apartments are designed to accommodate 4 people but both bedrooms (12.4 m2 and 12.8 m2 big) are smaller than 14 m2, thus do not meet the current minimum standards. It is estimated that the prevalent (50%) family unit typology in Torrevecchia is composed of 1 or 2 members, while families with 4 members account for only 12% of all families.
5.2 Solutions and strategy
Starting from the overall critical evaluation a project concerning both adjacent outdoor and indoor spaces has been developed with particular emphasis on bioclimatic solutions (Figure 5). In the first place, it is essential to redesign the building’s connection to the ground, its consequent relationship with the street as well as the intermediate in-between public spaces, to provide meeting and relational opportunities. A necessary prerequisite is an involvement of the inhabitants from the very start, ranging from the preliminary design to the future management and care of common spaces. To integrate the facility system, currently rather inadequate, and enhancing the relationship between building and streets, an elevated square is proposed. The new plaza consists of a solid volume with internal excavated patios and courtyards. Vocational training laboratories, also meant to work as local facilities are located on the ground floors of the towers and in the hypogeal areas beneath the elevated square. A system of ramps allows connecting the different levels on which the public outdoor spaces are distributed. Therefore, the square becomes an open space arranged on two levels on which some food services, laboratories and craft shops open. The internal patios enable to host in the hypogeal spaces several other facilities and services, providing them with adequate light and ventilation and with quality green outdoor space of relevance. The derelict south-west green square is transformed into plots of collective urban gardens managed and used by inhabitants.
Figure 5.
Exploded axo: overall project and focus on bioclimatic solutions.
When it comes to the tower building, the redesign of the ground connection through an excavation on the short façades (north-west and south-west) strongly contributes to improving thermo-hygrometric and visual comfort parameters of the former basement which is thus freed on two sides from direct contact with the damp ground. The ground floor and the basement are merged to obtain double-height rooms suitable for hosting a kindergarten and fab-labs with an external space of relevance gained thanks to the excavation.
To maximize the feasibility of the project, the intention is to limit as much as possible the need for the inhabitants to temporarily leave their homes. Therefore, priority actions address the need to provide all accommodations with adequate living space in terms of square meters to satisfy standards imposed by national law. The addition of plug-and-play modules on the north-east and south-west façades, diversified on a technical level according to the exposure, can solve simultaneously problems related to poor lighting, poor insulation and consequent thermal comfort and under-sizing. The buffer-space modules added to the north-east façade and the bioclimatic greenhouses added to the south-west façade make up new indoor or outdoor living spaces, diversified internally about the type of environment to which they are added and to the needs of the occupants. It’s a system of prefabricated units, ranging from 2 to 8 m2 big, which add a total of about 10 m2 to each dwelling, which corresponds to 17% additional surface area in the case of the two-room apartment and 14.5% for the four-room apartment.
The bioclimatic greenhouses leaning on the south-east, south-west and south elevations constitute heat accumulation spaces to introduce preheated air into the apartments. The structure is made up of modular steel elements with transparent vertical closures in white solar glass, with a solar factor higher than 70% and with an openable glass surface of 65% out of the overall transparent closure. Sliding panels with adjustable slats in natural fibers and thermosetting resins work like shields. The modules jut out differently according to the functional and structural needs, ranging from 120 to 240 cm. The buffer-spaces, attached to the north-east elevation, highly contribute to improving the overall energy performance, through the reduction of heat loss and consequent thermal gains in winter and through the dissipation of heat in summer. The overhang is 90 cm and the structure is similar to that of the greenhouses but with low-emissivity glass and a solar factor lower than 35%.
New dwellings can be added on the roof, taking advantage of the incentive offered by the regional law L.R. 7/2017 on urban regeneration which allows adding 20% of the original building volume or the original floor surface in case of energy efficiency interventions on residential buildings. The new volumes have a dry load-bearing structure in X-Lam panels and are placed on a load-bearing structure in IPE steel beams to detach and slightly lift the housing module from the existing roof and thus ensure natural ventilation. Each dwelling is equipped with photovoltaic panels (20.50 m2) and solar collectors integrated into the roof to assure self-sufficiency in terms of energy.
