Level progression for base game and worked example groups.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5397",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Glaucoma - Intraocular Pressure and Aqueous Dynamics",title:"Glaucoma",subtitle:"Intraocular Pressure and Aqueous Dynamics",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Written for ophthalmology residents and practitioners, this book provides the most comprehensive resource covering all the major aspects of aqueous humor and intraocular pressure dynamics. In addition to chapters on the conventional and new technologies for intraocular pressure assessment, there is a novel chapter on the engineering perspectives of continuous monitoring of the intraocular pressure. Based on the newer insights in aqueous outflow, this text offers a rational approach to the medical and surgical management of glaucoma.",isbn:"978-953-51-2850-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2849-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4127-3",doi:"10.5772/62698",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"glaucoma-intraocular-pressure-and-aqueous-dynamics",numberOfPages:150,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"8d26b6bdcc6ff36340803fe74ab449e4",bookSignature:"Parul Ichhpujani",publishedDate:"December 28th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5397.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14104,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 14th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 19th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 17th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 16th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"52530",title:"Dr.",name:"Parul",middleName:null,surname:"Ichhpujani",slug:"parul-ichhpujani",fullName:"Parul Ichhpujani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52530/images/4647_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Parul Ichhpujani (MS, MBA(HA)) is currently an associate professor at the Department of Ophthalmology, Government Medical College and Hospital, Chandigarh, India. She takes care of the Glaucoma and Neuro-ophthalmology Services at her center. She has done her glaucoma training from Advanced Eye Centre, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India, and a subsequent clinical research fellowship, under Dr. George L. Spaeth, at Wills Eye Institute, Philadelphia, USA. She is an avid researcher and an academician having coauthored a book, Pearls in Glaucoma Therapy; edited three books, Expert Techniques in Ophthalmology, Manual of Glaucoma, and Glaucoma: Basic and Clinical Perspectives; and contributed several research articles and book chapters in national as well as international books. Dr. Ichhpujani has lectured at regional, national, and international surgical meetings and serves as a reviewer for many ophthalmology journals. She was enlisted in the Power List of Best 40 Under 40 ophthalmologists in 2014.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Government Medical College and Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1094",title:"Ophthalmic Pathology",slug:"ophthalmic-pathology"}],chapters:[{id:"52562",title:"Schlemm's Canal: The Outflow “Vessel”",doi:"10.5772/65449",slug:"schlemm-s-canal-the-outflow-vessel-",totalDownloads:1589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to review the knowledge about the aqueous outflow through Schlemm's canal. Morphology of this canal and aqueous humor pathways from the anterior chamber through the trabeculum into suprascleral and conjunctival veins via connector channels are described. Additionally, the role of Schlemm's canal in the development of glaucoma and outflow resistance is discussed. Canalography as a more precise method of assessing the conventional drainage pathway and facilitating localization of an uncollapsed collector and aqueous veins is shown. Attention is also drawn to the relationship between aqueous and suprascleral veins and heartbeat.",signatures:"Joanna Jabłońska, Katarzyna Lewczuk and Marek Rękas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52562",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52562",authors:[{id:"189038",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",surname:"Rękas",slug:"marek-rekas",fullName:"Marek Rękas"},{id:"189043",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Jablonska",slug:"joanna-jablonska",fullName:"Joanna Jablonska"},{id:"189063",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Lewczuk",slug:"katarzyna-lewczuk",fullName:"Katarzyna Lewczuk"}],corrections:null},{id:"53103",title:"Trabecular Meshwork and Intraocular Pressure Dynamics: Oxidative Stress‐Induced Changes",doi:"10.5772/66138",slug:"trabecular-meshwork-and-intraocular-pressure-dynamics-oxidative-stress-induced-changes",totalDownloads:1578,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glaucoma is known as progressive neurodegenerative disease with irreversible loss of vision. Next to perimetric visual field defects, morphological alterations of the optic nerve and an increased intraocular pressure (IOP) occur. IOP is a fine regulated, complex homeostasis of production of aqueous humor (AH) in the non‐pigmented ciliary body and its outflow. About 80% of AH is drained throughout the trabecular meshwork (TM). Any outflow resistance, with consecutive increase in IOP, can be generated by a decreased pore size or any other alterations of TM, making it more rigid. Oxidative stress, a disbalance of oxidants and antioxidants, is one mechanism, causing an altered extracellular matrix (ECM), and seems to play a key role in the pathogenesis of glaucomatous nerve atrophy. Damage of DNA, caused by oxidative stress, was shown in TM cells of glaucoma patients. This chapter gives a review about oxidative stress and its pathological alterations in the main outflow pathway—the trabecular meshwork—in glaucoma patients.",signatures:"Bettina Hohberger, Ulrich‐Christoph Welge‐Lüßen and Alice Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53103",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53103",authors:[{id:"188501",title:"M.D.",name:"Bettina",surname:"Hohberger",slug:"bettina-hohberger",fullName:"Bettina Hohberger"},{id:"188672",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich-Christoph",surname:"Welge-Lüßen",slug:"ulrich-christoph-welge-lussen",fullName:"Ulrich-Christoph Welge-Lüßen"}],corrections:null},{id:"53466",title:"Conventional Intraocular Pressure Measurement Techniques",doi:"10.5772/67045",slug:"conventional-intraocular-pressure-measurement-techniques",totalDownloads:2450,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Determining the intraocular pressure (IOP) is a part of routine ophthalmic examination. Elevated IOP is a risk factor for glaucoma, and reducing the IOP is the only way to halt or dampen glaucoma progression. Therefore, precise measurement of IOP is critical in glaucoma management. Tonometry is the procedure of determining IOP using various techniques. Various devices are available in the market for determining IOP. Each one works with different principles. Different methods have been introduced and some of them in development, but there is still no perfect clinical method for exact measurement of IOP. This chapter aims to explore various tonometry devices available in the market while explaining their working principles, features, advantages, and disadvantages. Clinicians must choose proper technique balancing the accuracy, convenience, and cost of the tonometers. Estimation values of tonometers should be used with clinical aspects of patients.",signatures:"Umit Yolcu, Abdullah Ilhan and Ahmet Tas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53466",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53466",authors:[{id:"169659",title:"Dr.",name:"Umit",surname:"Yolcu",slug:"umit-yolcu",fullName:"Umit Yolcu"},{id:"188906",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",surname:"Ilhan",slug:"abdullah-ilhan",fullName:"Abdullah Ilhan"},{id:"188910",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmet",surname:"Tas",slug:"ahmet-tas",fullName:"Ahmet Tas"}],corrections:null},{id:"53067",title:"Newer Intraocular Pressure Measurement Techniques",doi:"10.5772/66260",slug:"newer-intraocular-pressure-measurement-techniques",totalDownloads:1892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) has been shown to be one of the major risk factors for glaucoma. It is of utmost importance to obtain accurate and precise IOP when dealing with patients with ocular hypertension and glaucoma, especially patients who have undergone ocular surgery. Goldmann applanation tonometer (GAT) was first introduced in the 1950s and is still currently considered as the gold standard to measure IOP. Although the reproducibility of GAT has shown to be quite good, its accuracy provides several limitations. In particular, IOP measurements taken with GAT have been demonstrated to be influenced by many corneal parameters, including central thickness, curvature, astigmatism and biomechanics. Other disadvantages of GAT include the need for local anesthetic drops, for fluorescein and for a slitlamp. Several different methods have been proposed to overcome the disadvantages found in GAT. The newer devices used as alternative tonometric methods include the iCare rebound