\r\n\tTopics that are welcome in the book address challenges that are not yet fully described in existing Baltic Sea compilations, but are present in scientific literature for some time.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61d96e65b2fc43a8c2c681cb2c353e02",bookSignature:"Dr. Magdalena Bełdowska and Dr. Jacek Bełdowski",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8761.jpg",keywords:"Wrecks, Toxic Substances, Microplastics, Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals, Biomagnification, Bioacumulation, Fisheries, Icing Changes, Elongated Vegetative Season, Biodiversity, Shipping",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 29th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 20th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 9th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 8th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"176840",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Bełdowska",slug:"magdalena-beldowska",fullName:"Magdalena Bełdowska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176840/images/system/176840.jpeg",biography:"Associated professor dr hab Magdalena Bełdowska conducted her Ph.D and habilitation in Faculty of Oceanography and Geography University of Gdańsk, Poland. During her professional career, she has carried out research on toxic metals cycling in marine environment (especially in Baltic Sea). The research includes transboundary transport in the atmosphere, input of contaminations to the sea, bioaccumulation and biomagnification int marine trophic chain, deposition/ remobilization to/from the sediments. During that period she was leading several projects funded by National Science Centre (NCN, Poland). She has been involved in teaching students in the field of Chemical hazards in the aquatic environment; Metals cycling as a function of climate change; Environmental protection. She has published over 50 papers in indexed journals and international conferences",institutionString:"Institute of Oceanography of the University of Gdańsk",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Gdańsk",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"276044",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Bełdowski",slug:"jacek-beldowski",fullName:"Jacek Bełdowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276044/images/system/276044.jpeg",biography:"Assistant Professor, Dr hab. Jacek Bełdowski completed his PhD at the University of Gdańsk and Habilitation at Institute of Oceanology, PAS. His studies concentrated at mercury cycle in marine systems, Carbon cycle influence on Climate change (during 2 year postdoc at Institute for Baltic Sea Research, Warnemuende, Germany) and dumped chemical munitions. He has participated in three national and six EU projects devoted to contaminant cycles in the Baltic Sea and led two EU (CHEMSEA, DAIMON) and one NATO SPS (MODUM) projects, dealing with risk assessment of chemical and conventional munitions dumped at sea. He also served as co-chairman of HELCOM special working groups MUNI and SUBMERGED. During his career he has published over 40 peer revieved papers and book chapters, and led 25 Scientific cruises.",institutionString:"Institute of Oceanology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"839",title:"Oceanography",slug:"oceanography"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6195",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4eb2fa7c0bf9d4a493375ee47276aa38",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang, Yijun Hou and Xiaomei Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7606",title:"Coastal and Marine Environments",subtitle:"Physical Processes and Numerical Modelling",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd1227726856d58b88116129b0de8384",slug:"coastal-and-marine-environments-physical-processes-and-numerical-modelling",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7606.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2221",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",subtitle:"From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7ce45cda9743300d394136417028a84",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",bookSignature:"Gloria I. Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2221.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146976",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria",surname:"López",slug:"gloria-lopez",fullName:"Gloria López"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8669",title:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure",subtitle:"A Case Study of China's Coastline",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52abc534177a147ffd3154db2f4f4ba1",slug:"coastal-environment-disaster-and-infrastructure-a-case-study-of-china-s-coastline",bookSignature:"X. San Liang and Yuanzhi Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210315",title:"Prof.",name:"X. San",surname:"Liang",slug:"x.-san-liang",fullName:"X. San Liang"}],productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8007",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",subtitle:"Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec140486c42d62e69ef428e6cf71b6d7",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",bookSignature:"Jiayi Pan and Adam Devlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179303",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiayi",surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6012",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79ce8dc1cde58947a61fe4aea725d437",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6012.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}],productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"24378",title:"Non-Conscious Brain Processes Revealed by Magnetoencephalography (MEG)",doi:"10.5772/28211",slug:"non-conscious-brain-processes-revealed-by-magnetoencephalography-meg-",body:'\n\t\tInformation processing in the human brain can happen fully conscious or in total absence of consciousness. Despite being far away from understanding consciousness in terms of being a subjective phenomenon based on neural activity we can at least imagine what it means to be consciously aware of a sensory perception or knowledge or ourselves. At the very moment we know that we know and what we know, the respective knowledge is consciously processed and can be verbally expressed, but what about information processing in the absence of consciousness? Can non-conscious information processing do the same just without consciousness? It is difficult to imagine what kind of information processing happens below the level of consciousness and what it actually means. What does non-conscious information look like? What does non-conscious information represent and what can it do? These are important questions to be answered in order to better understand consciousness itself. Among others a recent review reports about unconscious high-level processing in the human brain (van Gaal et al., 2011). In this review, the authors summarise scientific evidence to support the idea that decision making, an apparently conscious process, as well as other parts of highly sophisticated human behaviour can happen automatically without conscious control. This is exactly in line with the spirit of this book chapter that is written to support this notion with neuroimaging data collected via magnetoencephalography (MEG).