The original flat roof is replaced with an extensive green roof covered by a pitched canopy which, besides ensuring shading, is also designed to collect rainwater through the central impluvium for irrigating the green roof. The green-blue roof combines different technologies allowing an increase in the storing capacity and a control system of the water flow to release. The green roof helps to cool and humidify the surrounding air, positively affecting the microclimate with slight effects also for the squares located at the street level. In doing so, the storey just beneath the roof slab gains in thermal insulation, therefore less indoor overheating results in less consumption for air conditioning, affecting the overall energy balance. In addition, the vegetated surface effectively protects the waterproofing membrane from UV rays, hail, heat and cold, contributing in the long term to the building envelope maintenance. At the same time, the roof becomes a common space available for all the building users.
Where plug-and-play modules are not applied, an 8 cm sheep wool insulation is laid on the external current envelope to achieve a new transmittance of 0.33 W/m2 K to ensure an overall optimization of the building energy performance.
6. Linear multi-storey building typology in San Basilio, Rome
San Basilio (Figure 6) is located in the IV municipality, in the north east of Rome, in the urban area 5E, and borders the Grande Raccordo Anulare, an orbital motorway that encircles Rome, to the east and Casal de’ Pazzi and Tor Cervara to the west. The municipality is delimited by the via Nomentana to the north, by the municipality of Guidonia Montecelio to the east, by via Tiburtina, the Aniene river, the A24 motorway and the Rome-Pescara railway to the south, and the Rome-Florence railway to the west.
Figure 6.
Aerial view of San Basilio district (source: Google Earth).
Between 1981 and 1988, the Piano di zona 02v—San Basilio social housing urban plan—part of the 1981 supplementary variant of the general urban plan, provided for the construction, based on a project by Antonio Salvi, of 18 linear buildings of 6–7 floors over an area of 25.5 ha destined to settle 2500 inhabitants. The intervention is not well integrated with the existing fabric and is characterized by an orthogonal system of roads that shapes and defines the various plots. The buildings too are arranged in an orthogonal way and form green courtyards that open up towards the roads and a series of inter-closed courtyards at the points where the building heads come close to each other. San Basilio hosts 6.5% of the ERP accommodations in Rome and about 36% of those in the IV Municipality, gaining first place in terms of ERP accommodations in the city.
6.1 Analysis
According to the 2011 ISTAT census, it is clear that about 27% of the district inhabitants are between 45 and 60 years old and over half of the families are composed of a single member, 27% of 2 members and only the remaining 20% are families of 3, 4 or 5 components. One-third of the inhabitants have not more than a middle school diploma and only 10% have a university degree, half of the figure for graduates in Rome (20%). The number of unemployed is about 2% higher than the Roman average and about half of the population lives in rented apartments. The neighborhood is also known for the strong presence of petty crime and drug dealing.
Different multi-thematic analyses were carried out concerning mobility, facilities and green systems (Figure 7). The mobility analysis highlights how the area under examination is a sort of enclave to the district that stretches to the west, as it is connected to the urban fabric of the old San Basilio district and the rest of the city only by two access roads. The closest metro station is almost 3 km away. A station was supposed to be built in the old San Basilio area but the project for the extension of the metro Line B has never been realized. As for local public transport, although the area is served by several bus lines, these are not sufficient to ensure a direct and rapid connection with the city centre.
Figure 7.
San Basilio district: overall analysis.
With regard to the facilities, since there are no public or private ones within a radius of 250 m from the area under examination, and only a mechanic within a radius of 500 m, one is forced to travel almost 1 km to reach a supermarket, pharmacy or the nearest primary school. 57% of the district facilities are ascribable to retail trade, while public space meant for squares does not exceed 2%.
