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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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It gives tremendous impact on the design of autonomous intelligent systems. The purpose of this book is to introduce Hybrid Algorithms, Techniques, and Implementations of Fuzzy Logic. The book consists of thirteen chapters highlighting models and principles of fuzzy logic and issues on its techniques and implementations. The intended readers of this book are engineers, researchers, and graduate students interested in fuzzy logic systems.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0393-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5686-4",doi:"10.5772/2663",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"fuzzy-logic-algorithms-techniques-and-implementations",numberOfPages:296,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"116c1be2754eb60e90b4ad3642546291",bookSignature:"Elmer P. 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High ambient temperatures, high direct and indirect solar radiation and humidity are environmental stressing factors that impose a strain on animals. Among the environmental variables affecting livestock, heat stress seems to be one of the most intriguing factors hampering animal production in many regions of the world. Even though new knowledge on the animal responses to the environment continually arises, managing livestock to reduce the impact of climate remains a challenge. Considerable efforts are, therefore, needed from livestock researchers to counter the impact of environmental stresses on livestock production. Besides ensuring the livelihood security to our poor and marginal farmers, stress mitigation can also improve the economy of livestock industry as a whole. Hence, it is crucial to understand the impact of environmental stress on livestock production and reproduction. These efforts may help in identifying the appropriate targets for developing suitable mitigation strategies.
Thermal stress effects on livestock are of multifactorial nature. It directly alters and impairs the cellular functions in various tissues of the body and the redistribution of blood flow, as well as the reduction in food intake, which ultimately results in reduced production performance. Reproductive functions of livestock are particularly vulnerable to climate change; it has been established that large ruminants are more prone to heat stress compared with small ruminants [1]. Heat stress is the major cause for infertility and reproductive inefficiency in livestock, resulting in profound economic losses. Heat stress reduces the libido, fertility and embryonic survival in livestock and favors the occurrence of diseases in neonates with reduced immunity. Heat stress affects the fertility and reproductive performance of livestock species through compromising the functions of the reproductive tract, disrupting the hormonal balance, decreasing the oocyte quality, and thereby decreasing embryo development and survival [2–4]. In the tropical and subtropical regions, during the hot season, both the poor quality of oocytes and embryos results in decreased conception rate and subsequently with more days open resulting in huge economic losses to the dairy industry [5]. The high ambient temperature and relative humidity directly affect reproduction by altering or impairing various tissues or organs of the reproductive system of animal [6]. The threshold level of temperature humidity index (THI) for the high performance in terms of milk yield and reproduction is around THI 72 in tropical and subtropical climates. However, recent studies on THI in temperate climate emphasized that the THI lower than 68 is suitable for cattle performance and welfare [7].
This chapter is an attempt to cover in detail the impact of various heat stress factors on livestock reproduction, in both the female and male. Apart from these influences, the chapter also elaborates on available mitigation strategies directed to sustain livestock reproduction in the changing climate scenario.
High environmental temperatures impair the female reproductive process at various stages of pubertal development, conception and embryonic mortality. Stress inhibits the reproductive performance of livestock species by activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which subsequently excites the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH) (Figure 1). The ACTH stimulates the release of glucocorticoids and catecholamines, which act extensively to alleviate the effect of stress. However, ACTH-stimulated glucocorticoid release is responsible for an inhibitory effect on the reproductive axis. Heat stress reduces the length and intensity of estrus, alters follicular development and increases the rate of apoptosis in the antral and pre-antral follicles. Extreme environmental temperatures delay the onset of puberty in male and female animals. Furthermore, heat stress during follicular recruitment suppresses the subsequent growth and development to ovulation [8]. Changes in the follicular growth disturb further progress and function of the oocytes [9, 10]. The chronic release of ACTH, such as the associated with heat stress, inhibits the ovulation and follicular development by altering the efficiency of follicular selection and dominance and glucocorticoids are critical to mediating this inhibitory effect on reproduction [11]. Further, high level of glucocorticoids during heat stress directly inhibits the meiotic maturation of oocytes, and, in addition, corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH) inhibits the ovarian steroidogenesis, derived of the decrease in the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH). The consequent decrease in estradiol results in reduced length and intensity of estrus expression [12].
Impact of heat stress on female reproductive performance.
The reproductive hormones play a vital role as they regulate various stages of development and function in the female reproductive system. The high ambient temperature and solar radiation as a result of climate change may affect the reproductive rhythm via the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-ovarian axis [13]. Various studies also revealed a significant negative correlation between environmental temperature and the reproductive hormone concentration, which in turn cause compromised reproductive efficiency in farm animals [14, 15]. The foremost important factors that regulate the ovarian activity are the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), from the hypothalamus, and the gonadotropins (FSH and LH), from anterior hypophysis.
In cattle, the immediate 16 h exposure to a higher temperature (40°C) on day 12 of the estrous cycle lead to a significant reduction of GnRH-induced FSH secretion [16], whereas tonic FSH secretion was elevated probably due to reduced inhibition of negative feedback from small follicles [8]. Heat stress decreases LH pulse amplitude and frequency in cattle with low estradiol, thereby compromising the maturation and ovulation of the dominant follicles, while low tonic LH levels also hinder luteal development by inhibiting follicular growth and turnover in cyclic cows [2]. Furthermore, the decrease in the pre-ovulatory release of LH during heat stress reduced the expression of estrus behavior and delayed ovulation. Also in goats, exposition to high environmental temperatures induced lower follicular fluid and plasma estradiol concentrations and reduced LH receptor levels following lagged ovulation [8]. Estradiol secretion in the ovarian follicle is depressed under heat stress, primarily due to reduced theca cell androstenedione production associated with low 17α-hydroxylase expression. In addition, reduced granulosa cells aromatase activity and viability also contribute to poor estradiol secretion. In the case of dominant follicles, subsequent plasma progesterone concentrations are reduced during heat stress and result in the small size of ovulatory follicles with low tonic LH stimulation of luteinization and steroidogenesis [17]. Moreover, low progesterone secretion limits the endometrial function and subsequent embryo development. The increased level of circulating prolactin leads to suspension of estrous cycles and infertility during heat stress [18–20].
Heat stress damages the developing follicles whenever the core body temperature exceeds 40°C [9]. Heat stress alters the follicular development by reducing steroid hormone secretion, which disrupts the oocyte growth, reduces the growth of dominant follicles and increased growth of subordinate follicles. Heat stressed lactating Holstein cows present smaller follicular diameter compared to non-stressed cows (14.5 vs. 16.4 mm, respectively) showed and also reduced fluid volume (1.1 vs.1.9 ml, respectively) [21]. In addition, heat stress was associated with reduced follicular dominance by prompting numerous large follicles with diameters above 10 mm, with prolonged dominance of ovulatory follicles [10]. Thus, the selection and dominance of normal follicles could be disturbed by high tonic follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) availability [2]. Low LH and the negative animal energy balance during summer prevent the maturation and ovulation of dominant follicles [17]. As the prolonged follicular dominance disrupts the normal oocyte maturation and reduces their developmental competence, the development of small dominant follicles during higher temperature results in ovulation of the infertile oocyte or sub-functional corpora lutea. The regression of the premature dominant follicle before attaining the larger size leads to a substantial reduction in ovulation percentage [8, 11, 17].