tonometer, the BioResonator applanation resonance tonometer, the Pascal dynamic contour tonometer, the ocular response analyzer, the Corvis ST pachy-tonometer and Ocuton S. The precision and accuracy of these alternative tonometric methods in comparison with GAT have been reported and discussed.",signatures:"Maria Letizia Salvetat, Marco Zeppieri and Paolo Brusini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53067",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53067",authors:[{id:"187869",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Letizia",surname:"Salvetat",slug:"maria-letizia-salvetat",fullName:"Maria Letizia Salvetat"},{id:"194470",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Zeppieri",slug:"marco-zeppieri",fullName:"Marco Zeppieri"},{id:"194471",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Brusini",slug:"paolo-brusini",fullName:"Paolo Brusini"}],corrections:null},{id:"52446",title:"FM Continuous Monitoring of Intraocular Pressure, an Engineering Perspective",doi:"10.5772/65294",slug:"fm-continuous-monitoring-of-intraocular-pressure-an-engineering-perspective",totalDownloads:1532,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses the problem of continuously monitoring intraocular pressure (IOP) from an engineering perspective. It is aimed to all public in general although we think that medical staff and engineers may benefit the most from it. Although equations are included for engineers to get a glimpse of how the system works, this chapter does not go into great detail in mathematics and physics to make it understandable to medical staff. It provides though references for engineers who wish to get a better understanding of key subjects tackled in this chapter. The chapter is organized as follows: Section 1 introduces intraocular pressure (IOP) and need for its continuous monitoring. Section 2 describes the most recent efforts to develop a continuous IOP monitoring system. Section 3 shows what medical and engineering considerations must be taken into account to effectively measure IOP. Section 4 deals with health issues due to tissue warming and how to prevent them. Section 5 explains how an implant can be fabricated using either passive electronic components or active ones. Finally, Section 6 explains how the pressure sensor and the electronic circuits can be integrated.",signatures:"Adrian E. Rendon‐Nava, Alejandro Díaz‐Méndez and Luis Nino‐de‐\nRivera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52446",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52446",authors:[{id:"112794",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Díaz-Méndez",slug:"alejandro-diaz-mendez",fullName:"Alejandro Díaz-Méndez"},{id:"187268",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian Eduardo",surname:"Rendon-Nava",slug:"adrian-eduardo-rendon-nava",fullName:"Adrian Eduardo Rendon-Nava"},{id:"187604",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Nino-de-Rivera",slug:"luis-nino-de-rivera",fullName:"Luis Nino-de-Rivera"}],corrections:null},{id:"52790",title:"Managing Intraocular Pressure: Innovation in Glaucoma Management",doi:"10.5772/65972",slug:"managing-intraocular-pressure-innovation-in-glaucoma-management",totalDownloads:2016,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Primary open-angle glaucoma is a progressive ocular neuropathy that if left untreated may lead to blindness. The main risk factor for developing glaucoma is increased intraocular pressure. Intraocular pressure is regulated by the balance of aqueous humour synthesis and secretion into the eye and outflow from the eye; therefore, most therapies for glaucoma seek lowering intraocular pressure to avoid disease progression. There are several types of drugs in the market for the treatment of glaucoma, but there are still unmet needs to be overcome; therefore, significant effort has been put in the last few years to develop new medicines with innovative mechanisms of action as well as devices to improve quality of life in glaucoma patients. The present review offers a thorough revision of the latest advances in the glaucoma therapy field, focusing on innovative approaches, new targets and new mechanisms of action.",signatures:"Anne-Marie Bleau, Beatriz Vargas, Ana Isabel Jiménez and\nCovadonga Pañeda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52790",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52790",authors:[{id:"104927",title:"Dr.",name:"Covadonga",surname:"Paneda",slug:"covadonga-paneda",fullName:"Covadonga Paneda"},{id:"104934",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana I.",surname:"Jimenez",slug:"ana-i.-jimenez",fullName:"Ana I. Jimenez"},{id:"194437",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne- Marie",surname:"Bleau",slug:"anne-marie-bleau",fullName:"Anne- Marie Bleau"},{id:"194438",title:"MSc.",name:"Beatriz",surname:"Vargas",slug:"beatriz-vargas",fullName:"Beatriz Vargas"}],corrections:null},{id:"52431",title:"Laser Trabeculoplasty and Aqueous Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/65440",slug:"laser-trabeculoplasty-and-aqueous-dynamics",totalDownloads:1366,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For the past four decades, laser trabeculoplasty has been a staple in the treatment armamentarium against glaucoma. Although the exact mechanism of laser trabeculoplasty has not been fully elucidated, its clinical utility in lowering intraocular pressure has been well established. Aqueous dynamic studies uniformly reveal an increase in aqueous outflow facility at the trabecular meshwork. Accumulating evidence suggests that the mechanism is the result of complex cellular and biochemical processes. Histopathological studies of the trabecular meshwork tissue after argon laser suggest an additional mechanical role. The traditional treatment algorithm for glaucoma placed laser trabeculoplasty as an intermediary between medical therapy and incisional surgery. However, because of the safety profile of selective laser trabeculoplasty, recent studies have challenged this treatment paradigm. One such study was a multicenter trial headed by our department that compared laser trabeculoplasty and medical therapy as initial treatment for glaucoma. We showed a similar efficacy between the two modalities, reinforcing the possibility of using laser as the initial treatment in the right clinical setting.",signatures:"Daniel Lee, Kamran Rahmatnejad, Michael Waisbourd and Leslie\nJay Katz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52431",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52431",authors:[{id:"189091",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Lee",slug:"daniel-lee",fullName:"Daniel Lee"},{id:"189092",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",surname:"Rahmatnejad",slug:"kamran-rahmatnejad",fullName:"Kamran Rahmatnejad"},{id:"189093",title:"Dr.",name:"L. Jay",surname:"Katz",slug:"l.-jay-katz",fullName:"L. Jay Katz"},{id:"195191",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Waisbourd",slug:"michael-waisbourd",fullName:"Michael Waisbourd"}],corrections:null},{id:"53082",title:"Glaucoma Surgery and Aqueous Dynamics",doi:"10.5772/66144",slug:"glaucoma-surgery-and-aqueous-dynamics",totalDownloads:1681,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Reduction in intraocular pressure is the only proven method to treat glaucoma. When medical treatment does not achieve adequate intraocular pressure reduction with acceptable adverse effects, laser or incisional surgeries are introduced. In this chapter, we discuss the physiological basis for the established surgical procedures as well as the newer surgical procedures. Most new surgical innovations have been designed according to natural physiology by routing aqueous as nature intended, through the Schlemm’s canal. This has been possible because of better understanding of the outflow system and the availability of micro-technology to manipulate it.",signatures:"Parul Ichhpujani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53082",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53082",authors:[{id:"52530",title:"Dr.",name:"Parul",surname:"Ichhpujani",slug:"parul-ichhpujani",fullName:"Parul Ichhpujani"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"268",title:"Glaucoma",subtitle:"Basic and Clinical Concepts",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a66374f7429cc798c56e9e8149a1aa",slug:"glaucoma-basic-and-clinical-concepts",bookSignature:"Shimon Rumelt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/268.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54335",title:"Dr.",name:"Shimon",surname:"Rumelt",slug:"shimon-rumelt",fullName:"Shimon 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The current study is an exploratory study into the potential of integrating research on worked examples into physics games to support deeper learning. The theory behind worked examples is that working memory, which is limited in capacity, is heavily utilized when solving problems, such as setting subgoals that require highly focused cognition [1]. Problem solving has been shown to consume cognitive resources that could be better allocated for learning, integration and consolidation. Worked examples free cognitive resources in working memory for learning, specifically, for the assimilation of new knowledge by generative processing [2].