The several parks and green spaces in the area are unequipped and poorly maintained. In general, the outdoor spaces lack even the most basic elements of street furniture. This leads inhabitants to use these spaces only to go from one place to another and not for social purposes. Moreover, inadequate public lighting increases the feeling of insecurity among the inhabitants.
The microclimatic analysis (Figure 8) shows that the area under examination is affected by cold winter winds coming from east, north-east (about 9 km/h) and by hot summer winds coming mainly from south-west with a speed of approximately 16 km/h. In the summer season, both the north-east square and the southern square adjacent to the building suffer significant overheating phenomena throughout the whole day, yet moderated by ventilation. In winter, the northern square lays most of the time in the shade and is constantly exposed to cold winter winds due to the absence of adjacent buildings.
Figure 8.
Solar analysis on the linear building in San Basilio district.
The building under consideration (6G) is a linear multistorey building typology of about 42 × 13 m consisting of 7 floors above ground and a basement floor. The building currently houses about 135 people for a total of 45 apartments of 50, 60, 80 and 100 m2, accounting respectively for 40%, 30%, 25% and 5% of the total housing units. The structure is in reinforced concrete bearing walls that define a succession of different sized spans parallel to the short side. The façade is characterized by prefabricated concrete blocks with a minimum insulating layer of glass wool. The joints have not been carefully designed and the discontinuity of the insulating layer causes several thermal bridges. The building is equipped with two staircases and the access is via a gallery located on the ground floor at a height of +1.00 m, above the cellar floor, accessible from the condominium staircases. Currently, the ground floor houses, in the eastern part, two special housing units for people with physical disabilities and two rooms initially designed to be a condominium space and a laundry for common use. At the moment, the western part is occupied by storage spaces but it was meant to be—according to the original project—a pilotis floor with a walkway at a height of 0 m from which to access the gallery via the staircase. The upper floors house the apartments and each staircase serve from 3 to 4 units, two-thirds of which have single exposure. The living spaces do not face under-sizing problems since all the indoor spaces meet the minimum surface and height standards for public housing and besides, aero-illuminating ratios are verified in all rooms. The staircases lead up to the roof level.
6.2 Solutions and strategy
The analysis of the current condition reveals the need to rethink the building in all its aspects (Figure 9) starting from its connection to the ground not only in terms of spaces and functions but also about the square in front. The special apartments on the ground floor are to be relocated, in terms of living space, on the roof level and the currently unused common spaces are to be converted into local and building facilities chosen according to what emerged from the previous social analysis. In rethinking the relationship with the outdoor spaces, the current gallery at a height of +1.00 m is redesigned in terms of accessibility, use and relationship with the square, providing for its expansion in some points to create terraces to serve the new activities and rest areas to encourage meeting and socialization occasions. A co-working, refreshment and internet point could be located in the western part of the ground floor (internal height of 3.70 m) at the same level as the square and near the main road. These spaces are thought of as facilities for the entire local community. The remaining part of the same floor (with an internal height of 2.70 m) could host a series of flexible spaces, including a medical-assistance clinic with an adjoining small outpatient clinic where professionals can offer different services on shifts, multi-purpose spaces for courses and activities and a bicycle repair workshop.
Figure 9.
Exploded axo: overall project and focus on bioclimatic solutions.
Overall, the existing envelope does not meet current national standards for energy performance for buildings. In this regard, a new insulation layer must replace the previous thin and inadequate one together with the application of a ventilated façade in specific parts. Old windows are replaced by new ones in recycled aluminum with thermal break and double glazing with argon gas inside, with a global transmittance of 1.56 W/m2 K compared to the maximum 1.80 W/m2 K required by law.