The seasonal cycle of reproduction in female animals is primarily controlled by the photoperiod, and it was found to be affected drastically by climate changes. Some studies proved the negative influence of heat stress on estrus incidence and duration and hence on estrus detection [6]. The length and intensity of estrus are inversely associated with the environmental temperatures, with higher temperatures triggering an increase prevalence of anestrus and silent heat in farm animals [18, 22]. A significant reduction in the interestrous interval was reported in Japanese black cattle during summer (21.5 days) compared to winter (23.4 days) [23]. Also, Bulbul and Ataman [24] report a decrease in estrus occurrences in cattle with an ambient temperature above 20.5°C. Likewise, decreased estrus duration and delayed onset of estrus were reported in heat stressed Bharat Merino ewes, which were attributed to abnormal LH pulsatility and lower estrogen synthesis during heat stress condition [25]. Malpura ewes exposed to multiple stresses (heat stress, nutritional stress, and walking stress) recorded lower estrous percentage and estrus duration in compared to control (41.7 vs. 66.67% and 14.4 vs. 32 h, respectively) [26, 27]. Similarly, a lower rate of estrus detection was reported in summer compared to spring and winter in dairy cattle. Contrasting to cattle, buffalos exhibit estrus when the ambient temperature is low, with THI value of less than 70 [1, 28].
In addition to ambient temperature, the humidity and solar irradiation also affected the expression of reproductive rhythm in buffaloes and cattle [29]. A diurnal rhythm of estrus behavior has been observed in the majority of Murrah buffaloes, with 60% of estrus exhibited between 22.00 and 6.00 h [28].
Sexual behavior acts as a core indicator of the reproductive activity in livestock females. It was found to be negatively influenced by environmental stressors like elevated temperature [30]. Reduced sexual behavior is reported in livestock during the hottest parts of the day. Wilson et al. [31] suggested that heat stress inhibits the follicular growth during the pre-ovulatory period of proestrus and reduces the intensity of estrus signs by decreasing the level of estradiol. Heat stress also modifies cow behavior, such as decreased walking time during estrus, which contributes to poor estrus detection in dairy cows during summer compared to winter [22]. Cows are less likely to exhibit standing heat during day time in summer months and often shows estrus at night hours when the ambient temperature is low [32]. Upadhyay et al. [28] reported that the low level of estradiol on the day of estrus also leads to poor expression of heat in Indian buffaloes during the summer period, favoring feeble estrus detection in buffalos during the summer season [29]. In cows, behavioral estrus is markedly reduced in summer, when THI is around 78 [28, 29, 33], while the incidence of anestrus and silent ovulation increases [34]. The cows in estrus mount more frequently during winter compared to summer, when detection of estrus is challenging. Furthermore, Japanese Black cattle exposed to heat stress showed lower locomotor activity during estrus, which was attributed to a reduced estradiol 17β production [23].
Heat stress reduces oocyte developmental competence by affecting growth and maturation through an increase in oxidative damage and apoptotic cell death, as well as by inducing irreversible changes on cytoskeleton and meiotic spindle [10]. The elevated temperature may negatively affect the oocyte growth, protein synthesis and the formation of transcripts required for subsequent embryonic development [35]. Reduced mRNA content and storage protein for early embryonic development along with altered membrane integrity affects signal transduction and protein transport. Therefore, prolonged follicular dominance leads to premature meiosis and aged oocytes with the poor developmental prospect. Incomplete dominance could result in ovulation of an aged follicle containing oocytes with reduced competence. Among other effects, incompetent oocytes become transcriptionally inactive by reaching a diameter of 110 μm and lose the ability to synthesize heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) in response to heat shock [36].
In summer, heat stressed Holstein cows exhibit lower proportion of oocytes and cleaved embryos that could have otherwise developed into blastocysts by day 8 [11]. Oocytes exposed
However, even though
The high yielding lactating cows are more adversely affected by heat stress than heifers because of their increased metabolism, which generates greater internal heat production thus lowering their fertility rate in summer and autumn compared to winter periods [36]. Heat stress before insemination has been associated with decreased fertility in cattle and sheep [11]. Fertility decreases in buffaloes exposed to THI above 75 in subtropical climatic condition as compared to cattle, since buffaloes are more sensitive to heat stress [6]. The increase of uterine temperature by 0.5°C during hot days causes a decrease in the rate of fertilization [30] since in severely heat stressed cows most damages over the conceptus occur between estrus and day 7 of pregnancy [39].
Heat stress-related infertility is a current worldwide concern in the livestock industry, particularly in dairy cattle. A report reveals a higher percentage of reduction in conception rate during summer months as compared to cooler months [40]. The elevated environmental temperature on the day of insemination is negatively associated with conception rates [41–43]. Impaired conception was associated with heat stress in livestock, either during the breeding period or 42 days before and 40 days after insemination [42]. The conception rate in high yielding Israeli cows was 45% in winter and 20% in summer [2, 44, 45]. Also, Chebel et al. [46] reported a 20–27% drop in conception rates and a decrease in 90-day non-return rate to the first service in lactating dairy cows during summer. In dairy cows, the percentage of conception rate is reduced by 4.6% for each unit increase in THI above 70 and in practical reality, conception rate was often declined to less than 10% during summer [32, 47].
The embryonic loss is another important factor that affects fertility in cattle, and bovine embryos are sensitive to maternal heat stress during the first 2 weeks after breeding [17, 36]. A major source for a reduction in embryonic survival induced by heat stress may be due to the adverse effects of elevated body temperatures on developing zygotes and embryos. High ambient temperatures during oocyte maturation and ovulation or during the first 3–7 day of pregnancy reduced the embryonic viability and development. Although elevated temperatures affect the pre-attachment stage of embryos, the degree of the effect decreases as the embryo develops. Heat stress causes embryonic death by the interfering with protein synthesis, oxidative cell damage, reduction in successful pregnancy recognition and expression of stress-related genes associated with apoptosis. The exposure of lactating cows to heat stress after the 1st day of estrus has reduced the development of embryos to blastocyst stage after 8th day of estrus [39], the deleterious effects of heat stress on the embryos being most evident in early stages of its development [48].
Heat stress negatively affects the ability of an animal to become pregnant through many mechanisms affecting fertilization, follicular development and early embryonic development (Figure 2). Ryan et al. [49] reported that when the rectal temperature of the animals increased from 38.5 to 40°C at 72 h after insemination, pregnancy rate decreased up to 50%. Amundson et al. [45] also found a significant reduction in the pregnancy rate in beef cattle during summer (62%) when the THI was equal to or above 72.9. Likewise, Amundson et al. [50] reported 3.2% decrease in pregnancy rates in
Impact of heat stress on pregnancy in livestock.
The maximum pregnancy losses due to heat stress occur during the early embryonic period of 8–17 days of pregnancy [52, 53]. In addition, heat stress compromises the embryonic growth up to day 17, which was considered a critical period for production of interferon-tau by the embryo. The quantity of interferon-tau is crucial to reduce the pulsatile secretion of PGF2α thus facilitating the persistence of the corpus luteum for the maintenance of pregnancy. Hence, low-quality embryo and poor quality CL are important causes of early embryonic death during heat stress. The heat stress during late gestation period in dairy cows resulted in lower birth weight calves with reduced milk yield, which is associated with a reduced thyroxine, prolactin and growth hormone [54].
The dry period is a critical period, in which the mammary gland involution, the rapid fetal growth and induction of lactation occurs, with subsequent mammary development [36]. Heat stress in the cow impairs the placental hormones secretion, which can negatively affect the intrauterine fetal growth and reduce milk yield [10]. Heat stress in mid to late pregnancy can affect endocrine responses that may increase foetal abortions, shorten the gestation length, lower calf birth weight, and reduce follicular and oocyte maturation in postpartum estrous cycles [55]. Pre-partum heat stress may also decrease thyroid hormones and placental estrogen levels, while increasing non-esterified fatty acid concentrations in blood that alters the growth of the udder and placenta, placental angiogenesis, nutrients supply to the unborn calf and subsequent milk production [10, 54].