Many research studies have shown the advantages of learning from correct worked examples [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. It is important however to be aware of the “expertise reversal effect” [11], which has shown through numerous studies that an instructional technique that benefits low prior knowledge learners can lose its benefit for, and in some cases be detrimental to, high prior knowledge learners.
Based on the research discussed above, worked examples can enhance learning in multimedia settings. The purpose of the current study was to examine the efficacy of an approach to integrating worked examples into physics learning games. The current study explores this question by comparing two conditions, one that integrates worked examples during into gameplay and one that does not, in order to explore four hypotheses:
Students who experienced worked examples of the Fuzzy Chronicles game to support the comprehension and interpretation of game play were expected to show increased pretest-posttest gains compared to students who did not experience worked examples.
Students who experienced worked examples would progress significantly farther in the game than the baseline group because they would have an enhanced understanding of gameplay and Newtonian physics concepts.
Students in the worked examples condition would display patterns in their gameplay behavior indicating deeper conceptual sophistication than the students in the non-worked examples condition.
These effects would be especially pronounced in low prior knowledge learners.
Participants consisted of 53 seventh grade students (
The game used for this study was an updated version of the conceptually-integrated educational physics game known as
Similar to versions of Fuzzy Chronicles use in other studies, each game level in the version used for the current study takes place on a grid with the goal of navigating from a launching point to a goal portal/door while avoiding obstacles. Unlike the previous version, the version of the game used for this experiment only included one level of difficulty for each mission to encourage students to progress through educational content of the game. The levels were broken up into five concepts based on Newton’s laws of motion and the game mechanics designed to teach those mechanics. The five concepts included: combination of forces (using rocket boosts), changes in mass (picking up Fuzzies), equal and opposite reactions in 1D (launching Fuzzies while not moving), equal and opposite reactions in 2D (launching Fuzzies while moving), and the law of inertia where an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted upon by an outside force (dropping Fuzzies).
There were 7 levels for each concept, making for a total of 35 levels. Each set of seven levels included one boss level that required the students to use all the skills they developed through the previous six levels to show mastery over the concept. For example, for the boss level for the concept of combining forces, students had to learn how to increase and decrease their speed as well as complete two 90° turns. For the experimental manipulation, the six non-boss levels in each set were grouped in pairs. The first level in each pair for the worked examples group was designed to be split into two isomorphic segments which are separated by a laser. During the first segment there is a preplaced trajectory and preplaced forces that take the ship from the starting launch point to the button that switches off the laser. The first segment thus demonstrates how to complete the target maneuver successfully, and serves as an example that students can use to help navigation from the laser button to the goal.
For the base game group, students are only given the second half of the level and are required to figure out how to complete the maneuver on their own using the basic tips given in the level introductory text. An example of the same level requiring students to move on a diagonal path for the control and the worked examples group can be found in Figure 1. For the second level in each pair, both the groups are given the same level which asks them complete a similar maneuver. A table with the level progression for the two groups can be found in Table 1.
Example screen shots of a base game level (left) and the corresponding worked example level with the worked example in the first half of the level (right).
Concept | Base game | Worked example (WE) | Level |
---|---|---|---|
Adding forces horizontally | PS | WE | 1 |
PS | PS | 2 | |
Adding forces to create a diagonal | PS | WE | 3 |
PS | PS | 4 | |
90° turns | PS | WE | 5 |
PS | PS | 6 | |
Force boss mission | 7 | ||
Adding mass | PS | WE | 8 |
PS | PS | 9 | |
Moving and stopping with mass | PS | WE | 10 |
PS | PS | 11 | |
Moving diagonally with mass | PS | WE | 12 |
PS | PS | 13 | |
Mass boss mission | 14 | ||
Basic launching | PS | WE | 15 |
PS | PS | 16 | |
Launching a set speed | PS | WE | 17 |
PS | PS | 18 | |
Double launching | PS | WE | 19 |
PS | PS | 20 | |
Launching while stopped boss | 21 | ||
45° deflection | PS | WE | 22 |
PS | PS | 23 | |
Deflection to straighten path | PS | WE | 24 |
PS | PS | 25 | |
Double Deflection | PS | WE | 26 |
PS | PS | 27 | |
Launching on the move boss mission | 28 | ||
Basic dropping | PS | WE | 29 |
PS | PS | 30 | |
Mass changes with dropping | PS | WE | 31 |
PS | PS | 32 | |
Dropping and launching | PS | WE | 33 |
PS | PS | 34 | |
Dropping boss mission | 35 |
Level progression for base game and worked example groups.
The pretest and posttest consisted of 18 multiple choice questions. Eight of the items from the test dealt with changes in acceleration in 1D with subsets of those items dealing with: (2) the relationship between force and acceleration when mass is unchanged, (2) balanced forces, and (4) combining forces. Four of the items dealt with adding forces together to create 2D movement. Three of the test items were focused on the F = MA relationship, highlighting changes in mass. Finally, the last three questions dealt with the 3rd law of motion (for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction) and required the students to imagine how throwing an object would affect the speed and direction of another object.
In addition to addressing whether students can learn from the game, this study also examines students’ perceptions of the game in terms of enjoyment, difficulty, cognitive effort, and perceived learning. To address this goal, a seven-item game evaluation survey with a five point Likert scale ranging from “1 Strongly Agree” to “5 Strongly Disagree” was developed.
A second survey was administered to determine the student’s level of video game experience. Students were asked how many hours a week they typically played video games, which video game consoles and portable video game devices their families owned and they played regularly, whether they played games on a desktop or laptop computer, and whether they regularly played games on a smartphone or tablet.
Finally, to assess the students’ self-efficacy in terms of playing video and computer games, the video gaming subset of items from the Self-Efficacy in Technology and Sciences (SETS) instrument was used [18]. The instrument was included in order to determine whether self-efficacy while playing games could affect the student’s play style or if the different versions of the game were more helpful to students with lower video game self-efficacy.