The current design of the housing units of the standard storey does not make the most out of the living space. A new distribution of indoor spaces in favor of living areas located south and an implementation of new spaces to increase liveability, are required. In this regard, steel plug-and-play modules added to the façade, besides providing additional volume, can also be configured as bioclimatic devices by hosting greenhouses or buffer spaces depending on the orientation or, in some cases, as balconies or galleries. To make the housing units more compliant with the family units—according to socio-demographic data—one standard storey could be turned into a cohousing for about 40 members. This housing typology, mainly designed for relatively young users, single or couples, spreads over one entire floor and is accessible from both staircases. The sleeping area is essentially located in the east and west wings and the north. The south front instead hosts several shared spaces in sequence, such as a kitchen equipped with a dining area, a common living room, a mini cinema/games room and a common laundry room, all joined by a single glazed connection placed in adherence to the south façade. To ensure adequate ventilation inside the single-exposure apartments (about 60% of the total), a geothermal cooling/heating system operated by wind towers is inserted. In the light of the microclimatic analysis, the tower collection heads should be placed where airspeed accelerations occur both in summer and in winter. The air is trapped and then directed through underground ducts—where thanks to geothermal energy it is pre-heated/cooled depending on the season—to the apartments to be, in a second step, introduced into each room through a distribution system installed in the false ceilings positioned over the service and distribution spaces.
With regards to the roof, the availability of such a large free surface allows the implementation of different passive and active strategies as well as technological devices. Special housing units (once located on the ground floor) and common spaces are relocated on the roof. These new accommodations, larger and suitable for families of 4–5 members, have been designed for a different target audience, to encourage different people to approach the neighborhood and thus promote social mixitè.
Moreover, a common laundry room, a greenhouse for food production and a common outdoor kitchen/dining area are integrated as new volumes on the roof. The roof is also equipped with a system for the collection and reuse of rainwater and gray water. The uncovered surfaces are redesigned to better capture rainwater and convey it to specific collection points. From here, the water is filtered and purified and then used for cleaning and irrigation purposes for outdoor spaces, toilet drains and washing machines. With regard to gray water—before being stored in the collection point—it undergoes a different purification process and is later reinserted into the general circuit. This system can bring about significant clear water savings accounting for about 20%. The building is also equipped with a photovoltaic system for electricity production. The system is composed of polycrystalline modules of the size of 50 × 50 cm with a nominal power of 35-W peak each. The energy produced, equal to about 17,000 kWh per year, will feed, not only the lighting system—replaced with LED elements—but also the heat pumps for the underfloor heating system and part of the domestic consumption. A small portion of the roof is also meant for a solar thermal system for domestic hot water production, consisting of 18 panels of about 2 m2, for a total of 36 m2, able to cover 50% of the annual housing needs.
7. Results and conclusions
Currently, most of the interventions on ERP have an emergency nature: direct operations aimed at solving specific problems in the short term. This logic, devoid of investment, does not allow to respond to broader issues, without halting the heritage deterioration. Today it is even more necessary to outline intervention strategies capable of coping with the technical-functional aging of buildings. The ERP heritage of the city of Rome can become the key element for a qualitative regeneration of the city. According to socio-demographic data, it is possible to point out similar contexts, characterized by strong social unrest, petty crime and a high unemployment rate (23% in Torrevecchia and 16% in San Basilio). About the district population, that of San Basilio is generally younger and made up of larger families compared to that of Torrevecchia. Yet, in both cases, the most recurrent family unit is composed of 1 or 2 members. Not only the different characteristics of the plano-volumetric system but also those related to the socio-economic, environmental and microclimatic context play their part in the choice of which strategies and solutions implemented.