The major impact of heat stress on postpartum involves a delay of the return to gestation due to decreased submission rate and low conception/pregnancy rates [55], as already mentioned. Ray et al. [56] reported that first lactation cows are more sensitive to summer stress with the significantly longer postpartum period than cows with multiple lactations. On the other hand, Lewis et al. [57] reported that the heat stress did not alter postpartum days from calving to first estrus, in clear contradiction with Jonsson et al. [58], who suggested that the heat stress induced reduction in dry matter intake may lead to increased negative energy balance, therefore prolonging the postpartum period and reducing the fertility in dairy cows. Further, the negative energy balance decreased the plasma concentrations of insulin and glucose and caused delayed ovulation [33]. The poor folliculogenesis and delayed ovulations during heat stress resulted in longer calving interval, reduced the birth weight and milk yield [51]. Further, longer service period in buffaloes during summer may be due to the higher incidence of silent estrus [1].
Bulls are generally considered to be half of the herd and its fertility is directly associated with the fertilization of oocyte to produce a good, viable and genetically potential concepts. In mammalian species, the males have a unique physiological mechanism of testicular thermoregulation to maintain its reproductive activity in adverse environmental conditions [59]. The increased density of sweat glands in the scrotum of ruminants is crucial to the efficiency of local thermoregulation. The testicular temperature in bulls must be 4–5°C below the rectal temperature, and this difference in temperature is essential for an efficient sperm production [60]. The optimal ambient temperature for efficient sperm production could be approximately 15–20°C. Males are highly susceptible to the pooled effect of high ambient temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and the wind, and this reduces both the quantity and quality of sperm production, thereby decreasing the male fertility [6, 61] (Figure 3). Also, high temperatures interfere with the oxidative metabolism of glucose in spermatic cells as a result of mitochondrial dysfunctions and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and increase lipid peroxidation which is reflected in an increase of sperm primary defects [62].
Impact of heat stress on the reproductive performances of livestock.
The scrotum of bull has thin skin with low fat, low pelage, highly vascularized [59], and its participation in the thermoregulation mechanism is coupled with physical mechanism of counter-current mechanism for heat exchange and blood flow regulation centered in the testicular cord. This complex mechanism allows the maintenance of testicular temperature between 2 and 6°C below body temperature [63]. The local thermoregulation is approbated by relaxation of the dartos (in the scrotum) which together with distension of the cremaster muscle (in the testicular cord) will increase the distance between the testes and the body cavity [63]. Marai et al. [64] reported that the length of the tunica dartos was greater in summer and autumn than in winter, in rams. Further, it has been established that a high ambient temperature during summer significantly increases the scrotal skin temperature in males. In spite of the efficiency of this mechanism, exposure of the animals to high environmental temperature changes the thermoregulatory mechanisms depending on the thermal gradient and may cause a degeneration of testicular parenchyma which was associated with subfertility and infertility in males, which will negatively impact semen quality and quantity with subsequent reduction in ruminants fertility [63].
The heat stress may also cause a temporary interruption in the semen production, sperm motility and an increase in the sperm secondary defects [65]. Some reports refer that the scrotal skin temperature exhibits highly negative correlation with serum testosterone, libido, sperm motility, sperm concentration and conception rate while it was positively associated with dead and total abnormal sperm [64, 66]. High testicular temperature also results in spermatogonia apoptosis in the seminiferous tubules, degeneration of Sertoli and Leydig cells and disruption of DNA strands, particularly in pachytene spermatocytes and round spermatids [55]. Further, direct exposure of the testes to high temperature also alters the spermatogenic cycle affecting the quality of ejaculate [22]. The changes in libido and sexual behavior in bulls are governed by an imbalance in hypothalamus-hypophyseal-gonadal axis culminating in low testosterone level, sperm output, and motility. In addition, semen attributes like sperm concentration, sperm motility, sperm viability, sperm morphology and acrosome integrity are negatively influenced by heat stress in bulls and bucks, which may ultimately lead to infertility [46, 55].
The major indicators of sperm production capacity and spermatogenic functions are scrotal circumference and testicular consistency, tone, size and weight that are usually inversely related to higher ambient temperatures. Sahni and Roy [67] reported that the maximum and minimum temperatures for optimum spermatogenesis are 29.4 and 15.6°C, respectively. The elevated temperature hampers the process of spermatogenesis by degeneration of sperm cells and subsequently reduces the fertilizing ability of spermatozoa. Further, seminal characteristics are affected by high temperature and humidity, which affects the spermiogenic phase 18 days before semen collection [68].
Moreover, spermatogenesis is also extremely sensitive to ionizing irradiation and relative humidity above 50% can destroy the proliferating spermatogonia [50]. The analysis of semen obtained from heat stressed bulls showed a reduction in volume and motility along with numerous secondary sperm defects [65]. In addition, the total number of dead and abnormal sperm cells also increased in response to heat stress. The histological sections of testes from heat stressed males showed unchanged or increased interstitium while the spermatogenic elements were seldom found. Further, heat stress was reported to reduce the breeding efficiency in males as the number of testicular cells like secondary spermatocytes and spermatids, the ratio of Sertoli cells to other cells and the diameter of the seminiferous tubules are significantly reduced [35]. Kastelic et al. [69] reported that the minimal temperature gradient between proximal and distal poles of the scrotum in warm periods causes increased sperm damage, mass activity, sperm motility, and vigour. Exposure of the bull to extreme environmental temperature tends to damage the primary spermatocytes, spermatids, and spermatozoa. However, cold stress is likely to be less damaging than higher temperature, and it further was established that the animals during cold stress are able to maintain a scrotal temperature through scrotal thermoregulation [70].
As a consequence of heat stress in males, the biological phenomena such as sexual activity, endocrine secretions and testicular function, spermatogenesis and physical and chemical characteristics of semen are affected. Extremes of environmental temperature may cause low sperm quality, which is closely related to female low fertility, as a result of low fertilization rates and increased embryonic mortality. Abdel-Hafez [71] reported that the reaction time, percentage of sperm abnormalities, dead sperm and acrosomal damage were positively associated with testicular temperature while semen pH, ejaculate volume, sperm motility and sperm concentration (×109 ml) were negatively related. The semen volume, number of spermatozoa and motile sperm cells per ejaculation of bulls are lower in summer than in winter and spring. Nichi et al. [62] reported a higher percentage of major sperm defects during summer than winter in Simmental and Nellore bulls. Conversely, Karagiannidis et al. [72] refer an improvement of semen characteristics of bucks reared in Greece during summer and autumn. The critical temperature for the inhibition of spermatogenesis was established to be around 29.4°C under continuous exposure where the higher temperature can alter the scrotal thermo-regulatory mechanism [73].
High temperature can also affect semen production and quality during epididymal maturation or spermatogenesis, not only at the moment of semen collection but up to 70 days before collection. Even though the heat stress has minimal effects on the testicular endocrinology in bulls, the same level of heat stress alters the steroidogenesis in boars [74]. Coulter and Lunstra [75] reported that the percentage of sperm motility was 42% at the temperature gradient of 2–4°C whereas Menegassi et al. [68] reported 53% with a temperature gradient of 0.9°C during summer. The bulls representing an abnormal temperature pattern during heat stress enhanced the percentage of cytoplasmic droplets in sperm cells by 13.4%.
Pigs are very sensitive to hot conditions due to the low sweating capacity. Kunavongkrita et al. [76] reported lower semen volume with less sperm concentration (174 × 106) per mL during summer in comparison with winter (266 × 106) in bulls. The biochemical elements of semen such as fructose, citric acid, and sodium and potassium, total phosphorus and calcium concentration are reduced significantly during heat stress. The semen quality parameters are decreasing with higher lipid peroxidation production as an effect of oxidative stress during summer. The pH of the semen also showed high correlation with environmental temperatures. Further, reduced testosterone concentration was recorded in males exposed to heat stress apart from reducing the reaction time [77].
Sexual behavior, semen quality and quantity are the main factors limiting the male reproductive efficiency in a year. Possible fluctuations in seminal quality are associated with factors such as breed, age, seasonality, temperature, photoperiod and other factors of different etiologies [78]. The month and season of the year show a significant effect on semen quality parameters. The semen output increases when the relative humidity is around 50% and decreases markedly in sperm concentration and total sperm output at temperature of 37°C with 80% relative humidity [79]. The semen volume and sperm concentration are lowest in the summer and gradually increase during the spring and reach a peak in late autumn [78]. Heat stressed bulls produced low quality semen with high number of abnormal heads and cytoplasmic droplets during summer [80]. The seasonal infertility in rams during summer months was attributed to an early occurrence of the acrosome reaction, which could be due to a decreased in acrosomal stabilizing protein in the seminal plasma [55].