Ten days prior to playing the game, students were given the pretest to determine prior knowledge levels related to the learning goals of the game. Students were given as much time as they needed in order to complete the test. All students were given two full class periods, (90 min) to play the game. On the first day of gameplay students were introduced to the WISE system and given instructions on how to set up their personal game accounts. Students were given hard copy instructions related to their version of the game. The first activity students had to complete in the game was the 15-item video game self-efficacy survey [18]. Upon completing the survey, students were then taken to the in-game tutorial which instructed students on how to place trajectory points, place forces on the timeline, set the direction and magnitude of each force, and how to combined forces.
Students then played the game at their own pace. Students were told that they could assist other students at their lab table, but were instructed not to touch the other student’s computer. The researchers gave minimal help in terms of game instructions and were instructed to refrain from giving any physics related assistance. The posttest was administered on Friday at the end of the week. Due to the alternating block scheduling, half of the students completed the test 1 day after finishing gameplay while the other half completed the test 2 days after finishing gameplay. After the posttest, students were asked to complete the game evaluation survey and the gaming experience survey.
Due to a typo on the pretest materials, one question relating to mass was removed from the analysis for both the pre and posttest. There were no significant differences between the two groups on the pretest
Condition | Pretest | Posttest |
---|---|---|
M (SD) | M (SD) | |
Base game | 7.75 (2.61) | 12.95 (3.72) |
Worked examples | 8.60 (3.03) | 11.95 (3.94) |
Total | 8.18 (2.83) | 12.45 (3.82) |
Means and Standard Deviations for Worked Examples and Base Game groups on Pretest and Posttest.
In addition to looking at overall learning gains, an additional repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to examine which concepts showed gains between the pre and posttest as well as significant differences in gains between the two conditions. For questions dealing with 1D and changes in acceleration, there was a significant main effect of testing session for 1D questions in general,
Although there was no significant benefit for providing worked examples in terms of learning gains, one possibility is that worked examples could have been more effective for lower prior knowledge players. Students were ranked as high and low prior knowledge learners using a median split (18 low, 22 high). A chi-squared analysis revealed that there was no significant difference in distribution of high and low ranked prior knowledge individuals between the two conditions, X2(1, N = 40) = 0.404,
Highest game level completed was used to determine how much of the game and learning content was experienced by the students. A significant positive relationship was found between pretest score and highest level completed,
To examine whether differences in the number of levels completed affected learning differences between the two groups an ANOVA was conducted. There was significant difference between the two conditions in terms of the average highest level completed by the participants,
The game satisfaction survey revealed no significant differences between the two groups in terms of whether students enjoyed playing the game (
The distribution of responses for all of the participants can be found in Table 3. In general, 65% of the students reported that they strongly agreed or agreed that they enjoyed playing the game while only one student said they disagreed. Over half of the students (60%) reported that they agreed or strongly agreed that they would like to play the game or games like it again in the future. In terms of mental effort, 80.4% reported that they worked hard to understand how to play the game and to complete the missions. For difficulty dealing with the game, 32.5% of the students either agreed or strongly agree that they found the game difficult to play, 30% said they neither agreed nor disagreed, while 37.5% said they did not agree with the game being difficult to play. Only 12.5% of the students found interacting with the game to be difficult while the majority were neutral (42.5%). For physics learning, the majority of students agreed to some degree that they learned about physics from playing the game (72.5%) and also thought that the game helped them understand physics lessons they had learned in class (72.5%).
Question | Survey response | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strongly agree (%) | Agree (%) | Neutral (%) | Disagree (%) | Strong disagree (%) | |
Liked playing game | 35.00 | 30.00 | 332.50 | 2.50 | 0 |
Play again | 37.50 | 22.50 | 32.50 | 2.50 | 5.00 |
Worked hard | 35.00 | 47.50 | 12.50 | 5.00 | 0 |
Game difficult to play | 5.00 | 27.50 | 30.00 | 35.00 | 2.50 |
Interacting with game was confusing | 2.50 | 10.00 | 42.50 | 35.00 | 10.00 |
Learned about physics | 42.50 | 30.00 | 25.00 | 2.50 | 0 |
Helped understand class lessons | 40.00 | 32.50 | 20.00 | 7.50 | 0 |
Student survey responses.
The analyses focus on the video game self-efficacy subscale due to the lack of significant relationship between any of the learning measures and the computer gaming self-efficacy scale. There was no significant difference in reported video game self-efficacy scores between the two groups,
The highest level completed by each student correlated with how much game and learning content the students experienced while interacting with
Overall, the baseline condition proved to be more beneficial for both high and low prior knowledge learners compared to the outcome of student performance in the worked example condition. This finding was contradictory to our expectation that low prior knowledge participants would perform better after playing through the worked example condition. Highest level completed also correlated positively with students’ post test scores, indicating that game play was correlated with increasing or facilitating understanding of game play content. The average highest game level completed differed significantly between the two conditions, with baseline students completing more levels than their counterparts in the worked level condition. This result was unexpected. If anything, we would have expected the same or less time to complete each level in the worked example condition. Instead, however, somehow the inclusion of the worked examples impeded level progression and actually had a negative effect on student performance overall. No significant difference was found between worked example and baseline conditions regarding the overall number of attempts, suggesting that game play behavior between conditions was equivalent even though the amount of level completion between conditions differed.
Self-efficacy of the students was analyzed to determine how individual judgments of performance ability affected game play. Self-efficacy differences were not seen between the two groups and self-efficacy did not appear to have a significant influence on pretest scores or learning gains. However, self-efficacy was revealed to have a significant positive relationship with posttest scores and highest game level completed indicating that the students’ perception of their ability to understand the game while playing the game could have influenced their performance and engagement. Self-efficacy and number of attempts made on non-worked example levels were inversely related, suggesting that students with a higher degree of self-efficacy were less likely to approach the levels by trial and error. Students with lower self-efficacy scores were also more likely to perceive the game as confusing and difficult to play, whereas students with higher self-efficacy reported that they enjoyed the game and would play it again. Self-efficacy scores were also positively correlated with students indicating they learned physics concepts from the game and that game help to reinforce content from class. Self-efficacy may have influenced how students perceived the value of the game.
The findings show that students in both the base game condition and the worked example condition demonstrated significant pre-post gains. In an earlier study, we included a null condition with only a pretest and posttest but no intervention to determine whether a test/retest phenomenon could account for gains without an intervention [17]. That study showed that gains on the test could not be attributed simply to a test/retest effect. We therefore believe the significant pre-post gains in both conditions in the current study to demonstrate the overall efficacy of the approach enacted in Fuzzy Chronicles. Newtonian concepts can be very challenging for students, and are often resistant to instruction [19, 20]. We are pleased that these findings are in line with the overarching disciplinary integrated ideas of the Fuzzy Chronicles.