The study carried out allowed to investigate and compare the limits and the potentialities deriving from the building typology and its plano-volumetric system:
Ground floor. As a direct consequence of the building typology, the linear multistorey building undoubtedly presents a greater availability of space in terms of surface area. This feature allows the introduction of several different facilities on the ground floor, by simply replacing the existing housing units, poorly lit and ventilated and with serious privacy concerns. The new facilities are chosen according to the socio-demographic analysis output and the structural-dimensional characters of the building and address different target users at different scales (inhabitants of the building, of the neighborhood, of the district). In addition, the larger perimeter of the ground floor in this building typology allows greater freedom in rethinking the relationship with the relevant outdoor spaces, enhancing the integration between facilities and pertinent outdoor spaces. In the tower building typology, given the limited availability of surface, the possibility of integrating different facilities is consequently quite limited. The reduced ground floor surface area requires to use of additional storeys to host facilities running into the limits resulting from the reduced internal heights of the upper floors (originally intended for housing). About the useful heights, in the specific case of San Basilio, two public exercises with a district-scale catchment area can be introduced in the area with a useful height of 3.70 m. In the case of Torrevecchia, to overcome these design limitations, the creation of a new elevated public square, in-between the tower buildings, revealed to be the best solution for hosting laboratories for professional training, retail shops and craft labs whilst guaranteeing quality outdoor space at the same time.
Standard floor. The linear multistorey building, as opposed to the tower typology, tends to house a greater number of single-exposure apartments, which consequently face serious problems related to indoor ventilation. This aspect is mainly linked to the need for a greater surface area for connection purposes to serve all the apartments. Unlike linear typologies, in tower buildings, the connective surface is reduced to the least and corresponds to the stair and elevator block. On the other hand, the linear typology allows greater freedom in redefining the standard floor plan by changing the dimensions of the existing housing units to adapt them to the user’s needs. About the apartments, in Torrevecchia their dimensions were deemed suitable for the users and more than two-thirds of them have double exposure. In the case of San Basilio, this proportion is roughly the opposite, with % single exposure apartments accounting for 60%. As mentioned above the single exposure led to the introduction of wind towers to improve ventilation in indoor environments. Some of the apartment rooms in Torrevecchia, such as the double bedrooms, do not meet the minimum standards required by law. Therefore, the addition of new plug-and-play modules on the façades allows for to increase in the limited current surface area and meets the standards.
Roofing. Taking into consideration the linear typology, likewise the ground floor, the roof level has a greater surface. It offers, in the first place, the chance to implement several technological, active and ecological devices, to gain significant overall energy-water savings:
A photovoltaic system for electricity production: the larger roof surface allows to install a more powerful photovoltaic systems capable of satisfying a higher share of electricity consumption. In the linear typology, the cost is maximized, since it does not require any integrated systems on the façade, and since the system is more efficient thanks to the possibility of positioning the panels according to the best exposure.
Rainwater collection system: the larger collecting surface allows to accumulate a greater quantity of water, achieving far higher water-saving percentages.
Furthermore, greater space availability also results in the possibility of adding new accommodations and several common spaces such as a laundry room, multi-purpose rooms and a common kitchen in order to provide the inhabitants new spaces in which to spend time and do activities together.
Although, the building typology is quite significant in defining the different possible intervention strategies, these must necessarily be contextualized according to the specific study/project area and its genius loci, in other words, the socio-cultural, architectural, economical habits and characters of the place.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"urban regeneration, distressed urban area, sustainable technologies, public housing, energetic retrofitting",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80363.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80363.