The effects of heat stress on livestock cause huge economic losses to the farmers, but there are few opportunities to recover some of the losses by adapting suitable strategies to mitigate heat stress (Figure 3). There are three major key components to sustain the productivity of animals in hot environment: through physical modifications of environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress [5]. These strategies may either be used individually or in combination to obtain better results by providing optimum productive environment for farm animals. In addition, summer infertility may also be treated with advanced reproductive technologies comprising gonadotropins, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer. Strategies that are cost effective and involve indigenous knowledge have the better success rate in adopting those strategies by the farmers.
In general, livestock environmental management is an emerging area in animal science, which is getting more attention in the era of climatic change, attempting to provide a suitable microclimate to ensure optimum production by preventing the adverse environmental impacts on animal production systems. Primary means of altering the environment may be broadly divided into two categories comprising (i) provision of shade and (ii) evaporative cooling techniques [6]. The environmental modifications such as shade and cooling systems are critical in arid and semi-arid zones during heat stress to maintain milk production, milk component levels, reproductive performance and animal welfare [81]. The basics of providing shade are attributed to the efforts in reducing heat load from direct solar irradiation in livestock. These shading structures could be either natural or artificial. Trees are considered to be the most cost effective methodology to provide shade since they protect from the sun and capture radiation by evaporation of humidity in the leaves. Buffington et al. [82] pointed out that painting of upper part of the shade unit with white color and installing a 2.5 cm thick of isolating material may considerably reduce solar radiation. The height of shades in the corral must be from 3.6 to 4.2 m in order to guarantee reduction in solar radiation. It has been established that shading reduces the incoming radiant heat load by 30% or more and shading of the feed and water also offered production advantages for British and European breeds of cattle [83]. The cooling systems alleviate heat load from livestock by using the principle of evaporation, combining water misting and forced ventilation through use of spray and fans, and are frequently placed inside free-stall barns or under shades in open space corrals. Milk production and reproductive performance of dairy cattle are improved by the use of an evaporative cooling system [84]. Furthermore, the animals that are cooled with sprinklers consume more feed with less quantity of water, which has increased milk, fat, protein and production performance [85]. Fogging and misting systems use fine droplets of water, which are immediately dispersed into the air stream by quick evaporation and cool the surrounding environment.
Ensuring appropriate nutritional level to the livestock is crucial to optimize livestock production in the changing climatic condition. Importance should be given for providing balanced nutrition to ensure optimum reproduction in animals as the energy balance are closely associated with their fertility [86]. The environmental temperatures are highest in arid and semi-arid regions where the available feed resources are both of low quality and quantity which directly affect the reproductive performance of the livestock species. Combating the heat stress effects on the metabolism is therefore very essential, as animals subjected to mild to severe heat stress needs to be supplemented 7–25% extra maintenance requirements [87]. Therefore, to meet their energy requirements, it is essential to enhance the nutrient density by feeding high quality forage, concentrates and fat supplementations. In addition to the supplementation of low fiber, high protein diet was also found to be helpful by reducing the water requirement for metabolism. Feeding of feed additives stabilizes the distorted rumen environment and also improves the energy utilization [88]. Moreover, fat content in the diet has favorable effects on concentrations of cholesterol, progesterone, rate of synthesis and metabolism of PGF2 α, follicle growth and pregnancy rates in dairy herds [89]. Also, dietary supplements of vitamins, trace elements and minerals can ameliorate the adverse effects of heat stress. Vitamin E and selenium injections reduce the rectal temperature and body weight loss in sheep during summer [19]. Supplementation of inorganic chromium in the feed of buffalo calves reared under high ambient temperature improved heat tolerance and the animal immune status without affecting nutrient intake and growth performance. It was also demonstrated that the adverse effect of heat stress on the productive and reproductive efficiency of Malpura ewes were reversed through mineral mixture and antioxidant supplementation [19]. DiGiacomo et al. [90] also reported that the feeding of betaine, a trimethyl form of glycine, ameliorate heat stress in sheep. Feeding buffers during heat stress is highly beneficial to animals, since buffers assist in the prevention of low rumen pH and rumen acidosis [91]. Also, the addition of common macro minerals Na+ and K+ in feed increases dry matter intake and production performance [91]. Inclusion of ascorbic acid in the feed ameliorates, heat stress induced problems like poor immunity, feed intake, weight gain, oxidative stress, body temperature, fertility and semen quality [92]. In addition, supplementation of L-ascorbic acid, both singly and in combination with l-tocopherol acetate, was found to be helpful to heat-stressed layers [92].
Scientific advances allow improving the environmental modifications and nutritional management in the view of alleviating the impacts of thermal stress on animal performance. However, long-term strategies are foreseen for adaptation to climate change, namely regarding the differences in thermal tolerance existing between livestock breeds, endowed with tools to select thermo-tolerant animals. However, the selective breeding of dairy cows for higher milk production has increased the susceptibility of cows to heat stress by compromising the summer production and reproduction. Furthermore, selection for high milk yield reduced the thermoregulatory range of the dairy cow and resulted in heat stress which has magnified the seasonal depression in fertility [15]. Hence, the identification of heat-tolerant animals within high-producing breeds will be useful only if these animals are able to maintain high productivity and survivability when exposed to heat stress conditions. Cattle with shorter hair, hair of greater diameter and lighter coat color are more adapted to hot environments than those with longer hair coats and darker colors [93]. This phenotype has been characterized in
Hormonal treatments have the potential to minimize the heat stress effects in animals. The administration of GnRH in the early stages of estrus coincides with the endogenous LH surge and improves the conception rate successfully. GnRH agonist or hCG injected on day 5 of the estrous cycle results in ovulation or luteinization of the first wave dominant follicle and forms an accessory corpus luteum (CL) that enhances the plasma progesterone levels to compensate its decrease in chronic heat stress [2, 98]. The timed artificial insemination (AI) program also improves summer fertility when associated with an injection of GnRH to induce a programmed recruitment of the ovulatory follicle. This protocol should be followed by PGF2α injection 7days later to regress the CL which permits the final maturation of ovulatory follicles. Further, a second dose of GnRH 48 h after PGF2α may induce ovulation and the insemination of cows at 16 h to ensure successful conception [99]. The Ovsynch protocol successfully synchronized the ovulation in buffaloes and increased conception rate when combined with timed AI [100]. El-Tarabany and El-Tarabany [101] reported that the CIDRsynch and Presynch protocols improved the conception and pregnancy rate of Holstein cows under subtropical environmental conditions. Embryo transfer (ET) improves pregnancy rates during summer because embryos are transferred after the time at which they are more sensitive to heat stress. Compared to AI, pregnancy rates in cows exposed to heat stress have been improved by transfer of either frozen or unfrozen embryos produced by superovulation [102].
Under the climate change scenario, elevated temperature and relative humidity will definitely impose heat stress on all the species of livestock and will adversely affect their reproductive ability. This chapter discussed in detail the impact of heat stress on both female and male reproductive performance. This chapter also elaborated on ameliorative strategies that should be given consideration to prevent economic losses incurred due to environmental stresses on livestock reproduction. Fortunately, proven strategies exist to mitigate some effects of heat stress on animal reproduction. These include housing animals in facilities that minimize heat stress, use of timed AI protocols to overcome poor estrus detection and implementation of embryo transfer programs to bypass damage to the oocyte and early embryo caused by heat stress. Management alternatives, such as the strategic use of shade, wind protection, sprinklers and ventilation in the summer, also need to be considered to help livestock cope with adverse conditions. In addition to these measures, manipulation of diet energy density and intake may also be beneficial for livestock challenged by environmental conditions. There are also several promising avenues of research that may yield new approaches for enhancing reproduction during heat stress. These include administration of antioxidants and manipulation of the growth axis. Opportunities also exist for manipulating animal genetics to develop an animal that is more resistant to heat stress. Genes in animals exist for regulation of body temperature and for cellular resistance to elevated temperature and identification and incorporation of these genes into heat sensitive breeds in a manner that does not reduce production and reproduction would represent an important achievement.