The findings from the worked examples condition, however, do not support our hypotheses. While these findings are disappointing, we have encountered similar patterns in our prior research when we have attempted to integrate well-documented principles about scaffolding from psychology and cognitive science into digital games for learning. Our research has shown that when scaffolding functionality comes at the expense of time spent in gameplay, it can detract from game cognition and STEM learning [15, 21]. Adams and Clark’s findings demonstrated that self-explanation prompts slowed students in the prompt condition so that the students completed significantly fewer levels and scored significantly lower on a learning assessment [15]. Looking across those studies and the current study, we note that the efficacy of implementing well-documented multimedia principles of learning in STEM games may not enhance learning if the design interferes with students’ flow, cognitive load, or engagement with the game mechanics. In particular, results suggested that when the worked example approach is overemphasized in a STEM game, it can disrupt or possibly over scaffold learners, resulting in detrimental learning gains and gaming behavior. More specifically, across the current study and the other two studies to which we referred, we have repeatedly found that scaffolds based on multimedia research must not (a) over scaffold the student or promote passive, automatic behaviors, (b) excessively detract from the student’s gameplay time, and (c) disrupt game cognition and flow, especially the pace of flow.
This does not mean that these well-documented learning and scaffolding principles are incompatible in the design of digital games for learning. It simply means that refining designs that carefully integrate game mechanics and the design of the scaffolding requires careful iteration. In the case of the self-explanation functionality, for example, building on the findings of the Adams and Clark study, we redesigned the self-explanation functionality to adapt to students’ level of sophistication in working with abstract prompts [15]. We also adjusted the timing and frequency of the prompts so that the prompts only appear after the player had successfully completed a level. By timing the prompts in this way, they were less intrusive and disruptive to players’ gameplay, and more likely to be appropriate to the player’s current progress and solution. Our research on this refined approach to self-explanation demonstrated significant pre-post learning gains as compared to a version without the self-explanation functionality [22]. Similarly, we believe that these findings imply the need to refine our approach to worked examples within gameplay rather than implying that worked examples are inappropriate for application in this setting. Essentially, we consider the findings as a reminder of the complexity of integrating scaffolds, an idea which has been developed in other educational contexts and applied to the context of digital games for learning.
The research reported here was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, and the National Science Foundation through grants R305A110782 and 1119290 to Vanderbilt University. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute, the U.S. Department of Education, or the National Science Foundation.
We consider the inverse problem of deriving the original image
where
where the first term is the data fidelity term for the Gaussian observation model and the second term is the regularization term, measuring the penalty of a solution that deviated away from the prior knowledge of the desired image. The modeling of the desired image is at the core of the approach [1, 2, 3, 4]. The primary challenge of solving the problem is to recover the local high-frequency information of edges and texture in the original images that are not present in the observation.
If
If
In this chapter, we also present a restoration algorithm that combines the noise reduction algorithm with the proximal point method [12]. The primary technical contributions of our methods are the context-dependent graphical representations and the algorithms to derive the optimal graphs of each representation. Finding the optimal graph in a combinatorial way is extremely difficult and likely an NP-hard problem [13, 14]. Unlike the combinatorial approach, we impose constraints on edges and include edges in the optimal graph only when the constraints on the edges are active. This renders a computationally solvable optimization problem and the solution is a graph with only a small number of active edges.
Based on local content in an image, the context-dependent representation divides the image into singular and smooth areas. Singular areas, consisting of edges or texture, are represented and processed differently from the smooth areas. The graphs of singular areas are constructed based on the persistence and sparsity of wavelet coefficients of the image. The persistence is imposed on the inter-scale edges so that the solution at one scale can be used to confine that in adjacent scales. Meanwhile, the sparsity is imposed on the intra-scale edges that preserve the edges in which end nodes have similar intensity. In contrast, a graph of a smooth area is in the image domain and has only sparse intra-scale edges.
The algorithm to derive the optimal graphs, called graphical ADMM, is based on the alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM) method [15, 16]. It is an efficient and robust algorithm since it breaks a complicated problem into smaller pieces, each of which is easier to handle. In our case, the node update is separated from the edge update in the optimization. In addition, for wavelet graphs, graphical ADMM approximates the multi-scale optimization problem into a sequence of sub-problems; each can be efficiently solved by convex optimization methods.
The chapter is organized as follows. In Section 2, we present the models and the construction for the context-dependent graphs. In Section 3, we formulate the noise reduction problem as a graph optimization model and present the graphical ADMM method to derive optimal graphs. In Section 4, the image restoration problem is formulated as the proximal point method that reduces the problem into a sequence of noise reduction problems, each being solved by the method in Section 3. In Section 5, experimental results and the principal differences between our and the compared methods are also discussed. Section 6 contains concluding marks.
An image is comprised of features of edges, texture, and smooth areas. A common approach to obtain a good image processing result is to treat different features with different approaches [17, 18]. Following this approach, an image is partitioned into two types of blocks. A block containing an edge point or texture is a singular block, while the others are smooth blocks. To keep the flow, we delay the partitioning method of an image, which is described in part A of Section 5, but this is not necessary to accurately partition an image to achieve the performance demonstrated in this chapter. The singular and smooth blocks were handled with different graph optimization approaches: a singular block is in the wavelet domain, while a smooth block is in the image domain. In the wavelet domain, a singular block is represented by several weighted graphs, one corresponding to an orientation. If the wavelet transform has three orientations, LH, HL, and HH, then one graph is for LH sub-bands, another for HL sub-bands, and the third for HH sub-bands. The graph for one orientation is constructed as follows.
Each wavelet coefficient is associated with a node. Edges are comprised of inter-scale and intra-scale edges. An inter-scale edge connecting nodes in adjacent scales can direct either from a coarse scale to a finer scale or vice versa. The inter-scale edges are built-in and data-independent; they are constructed based on the wavelet persistence. In contrast, an intra-scale edge connecting nodes of the same scale is un-directed, data-dependent, and determined based on the sparseness from the graph optimization algorithm. Regularizations have been imposed on inter-scale edges to preserve the persistence of wavelet coefficients across scales and on intra-scale edges to preserve the similarity of wavelet coefficients on nodes at the two ends of an edge.
Since wavelets can characterize singularities, representing singularities with wavelets can facilitate the restoration of edges and texture in an image. The persistence property of wavelets means that the wavelet coefficients dependency and correlations across scales. Thus, inter-scale edges were constructed to link the wavelet coefficients of the same orientation and locations at adjacent scales. Moreover, the correlations of wavelet coefficients from a coarser scale to a finer scale are different from that from a finer scale to a coarser scale. There are two types of inter-scale edges—coarse-to-fine and fine-to-coarse. The coarse-to-fine inter-scale correlation is derived based on the statistical result by Simoncelli [19], who analyzed the correlation between the dyadic wavelet coefficients in a coarse scale to those at the same location and orientation at the immediate finer scale in a natural image. The coarse-to-fine inter-scale correlation of wavelet coefficient
where
On the other hand, the fine-to-coarse inter-scale correlation is derived from the theoretical result of wavelet singularity, analyzed by Mallat and Hwang [20]. Let
where
where
A coherent or similar structure can be used to leverage the quality of the restoration [2, 21]. This is the principle behind the success of BM3D and the example-based approach in image processing [22]. Many similarity metrics have been proposed to derive the coherent structure, such as the mutual information, the kernel functions, and the Pearson’s correlation coefficient. In this chapter, the Pearson’s correlation coefficient is modified for some technical concern to derive the intra-scale correlation of random variables
where
An illustrative example of how the metric
The intra-scale edges are determined based on the sparsity constraint aiming to preserve the edges in which end nodes have similar values. The number of the edges is determined by the parameter:
where
The aforementioned are integrated and summarized for our context-dependent representation of an image. An image is divided into blocks. Each block is classified as either a singular block or a smooth block. A singular block is then represented with the dyadic wavelet transform, where the scale is sampled following a geometrical sequence of the ratio of 2 and the spatial domain is not down-sampled. The dyadic wavelet transform of an image is comprised of four sub-bands, LL, LH, HL, and HH, with the last three being the orientation sub-bands. A singular block is associated with three graphs—one for each orientation sub-bands. Since smooth blocks can be well restored in the image domain, the wavelet transform is not applied to the blocks and a smooth block is associated with a graph in the image domain. Each graph, associated with a singular block or a smooth block, is constructed independently of other graphs. Figure 2 illustrates an example of graph representation for a block of four pixels.