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80363",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80363",totalDownloads:71,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 21st 2021",dateReviewed:"December 23rd 2021",datePrePublished:"February 4th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 4th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Given three-quarters of the European population living in urban areas, cities are expected to deliver sustainable growth if they will be able to further thrive and grow, while improving resource use and reducing pollution and poverty, as highlighted also by Sustainable Development Goal 11. In the context of vulnerable and marginal areas within cities, which suffer from multiple deprivations, regeneration processes at the building and district-scale play the most significant role in making cities more inclusive, sustainable and resilient. Reuse and refurbishment strategies, measured building replacement and stratification, redevelopment and enhancement, nature-based solutions and bioclimatic technological devices, are all tools for an integrated regeneration process capable of stimulating the urban metabolism and act as a driving force for the self-regeneration of the city. A comparison of two different building typologies, brought about by a review of existing public housing case studies in the outskirts of Rome, Italy, allowed us to define efficient, sustainable strategies and guidelines, that can be adapted to similar contexts in terms of building typology, social and economic conditions and of relationship to the rest of the city.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80363",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80363",signatures:"Alessandra Battisti, Livia Calcagni and Alberto Calenzo",book:{id:"10756",type:"book",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Alessandra Battisti and Dr. Serena Baiani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10756.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-561-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-560-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-562-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"246098",title:"Prof.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Battisti",slug:"alessandra-battisti",fullName:"Alessandra Battisti"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Italian intervention policies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Sustainable urban regeneration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Sustainable technologies, hypotheses and solutions for two case studies in Rome, Italy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Tower high rise building typology in Torrevecchia, Rome",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Solutions and strategy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Linear multi-storey building typology in San Basilio, Rome",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.1 Analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.2 Solutions and strategy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Results and conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'UN Desa. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development A/RES/70/1. New York: United Nations; 2015'},{id:"B2",body:'European Union. European Commission. Directorate-General for Regional Policy. Cities of tomorrow: Challenges, visions, ways forward. Brussels: Publications Office of the European Union; 2011'},{id:"B3",body:'European Commission. Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council. 2020 Assessment of the Progress made by Member States towards the Implementation of the Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU and towards the Deployment of Nearly Zeroenergy Buildings and Cost-optimal Minimum Energy Performance Requirements in the EU in Accordance with the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 2010/31/EU. Brussels: European Commission; 2020'},{id:"B4",body:'IEA. Sustainable Recovery. World Energy Outlook Special Report in collaboration with the International Monetary Fund. Paris: IEA Publications; 2020'},{id:"B5",body:'EU SHREC | Interreg Europe: Renovation Wave Strategy Targets European Buildings. Retrieved from SHREC | Interreg Europe. [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.interregeurope.eu/shrec/news/news-article/10397/renovation-wave-strategy-targets-european-buildings/#:~:text=Commissioner%20for%20Energy%2C%20Kadri%20Simson,green%20recovery%20starts%20at%20home.&text=The%20Strategy%20will%20prioritize%20action [Accessed: April 10, 2021]'},{id:"B6",body:'Corrado V, Ballarini I, De Luca G, Primo E. Riqualificazione energetica degli edifici pubblici esistenti: direzione nZEB. Studio dell’edificio di riferimento uso uffici della PA nella zona climatica Nord Italia (zona E: 2100< GG≤ 3000). Report RdS/PAR2017. Roma: ENEA; 2018'},{id:"B7",body:'OECD. Integrating Distressed Urban Areas. Paris: OECD Publishing; 1998. DOI: 10.1787/9789264162884-en'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"There are various estimations of urban consumption of energy and related emissions. According to the World Energy Outlook (November 2008) http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/index.asp, much of the world’s energy is consumed in cities. Cities today house around half of the world’s population but account for two-thirds of global energy use. Because of their larger consumption of fossil fuels, cities emit 76% of the world’s energy-related CO2)."