The taxonomy is as follows: Kingdom Monera, phylum Proteobacteria, class gamma subdivision, order
In relation to its metabolism, it is aerobic although it can develop under anaerobic conditions using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor. It is a ubiquitous organism in the environment and also, it can colonize multiple niches and utilize many environmental compounds as energy sources. It is found mainly in water, soil, swamps, coastal marine habitats, as well as in plant and animal tissues as well as in hospitals.
This bacterium is an extremely important pathogen, since it is responsible for a high percentage of nosocomial infections in patients confined in health centers. As an opportunistic human pathogen, it is responsible for infection in immunocompromised patients such as cystic fibrosis, diabetes, cancer, severely burn patients, advanced HIV infections (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, AIDS), bone marrow transplants, surgical wound infections, and catheterized patients, and this is as a consequence of its resistance to antibiotics and disinfectants that kill other environmental bacteria [7]. A broad range of cell-associated and external factors influence multidrug resistance and thus bacterial pathogenicity. In the colonization, survival, and invasion of tissues of bacteria, virulence factors play a crucial pathogenic function. The pili are responsible for adhesion to the epithelium. Exoenzyme S and other adhesins help epithelial cells stick together. Tissue necrosis is caused by the exotoxin A. Phospholipase C is a hemolysin that is thermolabile. Exoenzyme S’s pathogenic involvement is due to its disruption of normal cytoskeletal organization, degradation of immunoglobulin G and A, depolymerization of actin filaments, and contribution to macrophage resistance. At least four proteases produced by
Replace the entirety of this text with the introduction to your chapter. The introduction section should provide a context for your manuscript and should be numbered as first heading. When preparing the introduction, please bear in mind that some readers will not be experts in your field of research.
Prior to 1966, no comprehensive investigation of the aerobic pseudomonads taxonomy had been conducted. It is the work of Stanier and collaborators [10], in which physiological and biochemical features were used to demonstrate the taxonomic basis for the species identification. The genus was amended in 1984 by Palleroni, and five groups were established based on the results of DNA–DNA hybridization and rRNA–DNA hybridization. All five groups were later identified as belonging to the class Proteobacteria, and members of the genus
The genome size of
Studies on the P. aeruginosa transcriptome became possible after the genome was completed [13]. Understanding the lifestyle and pathogenicity of
Although the 16S rRNA gene is the basic tool of the current bacterial classification system, it is known that closely related bacterial species cannot be differentiated based on this gene. Therefore, in the last 10 years, other gene sequences have been used as phylogenetic molecular markers in taxonomic studies, such as atpD, gyrB, rpoB, recA, and rpoD [16]. Mulet and collaborators have shown that analysis of the sequences of four housekeeping genes (16S rRNA, gyrB, rpoB, and rpoD) in all known species of the genus clarified the phylogeny and greatly facilitated the identification of new strains. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of the four housekeeping genes is reliable for species delineation and strain identification in Pseudomonas [17]. MLST is enhancing our understanding of the general genome organization of
Iron is a micronutrient found in almost all living organisms and is an essential component of nearly all of them [20]. It can be present in both reduced (Fe2+) and oxidized (Fe3+) forms in cells, making it simple to insert into an enzyme’s catalytic site and serve as an electron carrier in many redox-sensing proteins. Iron forms part of a larger cofactor such as Fe-S clusters and heme, the former is involved in diverse biological processes, including metabolite biosynthesis, DNA replication, RNA modification, gene expression, photosynthesis, and respiration, and the latter is required for cytochrome biogenesis and the transport and storage of oxygen in vertebrates. Iron is associated with oxidative stress. In the presence of oxygen, the ferrous ion is unstable, forming ferric ions and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage biological macromolecules and cause cell death. This process is illustrated by the Fenton Reaction [21].
Fenton Reaction:
Even though iron is the fourth most prevalent element in the Earth’s crust, only its ferrous form is soluble in water, whereas ferric iron has very low solubility and forms insoluble precipitates hydroxides at neutral pH with solubilities of 10–9 to 10–10 M (i.e. 56 ng/L) [22]. Because the concentration is too low to maintain life, all organisms have evolved unique mechanisms to solubilize iron. After absorption of iron in the ferrous form by the protein ferroportin in the duodenal mucosa, animals absorb it from the meal. The iron is then transported to the glycoprotein transferrin, where it becomes ferric, and is then stored in ferritin as a polymeric ferric complex. This is utilized to feed iron to various apoproteins for them to produce various iron-containing proteins as well as to provide the iron required for erythrocyte development and hemoglobin synthesis [22, 23].
Transferrin and the related protein lactoferrin:Milk and other extracellutlar fluids contain it (saliva, tears, and nasal mucus). (Transferrin (Tf) is an iron carrier glycoprotein (Fe 3+), synthesized and metabolized mainly in hepatocytes. It is made up of a single polypeptide chain of 679 amino acids with a molar mass of 79,500 g/mol. Each transferrin molecule consists of two lobes with a similar internal structure and is independent for Fe 3+ fixation; the N-terminal lobe contains residues 1–336 and the C-terminal residues 336–679. Each lobe in turn is folded, forming two domains. This conformation of the molecule allows the firm, although reversible, union of Fe.
Ferritin: Ferritin is the intracellular protein responsible for the storage and release of iron. Ferritin can store up to 4500 iron atoms as a ferrihydrite mineral in a protein shell and releases these iron atoms when needed by the cell. The ferritin protein coat consists of 24 protein subunits of 2 types, the H subunit and the L subunit.
Fe-containing proteins such as heme proteins: In these proteins, iron is in its ferrous form and, as such, can be used as an appropriate ligand in which O2 can bind to be transported around the body as oxyhemoglobin.
Outline of the principal iron sources that may be accessed by bacterial pathogens source [
Pathogens obtain iron from their hosts by three methods that are engaged when the bacterium is in an iron-deficient environment that limits its growth and is not mutually exclusive. First, bacteria get iron by breaking down hemoglobin, such as hemolytic bacteria. FeII does not have enough time to oxidize to insoluble Fe III in this situation. Second, using a particular binding protein, the pathogen can bind to transferrin or lactoferrin. At the bacterial cell surface, the iron is then taken from the molecule. Third, the bacteria create a chelating chemical termed siderophore, which has a stronger affinity for iron than the host organism’s iron-containing molecules [22].
Bacteria possess specific pathogenicity mechanisms that they exhibit to overcome a host’s defenses. A pathogenic microorganism could cause damage, at any level, in a susceptible host organism. Virulence is a quantitative measure of pathogenicity and is measured by the number of microorganisms required to cause disease, that is, it is the degree of pathogenicity.
Throughout evolution, bacteria have acquired characteristics that allow them to invade the host environment, express specialized surface receptors for adhesion, remain in these sites through colonization processes, evade the immune system, and finally cause tissue damage within order to gain access to sources of nutrients necessary for their growth and reproduction [24, 25].