A block of four pixels can be a smooth block (top) or a singular block (bottom). A smooth block is processed in the image domain. A singular block is in the wavelet domain, where a multi-scale graph is associated with each orientation. The blue and green are built-in directed inter-scale edges and the red are un-directed intra-scale edges. The inter-scale edge connects nodes at the same locations and orientation but at scales next to each other. The green edge is coarse-to-fine, linking a node to its parent, while the blue edge is fine-to-coarse, linking a node to its child. The intra-scale edges are determined by graphical ADMM, which decomposes the node update and edge update in the optimization.
The noise reduction problem corresponds to problem (1), where
Let
where
Problem (8) has a convenient matrix representation. Let
where
Each row of
where
The ADMM algorithm intends to blend the decomposability of dual ascent with the superior convergence properties of the method of multipliers. Here, ADMM is used to derive the optimal graph by separating the node and edge update. Graphical ADMM derives the saddle points of
by iterating the following updates:
where
The third update in Eq. (13) has the following interpretation. If
A smooth block is processed in the image domain, where each pixel is associated with a node in a graph. Problem (8) becomes finding the optimal graph by solving
The optimal graph can be derived by a method similar to that for a singular block.
The update rule for edge variables
If only the terms in Eq. (3) relevant to the optimization variables,
because
We first solve Eq. (17) without the constraint and obtain the solution
by soft-thresholding with
It is then followed by orthogonally projecting
Eq. (20) can be solved by a sequence of soft-thresholding operations. The algorithm is sketched as follows. First, we check whether
The solution is the soft-thresholding as
If
The complexity to update edge variables is analyzed. If the number of pixels of a block is
The node update for a singular block is more complicated than that for a smooth block because a graph for a singular block has a multi-scale structure, where adjacent scales are linked by inter-scale edges.
To update the nodes
for given
Our approach is to decompose the problem based on the scale parameter into a sequence of sub-problems. Each scale is associated with two convex sub-problems: one is a coarse-to-fine sub-problem and the other is a fine-to-coarse sub-problem. The coarse-to-fine sub-problem assumes the parent nodes at scale
On the other hand, the fine-to-coarse sub-problem updates the nodes at scale by minimizing4
The node update problem (23) can then be approximated by repeatedly solving the coarse-to-fine iteration followed by the fine-to-coarse iteration. The coarse-to-fine iteration solves a sequence of the coarse-to-fine sub-problems beginning at the coarsest scale. In contrast, the fine-to-coarse iteration solves a sequence of the fine-to-coarse sub-problems beginning at the finest scale.
Problems (24) and (25) can be efficiently solved. The objectives in the sub-problems are strictly convex functions because their Hessian matrices are positive definite (as can be observed from the inverse matrix of Eqs. (26) and (27)) and, thus, the optimal solution of each is unique. The closed-form solutions of the sub-problems can be derived as follows.
For convenience, we omit all the superscript index in Eqs. (24) and (25) and let
where
The complexity of the matrix inversion in Eqs. (26) and (27) is low since
The node update for a smooth block can be analytically derived from the problem (15) at the condition that
where
If an image has
Graphical ADMM consists of a sequence of updating the primal and dual variables and the complexity of the algorithm is dominated by the primal variable updates. Our analysis of one iteration of Eq. (13) for node updates and edge updates indicates that the costs are
There are various image restoration methods [23]. Here, we use the proximal approach proposed in [24] and [12]. The method smartly reduces the image restoration problem into a sequence of noise reduction problems. Since graphical ADMM for noise reduction is efficient, it can be adopted to derive the optimal graphs for image restoration. Like for noise reduction, a graph is handled independently of the other graphs. The following discussion is focused on deriving the optimal graph for a block.
Let
with a known blur kernel
The parameter
Simplifying the above objective, we have the following simpler form by removing
where
We consider several image denoising and deblurring scenarios used as the benchmarks in state-of-the-art algorithms for performance evaluations and comparisons. The setting of experiments is given as follows. The experiments were conducted on images in Sets I and II in Figure 3. Set I contains six gray-scaled natural images, Einstein, Boat, Barbara, Lena, Cameraman, and House. The size of each image is
The images in set I (first row) and set II (second row). Set I contains six gray-scaled natural images and set II contains six gray-scaled textures.
Our noise reduction performance was compared against that of BM3D, WBN, and DRUNet. The perceptual quality of the methods is shown in Figure 4. The Lena image of BM3D over-smooths the highlighted area of hat, which is rich in edges and textures. Similarly, textures in the highlighted area of hat in DRUNet are smooth. The image of WBN, on the contrary, under-smooths the highlighted smooth area around the chin and shoulder of Lena. These artifacts have been amended by graphical ADMM, as shown in Figure 4f.