},{id:"fn2",explanation:'The EU must adopt an encompassing and integrated strategy involving a wide range of sectors and actors based on the following key principles:—‘Energy efficiency first’8 as a horizontal guiding principle of European climate and energy governance and beyond, as outlined in the European Green Deal9 and the EU strategy on Energy System Integration10, to make sure we only produce the energy we really need; − Affordability, making energy-performing and sustainable buildings widely available, in particular for medium and lower-income households and vulnerable people and areas; − Decarbonization and integration of renewables11 . Building renovation should speed up the integration of renewables in particular from local sources, and promote broader use of waste heat. It should integrate energy systems at local and regional levels helping to decarbonize transport as well as heating and cooling; − Life-cycle thinking and circularity. Minimizing the footprint of buildings requires resource efficiency and circularity combined with turning parts of the construction sector into a carbon sink, for example, through the promotion of green infrastructure and the use of organic building materials that can store carbon, such as sustainably-sourced wood; − High health and environmental standards. Ensuring high air quality, good water management, disaster prevention and protection against climate-related hazards12, removal of and protection against harmful substances such as asbestos and radon, fire and seismic 8 See Article 2(18) Governance Regulation (EU) 2018/1999: "‘energy efficiency first’ means taking utmost account in energy planning, and in policy and investment decisions, of alternative cost-efficient energy efficiency measures to make energy demand and energy supply more efficient, in particular by means of cost-effective end-use energy savings, demand response initiatives and more efficient conversion, transmission and distribution of energy, whilst still achieving the objectives of those decisions". 9 The European Green Deal, COM(2019) 640 final. 10 Powering a climate-neutral economy: An EU Strategy for Energy System Integration, COM(2020) 299 final. 11 This refers to energy from renewable sources produced on-site or nearby. 12 Climate resilient buildings mean that the buildings are renovated to be resilient against acute and chronic climate-related hazards relating to temperature, wind, water and solid mass, as appropriate. A complete list of such hazards is included in Table 1 of Annex I of Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2020/1208. 4 safety. Furthermore, accessibility should be ensured to achieve equal access for Europe’s population, including persons with disabilities and senior citizens—Tackling the twin challenges of the green and digital transitions together. Smart buildings can enable efficient production and use of renewables at the house, district or city level. Combined with smart energy distribution systems, they will enable highly efficient and zero-emission buildings.—Respect for esthetics and architectural quality. 13 Renovation must respect design, craftsmanship, heritage and public space conservation principles.'},{id:"fn3",explanation:'Moreover, the text of the law provides also for the creation of a "database on reuse" of vacant and abandoned properties, for the right for Municipalities and Regions to raise taxes on unused or unfinished real estate units for over 5 years and for the possibility to resort to two-level design competitions. Finally, it provides for wide use of tax incentives (such as the superbonus, the eco-bonus or sismabonus) and for the establishment of a control room for urban regeneration meant to coordinate the interventions on different levels and to implement the national program goals, planned to be adopted within 4 months from the entry into force of the DDL.'}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Alessandra Battisti",address:"alessandra.battisti@uniroma1.it",affiliation:'
Department of Planning, Design, and Technology of Architecture, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Department of Planning, Design, and Technology of Architecture, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
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González Rodríguez, Rocío Baños Rodríguez and Citlalli Hernández Guerrero",authors:[{id:"108938",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Bravo-Cuevas",slug:"victor-bravo-cuevas",fullName:"Victor Bravo-Cuevas"},{id:"109673",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"González-Rodríguez",slug:"katia-gonzalez-rodriguez",fullName:"Katia González-Rodríguez"},{id:"109689",title:"Prof.",name:"Rocio",middleName:"Elizabeth",surname:"Baños-Rodríguez",slug:"rocio-banos-rodriguez",fullName:"Rocio Baños-Rodríguez"},{id:"109690",title:"BSc.",name:"Citlalli",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Guerrero",slug:"citlalli-hernandez-guerrero",fullName:"Citlalli Hernández-Guerrero"}]},{id:"36322",doi:"10.5772/34019",title:"The Paleogene Dinoflagellate Cyst and Nannoplankton Biostratigraphy of the Caspian