Therefore, the virulence factor or determinant is a microbial component that favors growth or survival during infection; iron being a determining factor of intracellular survival for the growth of most bacteria and especially pathogens, such as
When a microorganism enters a host organism, either in a pathogenic or symbiotic form, it finds a favorable environment with access to practically all the nutrients necessary for its growth except for one, iron. Iron, unlike other elemental sources for nutrition, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other macro- and micronutrients, is not freely available in host organisms, so it is an important limiting factor for the growth of microorganisms. It is known that one of the responses of host organisms to pathogen attack consists in the reduction of free iron by sequestering this metal in ferritin molecules, structurally known as siderophores. This iron uptake mechanism that operates in bacteria has also been found in animals and plants. In the latter, there is a notable difference, and in the former, the control of ferritin synthesis occurs molecularly at the translational level, while in plants it occurs at the transcriptional level [4, 28, 29, 30], Hydroxamates: Siderophores that use a hydroxamate group to bind iron. The most representative siderophore is aerobactin, produced by bacteria of the Salmonella genus and some strains of E. coli, which has a dissociation constant very similar to transferrins, so it competes with other sources such as ferritin.
Cathecolates: Enterobactin is the most studied siderophore of this group, produced by strains of E. coli and other enterobacteria.
α-Hydroxycarboxylic acids: they are siderophores with a group similar to that of a hydroxamate, in which one of the radicals is replaced by a double bond with oxygen and nitrogen of the skeleton by a carbon. An example is the siderophore achromobactin produced by Erwinia chrysanthemi.
Mixed: those are in which two different binding groups are combined in the same molecule.
An example is anguibactin which contains a catechol and a hydroxamate group.
The siderophores, despite the variety in their structures, have similarities between them:
They contain strongly electron donating atoms (often oxygen and, to a lesser degree, nitrogen or sulfur).
Their shape is thermodynamically stable.
They contain high Fe3+ spin species.
They have a redox potential between −0.33 V (triacetylfusarinine) and − 0.75 V (enterobactin).
More than 500 siderophores, chemically characterized and classified, are currently reported. In addition, some have been shown to have the ability to chelate (subtract) other metals other than iron, such as aluminum, gallium, chromium, copper, zinc, lead, manganese, cadmium, vanadium, indium, plutonium, and uranium. Due to the great variety of siderophores, it is evident that several mechanisms of iron (III) transport exist [31, 32].
P. aeruginosa synthesizes two types of siderophores, pyoverdine (PVD), and piochelin (PCH). Pyoverdine is the major siderophore of fluorescent pseudomonads (Figure 3). Pyoverdines were discovered in 1892, and over the years, they have been given various names: fluorescins, pseudobactins, and finally pyoverdins or pyoverdines. In 1952, J. Totter and F. Moseley observed that the iron levels affected the production of fluorescin by
Pyochelin of
Pyoverdines are a class of fluorescent yellow-green siderophores produced and secreted by many Pseudomonas species. In addition to pyoverdine, other siderophores with lower affinity for ferric ions are also produced such as pyochelin, pseudomonin, corrugatins, yersiniabactin, and thioquinolobactin [42]. Siderophores are small molecules not only produced by many microorganisms but also by plants whose molecular mass range from 200 to 2000 Da. These molecules are used to chelate iron with high affinity and functions in iron acquisition and also as virulence factors in some bacterial. The term siderophores from greek roots “sideros phoros” means iron carrier or transporter. There are different types of siderophores classified according to the ligand used to chelate iron. Catecholates are the more common functional group used to chelate iron in bacterial siderophores (i.e. enterobactin). Hydroxymates (i.e. Ferrioxamine B) are present in bacteria and Ferrichrome in fungi. Carboxylates (i.e. Rhizobactin) are present as functional groups in some bacterial siderophores; however, siderophores such as pyoverdine have a mix of functional groups that form hexadentate coordinates complexes with ferric iron [42]. Plants siderophores are called phytosiderophores, and the mugineic acid is the more common siderophore in plants. Pyoverdine siderophores molecules consist of a hydroxyquinoline chromophore core, a small peptide chain usually contain 6–14 amino acids and acyl side chain (Figure 5).
Pyoverdine structure from
The chromophore is responsible for the color of the molecule and is linked to the peptide chain and acyl group. Both hydroxyl group of the chromophore and side chains oxygens in the peptide chain form interactions with iron. The peptide chain may be partially or completely cyclized and has L and D configuration amino acids. Unusual amino acids such as
Peptide chain composition of three pseudomonas strains. Amino acids in bold are D configurations. Cyclic structure in the chain is in parenthesis. fOHOrn is N5-formyl-N5-hydroxyornithine. aThr correspond to Allo-threonine and dab is L-2,4- diaminobutyrate. The acyl side chain (amide or dicarboxylic acid) is linked to the amino group of the chromophore. The length and type of acyl side chain depend on strain and growth conditions and whose purpose remains unclear [
The siderophores biosynthesis is a complex enzymatic process that requires several specific enzymes whose expression is regulated by iron and different transcriptional factors. The enzymes involved in siderophores biosynthesis are organized into a multi-enzymatic complex, called siderosomes, and are in close vicinity to each other in the cytoplasmic face of the inner membrane. This organization may reduce the diffusion of siderophores precursor. Most of the siderosome enzymes have modular and each module incorporated specific amino acids into a growing peptide chain. Enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of unusual amino acids present in siderophores are also proposed to be part of the siderosome (Figure 7) [45].
Model of siderosome of
The initial step in pyoverdines biosynthesis takes place in the cytoplasm where non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) catalyze the formation of the peptide precursor for pyoverdines called acylated precursor chain (Figure 8) [46, 47].
Mechanism of multiple carrier thiotemplate [
The NRPS enzymes are modular enzymes with 2–4 modules. PvdL and PVdI have four modules and PvdJ and PvdD are bimodular. The first module (M1) of PvdL catalyzes the incorporation of acyl group (myristic or myristoleic acid) instead of amino acid. This acylation probably links the peptide to the membrane and prevents diffusion during synthesis. The M2 of PvdL catalyzes the activation of L-Glu and its condensation to the acyl group. PvdL, module three (M3), incorporates an L-Tyr that is converted to D-Tyr by domain of this module. M4 adds Dab to generate an acylated tripeptide (Glu-Tyr-Dab). PvdI modules are responsible for adding D-Ser, L-Arg, D-Ser, and fOHOrn to previous acylated tripeptide. L-Lys and fOHorn and two L-Thr are, respectively, added by the bimodular enzymes PvdJ and PvdD. The peptide bound formation is catalyzed by a PCP domain present in the modules. Thioesterase domain of the PvdD module is released by hydrolysis of the 11 amino acid chain from the NRPS [42].
The released peptide is transported to the periplasmic space where it is modified. The transport to the periplasmic space involved a class of ABC pumps codified by
Finally, the PVDI is secreted from the periplasmic space to the environment via PvdRF-OpmQ ATP pump. The secreted PVDI binds to ferric iron to form PVDI-iron complex (Ferripyoverdine). The Ferripyoverdine is imported via FpvA receptors which interact with TonB-ExbBD complex and the help of transporter FpvB [49]. The Fe+3 of the Ferripyoverdine in the periplasmic space is reduced to Fe+2 and released from pyoverdine. Liberated Fe+2 is transported into the cytoplasm through ABC transporter FpvDE.