Comparisons of the denoised Lena images derived by BM3D, WBN, DRUNet, and graphical ADMM. The noise standard deviation is set at
The quantity comparisons, measured by the peak-signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR), of Set I and Set II are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The testing environments were images contaminated with the noise of variances,
Image | Method | PSNR | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Einstein | BM3D | 34.4392 | 33.0331 | 32.1694 | 31.4186 | 30.8709 | 30.3777 |
WBN | 34.4848 | 33.0821 | 32.3429 | 31.4728 | 30.9178 | 30.4109 | |
Proposed | 34.5013 | 33.1005 | 32.3544 | 31.4862 | 30.9306 | 30.4255 | |
DRUNet | 34.9948 | 33.6019 | 32.7411 | 32.1092 | 31.5952 | 31.1622 | |
BM3D | 33.8883 | 32.1067 | 30.8554 | 29.8356 | 29.0954 | 28.2992 | |
Boat | WBN | 33.9095 | 32.1369 | 30.8874 | 29.8561 | 29.1273 | 28.3285 |
Proposed | 33.9241 | 32.1504 | 30.9063 | 29.8772 | 29.1416 | 28.3410 | |
DRUNet | 34.4264 | 32.7123 | 31.5194 | 30.5768 | 29.8391 | 29.1826 | |
BM3D | 34.9567 | 33.0666 | 31.7376 | 30.7176 | 29.7049 | 28.8879 | |
Barbara | WBN | 34.9643 | 33.0831 | 31.7515 | 30.7332 | 29.7233 | 28.4571 |
Proposed | 34.9704 | 33.1012 | 31.7735 | 30.7468 | 29.7458 | 28.4675 | |
DRUNet | 35.2115 | 33.4389 | 32.1951 | 31.2341 | 30.4275 | 29.7520 | |
BM3D | 36.6367 | 34.8782 | 33.0567 | 32.5501 | 31.6531 | 31.0301 | |
Lena | WBN | 36.6354 | 34.8886 | 33.3048 | 32.4488 | 31.5617 | 30.9148 |
Proposed | 36.6447 | 34.8960 | 33.3065 | 32.5632 | 31.6744 | 31.1022 | |
DRUNet | 36.4431 | 34.9269 | 33.8363 | 32.9669 | 32.2285 | 31.6072 | |
BM3D | 34.1355 | 31.8449 | 30.3797 | 29.4118 | 28.5516 | 27.8758 | |
Cameraman | WBN | 34.1637 | 31.8675 | 30.5629 | 29.5723 | 28.7274 | 28.0487 |
Proposed | 34.1668 | 31.8776 | 30.5732 | 29.5804 | 28.7335 | 28.0614 | |
DRUNet | 34.9927 | 32.9133 | 31.5788 | 30.6079 | 29.8462 | 29.2131 | |
BM3D | 36.6638 | 34.9028 | 33.7349 | 32.9084 | 32.1240 | 31.5103 | |
House | WBN | 36.8538 | 34.9302 | 33.7620 | 32.9363 | 32.1571 | 31.5390 |
Proposed | 36.8665 | 34.9367 | 33.7742 | 32.9420 | 32.1643 | 31.5404 | |
DRUNet | 37.4420 | 35.8267 | 34.7084 | 33.9251 | 33.2517 | 32.6733 |
Comparisons of the PSNRs of the noise reduction methods on noisy images with the noise of standard deviation
Image | Method | PSNR | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F0 | BM3D | 32.5200 | 30.3213 | 28.8595 | 27.7279 | 26.7751 | 25.9243 |
WBN | 32.6212 | 30.4143 | 28.9314 | 27.8087 | 26.8644 | 26.0136 | |
Proposed | 32.6338 | 30.4365 | 28.9572 | 27.8276 | 26.8867 | 26.0345 | |
DRUNet | 33.7186 | 31.7164 | 30.2770 | 29.1838 | 28.3420 | 27.6675 | |
BM3D | 29.3575 | 26.3832 | 24.3540 | 22.8154 | 21.6195 | 20.6102 | |
F3 | WBN | 29.5361 | 26.5738 | 24.5363 | 23.0236 | 21.8514 | 20.9144 |
Proposed | 29.5464 | 26.5896 | 24.5554 | 23.0467 | 21.8722 | 20.9364 | |
DRUNet | 30.0832 | 27.2371 | 25.3141 | 23.8812 | 22.7516 | 21.8235 | |
BM3D | 29.8987 | 27.3043 | 25.6216 | 24.3522 | 23.4010 | 22.5878 | |
F7 | WBN | 30.1253 | 27.3765 | 25.6782 | 24.4186 | 23.4862 | 22.6574 |
Proposed | 30.1470 | 27.3932 | 25.6914 | 24.4375 | 23.5002 | 22.6786 | |
DRUNet | 30.8467 | 28.2704 | 26.5578 | 25.3201 | 24.3751 | 23.6274 | |
BM3D | 34.0075 | 32.4024 | 31.2442 | 30.311 | 29.5213 | 28.7919 | |
g3 | WBN | 34.0384 | 32.4566 | 31.2517 | 30.3472 | 29.5506 | 28.8064 |
Proposed | 34.0415 | 32.4734 | 31.2570 | 30.3613 | 29.5712 | 28.8115 | |
DRUNet | 34.2632 | 32.7016 | 31.6367 | 30.7665 | 30.0146 | 29.3556 | |
BM3D | 31.3155 | 29.0087 | 27.4678 | 26.3278 | 25.4362 | 24.7034 | |
p3 | WBN | 31.3385 | 29.0274 | 27.4936 | 26.3414 | 25.4535 | 24.7153 |
Proposed | 31.3520 | 29.0475 | 27.5102 | 26.3588 | 25.4763 | 24.7274 | |
DRUNet | 31.9992 | 29.7159 | 28.1847 | 27.0464 | 26.1412 | 25.3947 | |
BM3D | 31.5652 | 29.5789 | 28.3481 | 27.4696 | 26.7822 | 26.2039 | |
r3 | WBN | 31.6362 | 29.6675 | 28.4277 | 27.5486 | 26.8774 | 26.2745 |
Proposed | 31.6521 | 29.6836 | 28.4672 | 27.5665 | 26.9013 | 26.3020 | |
DRUNet | 31.8651 | 29.9371 | 28.7082 | 27.8162 | 27.1131 | 26.5323 |
Comparisons of the PSNRs of the noise reduction methods on set II texture images.
Table 3 presents five-point spread functions (PSFs) used for image restoration in literature [11]. Each PSF was normalized to have unit 1-norm before it was used to blur an image. The performance was compared with the state-of-the-art methods, IDD-BM3D and DPIR. To have fair comparisons, both methods used the same initial images in each experiment. The visual quality of the restored images is shown in Figure 5 and the blue and red boxes are magnifications of the highlighted areas in the image. Compared with the original images, the overall perceptual quality of the images of IDD-BM3D and DPIR appear over-smoothed, whereas graphical ADMM preserves more image details, leading to better perceptual quality. Graphical ADMM can preserve more details because it uses the multi-scale approach in treating the texture and edge regions. The wavelet persistence property allows information at coarse scales to pass to fine scales and vice versa. As a result, graphical ADMM yields shaper results in recovering singular points in images.
Blur Kernel | Formulation | size |
---|---|---|
Uniform | ||
Gaussian ( | ||
Gaussian ( |
Blur kernels for experiments. The
Comparisons of the deblurred images. The blue and red boxes are the magnified areas in the image. (a) the original
The quantity comparison is shown in Figure 6, where the performance improvement of graphical ADMM over IDD-BM3D was measured by the ISNR (increased signal-to-noise ratio) [26]. The ISNR quantitatively assesses the restored images with known ground truths. Let
Average and standard deviation of the ISNR gain of DPIR over IDD-BM3D and graphical ADMM over IDD-BM3D. Each image is blurred and then added to white noise of standard deviation indicated by the noise level. The image was then deblurred. An ISNR gain was calculated from the de-blurred images. The circled point and bar of a measurement at a noise level are the average and standard deviation, respectively, of thirty ISNR gains of natural images from set I ((a) DPIR over IDD-BM3D and (b) graphical ADMM over IDD-BM3D) and texture images from set II ((c) DPIR over IDD-BM3D and (d) graphical ADMM over IDD-BM3D). As shown, the curves of ISNR gain increase steadily and progressively when the noise level increases.