Depression",slug:"the-paleogene-dinoflagellate-cyst-and-nannoplankton-biostratigraphy-of-the-caspian-depression",totalDownloads:2381,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"Olga Vasilyeva and Vladimir Musatov",authors:[{id:"98322",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:"N.",surname:"Vasilyeva",slug:"olga-vasilyeva",fullName:"Olga Vasilyeva"},{id:"136891",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Musatov",slug:"vladimir-musatov",fullName:"Vladimir Musatov"}]},{id:"36325",doi:"10.5772/35219",title:"Sedimentary Tectonics and Stratigraphy: The Early Mesozoic Record in Central to Northeastern Mexico",slug:"sedimentary-tectonics-and-straigraphy-the-early-mesozoic-record-in-central-to-northeastern-mexico",totalDownloads:2566,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"Jose Rafael Barboza-Gudino",authors:[{id:"103498",title:"Dr.",name:"José Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Barboza-Gudiño",slug:"jose-rafael-barboza-gudino",fullName:"José Rafael Barboza-Gudiño"}]},{id:"36326",doi:"10.5772/35216",title:"Tektono-Stratigraphy as a Reflection of Accretion Tectonics Processes (on an Example of the Nadankhada-Bikin Terrane of the Sikhote-Alin Jurassic Accretionary Prism, Russia Far East)",slug:"tektono-stratigraphy-as-a-reflection-of-accretion-tectonics-processes-on-an-example-of-the-nadankha",totalDownloads:2360,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"Igor V. Kemkin",authors:[{id:"103490",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor'",middleName:null,surname:"Kemkin",slug:"igor'-kemkin",fullName:"Igor' Kemkin"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"36319",title:"Orbital Control on Carbonate-Lignite Cycles in the Ptolemais Basin, Northern Greece - An Integrated Stratigraphic Approach",slug:"orbital-control-on-carbonate-lignite-cycles-in-the-ptolemais-basin-northern-greece-an-integrate",totalDownloads:2693,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"M.E. Weber, N. Tougiannidis, W. Ricken, C. Rolf, I. Oikonomopoulos and P. Antoniadis",authors:[{id:"104271",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael E.",middleName:null,surname:"Weber",slug:"michael-e.-weber",fullName:"Michael E. 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The Kinta Limestone is a Paleozoic succession located within the Western Belt. Due to structural and tectonothermal complexity, the sedimentological and paleontological works in these carbonates have proven to be problematic unless combined with geochemical approach. Thus, the current study has integrated stratigraphical, sedimentological, and geochemical studies to assess the lithofacies variations and to interpret the depositional environments. An intensive fieldwork has been carried out in order to assess the extent of metamorphism and to locate the less altered sections for further studies. Three boreholes have been drilled on N-S transect of the Kinta Valley recovering a 360 m core. The core description, the mineralogical analysis, and the geochemical analyses including major and trace elements and organic carbon contents have allowed for a significant advancement of the knowledge existing on this basin. The obtained results have indicated that the Kinta Limestone is chiefly composed of carbonate mudstones, siltstones, shales, and minor cherty units. It preserves the main sedimentary features from metamorphism, especially in the northern part of the Kinta Valley. The detrital siliciclastic debris is minimum in the limestones. The overall dominance of fine-grained textures, the lacking of detrital siliciclastic deposits, presence of bedded cherts, and high organic carbon content outlined by geochemistry and the occurrence of uncommon benthic fauna have suggested the deposition in a slope environment with low energy and low oxygen content. The lithological changes from carbonate to siliciclastic deposits have outlined the occurrence of sea level fluctuations in the Paleozoic. The various analyses combined with chemostratigraphy, an independent of type locality and stratotype, enable to interpret the depositional environment of the Kinta Limestone. Thus, it can be useful to correlate to other formations in or similar types of basins in the southeast Asia.",book:{id:"7392",slug:"new-insights-into-the-stratigraphic-setting-of-paleozoic-to-miocene-deposits-case-studies-from-the-persian-gulf-peninsular-malaysia-and-south-eastern-pyrenees",title:"New Insights into the Stratigraphic Setting of Paleozoic to Miocene Deposits",fullTitle:"New Insights into the Stratigraphic Setting of Paleozoic to Miocene Deposits - Case Studies from the Persian Gulf, Peninsular Malaysia and South-Eastern Pyrenees"},signatures:"Haylay Tsegab and Chow Weng Sum",authors:null},{id:"36324",title:"Paleocene Stratigraphy in Aqra and Bekhme Areas, Northern Iraq",slug:"paleocene-stratigraphy-in-aqra-and-bekhme-areas-northern-iraq",totalDownloads:3772,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1550",slug:"stratigraphic-analysis-of-layered-deposits",title:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits",fullTitle:"Stratigraphic Analysis of Layered Deposits"},signatures:"Nabil Y. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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