The transcriptional control of genes involved in the synthesis of pyoverdine is induced by iron deficiency or depletion (Figure 9). The regulation of pyoverdine production involves sensing cytoplasmic levels of iron ions by the regulator protein Fur, which in turn represses regulatory genes involved in iron uptakes, such as FpvR, FpvI, and PvdS [50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. PvdS is a sigma factor required for the expression of pyoverdine biosynthesis genes and some virulence-related genes [55, 56, 57, 58, 29]. FpvI is a sigma factor required by the genes encoding the outer membrane pyoverdine receptor/importer FpvA, and FpvR is an anti-sigma factor that binds to and inactivates PvdS and FpvI [50, 59]. FpvR autoproteolytic cleaves itself at a periplasmic domain without any further degradation unless it contacts ferripyoverdine-bound FpvA. When FpvR/FpvA contact occurs, which involves the activity of TonB (the transport-energizing inner membrane protein), the protease RseP releases PvdS and FpvI allowing the activation of their regulated genes [50, 60]. The regulation of pyoverdine biosynthesis is more complex because it involves signals other than iron starvation, such as the influence of the regulator protein CysB may imply coordination with sulfur availability or biofilm formation and alginate production [61, 62]. Phosphate starvation has been reported to trigger pyoverdine production in host environments [63]. Additionally, the LexR-type transcriptional regulator AmpR affects the expression of more than 500 genes related to metabolism and virulence in
The ferripyoverdine signaling pathway. The alternative sigma factors σFpvI and σPvdS direct expression of the
The World Health Organization classified
Regarding the virulence, it has been found that deficient pyoverdine mutants of
In the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, pyoverdine is virulent, even in the absence of the pathogen. A study found that when this siderophore is consumed by C. elegans together with other chemicals in its aqueous environment, pyoverdine gains access to and eliminates ferric iron through an unknown method once within the host. The host mitochondria, which are iron-rich organelles, are a likely target for this abstraction. Mitochondrial function is disrupted, and mitochondria are targeted for turnover when they are removed. In vitro experiments with pyoverdine-treated murine macrophages revealed considerable toxicity, while no pyoverdine production reduced pathogenicity. Furthermore, pyoverdine translocates into cells and impairs host mitochondrial homeostasis, as previously observed in C. elegans [71, 72, 73].
Pyoverdine is a multifaceted role in
Exotoxin A is one of
The extracellular protease IV, PrpL, degrades surfactant proteins and interleukin-22 necessary for pulmonary mucosal immunity that made
The sigma factor PvdS is required for the expression of PrpL. The extracellular protein profiles obtained, using PAO1 and a Δ
The relationship between iron and antibiotic resistance in
Therefore, pyoverdine plays an important role in antibiotic resistance, since it mediates the uptake of iron in
The rise of resistant
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\\n\\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\\n\\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\\n\\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\\n\\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
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\\n\\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
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\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\\n\\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\\n\\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'1. SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\n\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
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\n\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Stress is any adverse environmental condition that hampers proper growth of plant. Abiotic stress creates adverse effect on multiple procedures of morphology, biochemistry and physiology that are directly connected with growth and yield of plant. Abiotic stress are quantitative trait hence genes linked to these traits can be identified and used to select desirable alleles responsible for tolerance in plant. Plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular and physiological modifications to react to and adapt to abiotic stress. Crop productivity is significantly affected by drought, salinity and cold. Abiotic stress reduce water availability to plant roots by increasing water soluble salts in soil and plants suffer from increased osmotic pressure outside the root. Physiological changes include lowering of leaf osmotic potential, water potential and relative water content, creation of nutritional imbalance, enhancing relative stress injury or one or more combination of these factors. Morphological and biochemical changes include changes in root and shoot length, number of leaves, secondary metabolite (glycine betaine, proline, MDA, abscisic acid) accumulation in plant, source and sink ratio. Proposed chapter will concentrate on enhancing plant response to abiotic stress and contemporary breeding application to increasing stress tolerance.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Summy Yadav, Payal Modi, Akanksha Dave, Akdasbanu Vijapura, Disha Patel and Mohini Patel",authors:[{id:"186963",title:"Dr.",name:"Summy",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"summy-yadav",fullName:"Summy Yadav"},{id:"308004",title:"Ms.",name:"Payal",middleName:null,surname:"Modi",slug:"payal-modi",fullName:"Payal Modi"},{id:"308005",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Dave",slug:"akanksha-dave",fullName:"Akanksha Dave"},{id:"308006",title:"Ms.",name:"Akdasbanu",middleName:null,surname:"Vijapara",slug:"akdasbanu-vijapara",fullName:"Akdasbanu Vijapara"},{id:"308007",title:"Ms.",name:"Disha",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"disha-patel",fullName:"Disha Patel"},{id:"308008",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"mohini-patel",fullName:"Mohini Patel"}]},{id:"45540",doi:"10.5772/56621",title:"Genes and QTLs for Rice Grain Quality Improvement",slug:"genes-and-qtls-for-rice-grain-quality-improvement",totalDownloads:3743,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Jinsong Bao",authors:[{id:"52135",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinsong",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",slug:"jinsong-bao",fullName:"Jinsong Bao"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4044,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"40178",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23030,totalCrossrefCites:81,totalDimensionsCites:146,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"60074",title:"Pollen Germination in vitro",slug:"pollen-germination-in-vitro",totalDownloads:2759,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pollen germination in vitro is a reliable method to test the pollen viability. It also addresses many basic questions in sexual reproduction and particularly useful in wide hybridization. Many pollen germination medium ranging from simple sugars to complex one having vitamins, growth regulators, etc. in addition to various minerals have been standardized to germinate pollen artificially. The different media, successful pollen germination methods, procedures from pollen germination studies with wheat, rye, brinjal, pigeonpea and its wild relatives are discussed.",book:{id:"6659",slug:"pollination-in-plants",title:"Pollination in Plants",fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants"},signatures:"Jayaprakash P",authors:[{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P"}]},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2297,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. Besides field conditions, tomatoes are grown in controlled environments which range from hydroponics and simple high tunnel structures to highly automated screen houses in advanced countries. However, the yield and quality of the fruits are highly influenced by the environment. This results in unpredictable performances in different growing environments in terms of quality, a phenomenon known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction which confounds selection efficiency. Various approaches are employed by plant breeders to evaluate and address the challenges posed by genotype by environment interaction. This chapter discusses various field and controlled environments for growing tomatoes and the effect of these environments on the performance of the crop. The various types of genotype × environment interactions and their effect of the tomato plant are discussed. Finally, efforts are made to suggest ways and methods of mitigating the confounding effects of genotype × environment interaction including statistical approaches.",book:{id:"6422",slug:"recent-advances-in-tomato-breeding-and-production",title:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production"},signatures:"Michael Kwabena Osei, Benjamin Annor, Joseph Adjebeng-\nDanquah, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"217531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michael Kwabena",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"},{id:"217760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Adjebeng-Danquah",slug:"joseph-adjebeng-danquah",fullName:"Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah"},{id:"217768",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Annor",slug:"benjamin-annor",fullName:"Benjamin Annor"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"248095",title:"Prof.",name:"Essie",middleName:null,surname:"Blay",slug:"essie-blay",fullName:"Essie Blay"},{id:"248096",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Adu-Dapaah",slug:"hans-adu-dapaah",fullName:"Hans Adu-Dapaah"}]},{id:"45153",title:"Irrigation of Sandy Soils, Basics and Scheduling",slug:"irrigation-of-sandy-soils-basics-and-scheduling",totalDownloads:5600,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"3357",slug:"crop-production",title:"Crop Production",fullTitle:"Crop Production"},signatures:"Mohamed S. Alhammadi and Ali M. Al-Shrouf",authors:[{id:"78245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Salman",surname:"Alhammadi",slug:"mohamed-alhammadi",fullName:"Mohamed Alhammadi"},{id:"159904",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shrouf",slug:"ali-al-shrouf",fullName:"Ali Al-Shrouf"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"29",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81888",title:"Reducing Soil Compaction from Equipment to Enhance Agricultural Sustainability",slug:"reducing-soil-compaction-from-equipment-to-enhance-agricultural-sustainability",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104489",abstract:"The compaction of agricultural soils cannot be solved, only managed. As a compressible media, soil travel without causing some collapse of the existing structure is impossible. If left uncorrected, farmers can see up to a 50% reduction in yield from long-term compaction. This chapter will describe the effects of soil compaction on the environment, crop quality, and economic sustainability. The base causes will be examined, along with the engineering designs for vehicles that minimize the problem. The tracks versus tires debate will be thoroughly discussed, and the advantages and disadvantages of each system will be detailed. It will be shown that although tires represent the likely current best economic option for vehicle support, the potential of tracks to reduce compaction has been fully exploited. The advantages of four-wheel drive vehicles in reducing soil compaction will be shown, along with the mitigation potential of independently driven wheels and active soil interaction feedback loops. The design of crop production tillage equipment and tillage tool working points will be explored, along with the concept of critical tillage depth. Equipment for compaction relief will also be discussed, as will the sustainable agricultural protocols of cover crops, crop rotation, and controlled traffic farming.