The higher the ISNR value of a restored image, the better the restoration quality of the image. The ISNR gain of graphical ADMM over that of IDD-BM3D is defined as
and the ISNR gain of DPIR over that of IDD-BM3D is defined as
Figure 6a and c show the ISNR gain of DPIR over IDD-BM3D in Set I and Set II, respectively. Figure 6b and d show the ISNR gain of graphical ADMM over IDD-BM3D in Set I and Set II, respectively. Let us take Figure 6b as an example. At a noise level, each image in Set I was first blurred by a kernel in Table 3. The result was added to white noise to obtain a noisy blurred image. This procedure generated thirty noisy blurred images since Set I contains six images and Table 3 has five blur kernels. Each noisy blurred image was deblurred. The ISNR gain of the image obtained by graphical ADMM and that by IDD-BM3D was calculated. The thirty ISNR gains were then used to calculate the mean and standard derivation, as shown in Figure 6. The mean ISNR gain of graphical ADMM increases steadily and progressively over IDD-BM3D, as the noise level increases.
DRUNet and DPIR are deep learning methods and the training data with a noise level of
For the optimization-based methods, the experiments have demonstrated the advantages of graphical ADMM in both the noise reduction and image restoration tasks over the compared methods. Recall that BM3D and IDD-BM3D adopt the image-dependent tight frame representations. IDD-BM3D also combines the analytic and synthetic optimization methods by de-coupling the noise reduction problem and the image restoration problem. This yields a game-theoretical approach that two formulations are used to minimize a single objective function. The solution adopted by IDD-BM3D is a Nash equilibrium point. The WBN represents an image as a multi-scale probabilistic DAG and adopts the belief propagation to derive the MAP solution.
The advantages of graphical ADMM lie in the context-dependent decompositions of an image horizontally in space and vertically along the scales in handling the image details. The spatial decomposition allows our method to overcome the cons of under-smoothing the smooth areas in WBN and keeps the pros of WBN that preserves sharp edges. Meanwhile, graphical ADMM is much more efficient than the time-consuming belief propagation adopted in WBN.
The mixture of data-dependent and data-independent edges in wavelet graph construction is a significant feature of our method. The intra-scale edges are determined by a data-dependent adaptive process, which imposes sparseness by keeping the edges which end nodes have similar coefficients in the optimal graph. The inter-scale edges are data-independent, built-in to leverage the wavelet persistence property. The inter-scale edges, passing information of singularities from finer scales to coarser scales and vice versa, can preserve more texture and edges in original images. This distinguishes our algorithm from BM3D and IDD-BM3D, which encode structure in atoms of a dictionary and select a few atoms for image representation.
We present a novel approach by combining spatial decomposition, vertical (multi-scale) decomposition, and ADMM optimization in a graphical framework for image noise reduction and restoration tasks. The graphical ADMM method has demonstrated that its results are superior to those of state-of-the-art algorithms. We also demonstrated that mixing data-dependent and data-independent structures in a graph representation can leverage the sparseness and persistence of a wavelet representation. Rather than adopting a combinatorial approach to derive an optimal graph, we showed that the graph can be derived by a numerically tractable optimization approach. In addition, we showed that the optimization problem is well coupled with our graph representation, and can be decomposed into a sequence of convex sub-problems, with each having an efficient closed-form solution. This opens a new perspective of combining a mixture of data-adaptive and data-independent structures, hierarchical decomposition, and optimization algorithms in modeling, representing, and solving more image processing tasks.
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Therefore, chemotherapy has an important role in the treatment of patients with cholangiocarcinoma. International efforts by physicians and researchers are revealing genetic factors of cholangiocarcinoma progression, which will identify early diagnostic markers and novel therapeutic targets. In this chapter, current strategies of adjuvant, neoadjuvant, and palliative chemotherapy will be discussed, as well as expectant future therapeutic targets and development of individualized therapies.",book:{id:"6502",slug:"topics-in-the-surgery-of-the-biliary-tree",title:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree",fullTitle:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree"},signatures:"Jung Hyun Jo and Si Young Song",authors:[{id:"227236",title:"Prof.",name:"Si Young",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"si-young-song",fullName:"Si Young Song"},{id:"227245",title:"Dr.",name:"Jung Hyun",middleName:null,surname:"Jo",slug:"jung-hyun-jo",fullName:"Jung Hyun Jo"}]},{id:"66928",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86148",title:"Ischemic Preconditioning Directly or Remotely Applied on the Liver to Reduce Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Resections and Transplantation",slug:"ischemic-preconditioning-directly-or-remotely-applied-on-the-liver-to-reduce-ischemia-reperfusion-in",totalDownloads:858,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is an important cause of liver damage occurring during surgical procedures. In liver resection, I/R causes post-operative transaminasemia and liver function failure. In liver transplantation, I/R causes graft dysfunction, ranging from biochemical abnormalities to primary non-function of the transplanted organ. Ischemic preconditioning is a surgical strategy to reduce the severity of I/R and improve post-operative outcomes by prior exposure to a brief period of vascular occlusion directly to the target organ or remotely to a distant vascular bed. This chapter aims to discuss the different ischemic preconditioning strategies in both liver resection surgery and liver transplantation. In addition, we will describe the differences of such surgical strategies in both steatotic and non-steatotic livers in both preclinical experiments and clinical practice. 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Major advances in surgical techniques, anesthesiological management, postoperative care, immunosuppression, and diagnostic approach have led to increased overall survival of patients. Postoperative care poses a great challenge since detrimental occurrences that need prompt treatment may affect the graft or distant organ functionality. Adequate graft function is strongly associated with distant organ restoration and rapid patient recovery. In the ICU setting, the main focal points are hemodynamic stabilization, coagulation and electrolyte disturbances correction, respiratory support, early weaning from mechanical ventilation, and evaluation of graft functionality. It is of paramount importance to facilitate early graft recovery, recognize and promptly treat systematic complications and life-threatening sequelae, and individualize treatment protocols considering graft quality, donor’s and recipient’s health status, and potential co-morbidities. To achieve those goals, technological advancements in continuous patient monitoring, graft functionality, and its metabolic reserves must be assimilated and implemented in the ICU.",book:{id:"7875",slug:"liver-disease-and-surgery",title:"Liver Disease and Surgery",fullTitle:"Liver Disease and Surgery"},signatures:"Areti Karapanagiotou, Achillefs Pitsoulis, Maria Vasileiou and Nikolaos Voloudakis",authors:null},{id:"42584",title:"Segmental Oriented Liver Surgery",slug:"segmental-oriented-liver-surgery",totalDownloads:7513,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"3164",slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"O. Al-Jiffry Bilal and Khayat H. 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In this chapter we discuss the current robotic platform, review the current role of robotics in liver surgery and review the available data in the literature on patient outcome.",book:{id:"7875",slug:"liver-disease-and-surgery",title:"Liver Disease and Surgery",fullTitle:"Liver Disease and Surgery"},signatures:"Ricky Harminder Bhogal, Stephanos Pericleous and Aamir Z. Khan",authors:null},{id:"42361",title:"Essential Functional Hepatic and Biliary Anatomy for the Surgeon",slug:"essential-functional-hepatic-and-biliary-anatomy-for-the-surgeon",totalDownloads:7702,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3164",slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Ronald S. 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