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Michael M. Boland, Young U. Choi, Daniel G. Foley, Matthew S. Gobel, Nathan C. Sprague, Santiago Guevara-Ocana, Yury A. Kuleshov and Robert M. Stwalley III"},{id:"81378",title:"Sustainability-Based Review of Irrigation Schemes Performance for Sustainable Crop Production in Nigeria",slug:"sustainability-based-review-of-irrigation-schemes-performance-for-sustainable-crop-production-in-nig",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103980",abstract:"Irrigated agriculture has been identified as an important practice to achieving food security and socio-economic development in the face of rapid population growth and climatic uncertainties. In northern Nigeria, irrigation has long been identified as the key to achieving the much-desired increase in food production to meet the ever-increasing population. However, the existing irrigation schemes encountered several challenges coming from different dimensions including economic, social, environmental, institutional and technological. To attain sustainable crop production, this paper attempts to uncover the underline challenges confronting irrigation schemes in northern Nigeria that cut across sustainability pillars. The findings revealed that irrigation schemes contributed immensely toward achieving food security and improving the wellbeing of rural dwellers. However, the huge investment in large- and medium-scale irrigation schemes have resulted in massive economic losses. This could be attributed to their under-utilization, poor management and abandonment although few ones are performing remarkably well. The study recommends the need to adopt new water allocation and application methods that can improve water use efficiency, users-managers join approach (participatory), effective and competent institutions which include improved monitoring, evaluation and surveillance systems, frequent policy review to suit the situation, law enforcement, and timely sensitization and awareness campaigns.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Nura Jafar Shanono, Nura Yahaya Usman, Mu’azu Dantala Zakari, Habibu Ismail, Shehu Idris Umar, Sunusi Abubakar Amin and Nuraddeen Mukhtar Nasidi"},{id:"81274",title:"Toward the Recent Advances in Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE): Strategies to Improve Phosphorus Availability to Plants",slug:"toward-the-recent-advances-in-nutrient-use-efficiency-nue-strategies-to-improve-phosphorus-availabil",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102595",abstract:"Achieving high nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and high crop productivity has become a challenge with increased global demand for food, depletion of natural resources, and deterioration of environmental conditions. Higher NUE by plants could reduce fertilizer input costs, decrease the rate of nutrient losses, and enhance crop yields. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are the most limiting nutrients for crop production in many of the world’s agricultural areas, and their efficient use is important for the economic sustainability of cropping systems. Furthermore, the dynamic nature of N and P in soil-plant systems creates a unique and challenging environment for its efficient management. Although numerous fertilizer recommendation methods have been proposed to improve NUE, technologies and innovative management practices are still lacking. Therefore, maximizing crop phosphorus (P) use efficiency (PUE) would be helpful in reducing the use of inorganic phosphorus fertilizers and their escape in the environment for sustainable agriculture. Improvement of PUE in cropping systems can be achieved through two main strategies: optimizing agronomic practice and breeding nutrient efficient crop cultivars that improves P-acquisition and -utilization efficiency. These strategies are needed for future food security and sustainable agriculture. The major revised points are the following: concept of NUE, application of nutrient stewardship, cereal-legume intercropping, regulating soil pH, etc., for enhancing phyto-availability of P and breeding P-efficient crop cultivars that can produce more biomass with lesser P costs and that acquire more P in P-stress condition. These approaches consider economic, social, and environmental dimensions essential to sustainable agricultural systems and afford a suitable context for specific NUE indicators.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Addisu Ebbisa"},{id:"81179",title:"Crop Diversification an Effective Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture Development",slug:"crop-diversification-an-effective-strategy-for-sustainable-agriculture-development",totalDownloads:50,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102635",abstract:"Sustainable agricultural practices involve a variety of approaches. The most important approached for sustainable agriculture development is crop diversification. It allowing the farmers to employ biological cycles to minimize inputs, conserve the resource base, maximize yields and also reduce the risk due to ecological and environmental factors. It serves as an important opportunity to augment income and employment generation for rural communities. Crop diversification promotes the interaction of beneficial soil bacteria, interrupts the disease cycle, and reduces the quantity of weeds. Crop diversification boosts land-use efficiency and crop output by improving the physical and chemical qualities of soil. Crop diversification shows a lot of scope to alleviating the problems such as resurgence of insects-pests and weeds, soil degradation, environmental pollution, soil salinity, decline farm profit and climate change. Crop diversification through crop intensification system enhanced the net returns, B:C ratio, and overall system productivity of a farm. In order to achieve the benefits of crop diversification farmers are shifting from low value low yielding crops to high value high yielding crops. Thus, crop diversification has the sound capacity for achieving the goal of nutritional security, income growth, food security, employment generation and sustainable agriculture development.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Anamika Barman, Priyanka Saha, Shashank Patel and Anurag Bera"},{id:"80867",title:"Potential Applications of Rhizobacteria as Eco-Friendly Biological Control, Plant Growth Promotion and Soil Metal Bioremediation",slug:"potential-applications-of-rhizobacteria-as-eco-friendly-biological-control-plant-growth-promotion-an",totalDownloads:67,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102657",abstract:"Modern agriculture has an immense problem in the depletion of agricultural productivity owing to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. Agriculture’s sustainability and safety are dependent on ecologically friendly practices. Plant rhizobia have been proven to have an important role in disease control, as well as promoting plant growth, productivity, and biomass. Rhizobacteria are soil bacteria that live on the root surface and either directly or indirectly contribute to plant development. Rhizobia are used to induce mediated immune resistance through the manufacture of lytic enzymes, antibiotics, phytoalexins, phytohormone, metabolites. It supports the growth of plants through nitrogen fixation, nutrient enrichment, phosphate solubilization and phytohormone synthesis. In addition, it supports plants during different stresses such as temperature, osmotic, heavy metal and oxidative stress. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria have the ability to control heavy metal pollution of soils as well as enhancing plant growth in these soils. Efficient bioremediation is possible by using rhizobacterial inoculants, still, the distribution and functioning of microbes in the rhizosphere need to be fully explored. This review focuses on the effectiveness, biomonitoring processes and function in promoting plant development. Rhizobia application can be considered an alternative method for the improvement of biodiversity, agriculture, and the environment.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Nafeesa Farooq Khan, Aatifa Rasool, Sheikh Mansoor, Sana Saleem, Tawseef Rehman Baba, Sheikh Maurifatul Haq, Sheikh Aafreen Rehman, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Simona Mariana Popescu"},{id:"80653",title:"Heavy Metal Contamination in Vegetables and Their Toxic Effects on Human Health",slug:"heavy-metal-contamination-in-vegetables-and-their-toxic-effects-on-human-health",totalDownloads:131,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102651",abstract:"Vegetables are a prevalent nutrition for people all over the world because they are high in important nutrients, antioxidants, and metabolites that function as buffers for acidic compounds created during digestion. Vegetables, on the other hand, absorbed both vital and poisonous substances through the soil. Possible human health concerns, including as cancer and renal damage, have been linked to the consumption of heavy metal-contaminated vegetables (HMs). Heavy metals like Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Hg were found in high concentrations in popular vegetables such as Amaranthus tricolour L., Chenopodium album L., Spinacia oleracea, Coriandrum sativum, Solanum lycopersicum, and Solanum melongena. The toxicity, fortification, health hazard, and heavy metals sources grown in soil are detailed in this review study.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Seema Manwani, Vanisree C.R., Vibha Jaiman, Kumud Kant Awasthi, Chandra Shekhar Yadav, Mahipal Singh Sankhla, Pritam P. Pandit and Garima Awasthi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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