\n\t\t\tFor those who trust the well known iceberg analogy related to Sigmund Freud’s work about the human spirit the above mentioned questions must be very exciting, because according to this analogy non-conscious (in Freud’s terminology pre- and unconscious) information processing accounts for more than 80% of all information processing. This highlights the importance and the dominance of brain functions that happen in the absence of consciousness.
\n\t\t\tAccording to my own view, the function of the brain is to produce controlled behaviour, besides managing basic body functions. The brain produces behaviour by processing information in three major steps. Step 1 is to process sensory input from outside and inside the body. In step 2 cognition- and emotion-related aspects of a stimulus are processed to make decisions. Finally, in step three the output of cognition and emotion is translated into motor programs that are then executed to elicit motor action which equals behaviour, at least in the view of a neurobiologist. Step 2 and to some extent perhaps step 1 contain information that can be processed either in the absence of or with full consciousness, whereas motor-related information always stays unconscious.
\n\t\t\tAfter all, it seems obvious that a better understanding of non-conscious information processing, especially related to cognition and emotion (step 2), leads to a better understanding and to a more accurate prediction of human behaviour. This is in contrast to focusing only on explicit measures, which just look at the tip of the iceberg.
\n\t\t\tThe major goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of MEG-work about non-conscious brain processes. Traditional approaches to investigate human behaviour utilised questionnaires to acquire qualitative data and also behavioural experiments were conducted. Both strategies are limited in measuring non-conscious information processing, although some behavioural measures are able to tackle some aspects of it. Anyway, after the advent of neuroimaging techniques it turned out that neural activity measures are most adequate to demonstrate non-conscious brain processes, some of them even in the absence of any conscious behavioural consequence at the very moment of testing. One of the best examples was published by Rugg et al. (1998). In that study it was shown that repeated words that were incorrectly judged as new (so called misses) elicit different brain activity than new words that were correctly judged as new (so called correct rejections). In both cases the explicit responses were exactly the same (“I haven’t seen this word”), but objective measures (brain activities) told another story. First, such discrepancy raised a number of specific questions. Now, we do have a general answer. Our brain knows more than it admits. The MEG has proved to provide access to some of that hidden knowledge. We only begin to understand to what extent and how information processing outside consciousness actually guides human behaviour. With its excellent temporal resolution in the range of milliseconds and its localisation capacities the MEG is a highly appreciated tool (see Hari et al., 2010) to access and describe non-conscious functions. Sensory-related, motor-related as well as emotion- and cognition-related information processing have been described. Although a certain gap between non-conscious information processing and actual behaviour has yet to be bridged, we learn to accept how unaware we are of most decisions that are made in our brains to guide our behaviour. We do not know everything that our brain knows.
\n\t\t\tThis chapter has a further goal. As a matter of fact, various different terms are currently being used to describe the non-conscious character of some brain processes. Unfortunately, these terms (e.g. preconscious, subconscious, unconscious, non-conscious) are used interchangeably and thus produce considerable confusion. As a consequence of that, this chapter is also written to propose a simple model about non-conscious information processing in the human brain. This model is not an attempt to modify existing views of other areas (especially psychoanalysis), but it shall help to provide clarification in the field of cognitive and affective neuroscience. The model defines anything not conscious as non-conscious and it distinguishes only between unconscious and subconscious (both are non-conscious). Unconscious refers to information that can never become conscious, whereas subconscious refers to information that can be processed in the absence or presence of consciousness. For this chapter the overall working hypothesis states that all information processing that occurs prior to semantic processing is referred to as unconscious. Again, information that is unconsciously processed can never become conscious. On the other hand, from the very moment, sensory-related information processing leads to semantic processing, we shall label processed information subconscious or conscious depending on the absence or presence of consciousness.
\n\t\tIn terms of serial processing in the brain it is interesting to know how long it takes until information related to a physical or chemical stimulus that is translated into neural signals actually reaches cortical areas. Before reaching the cortex, sensory information is already being processed, but as a matter of fact the MEG can hardly measure it. Under the assumption that subcortical structures are not able to process semantic information and according to the above mentioned model we can conclude that any processing before cortical involvement is unconscious. From various MEG studies we know that cortical involvement (at least in the visual domain) starts at about 100 ms post-stimulus (for words: e.g. Hari, 1990, Tarkiainen et al., 1999, Tarkiainen et al., 2002) which according to the above mentioned model means that roughly the first 100 ms after visual stimulation onset are unconscious. The exact time differs between sensory systems and also depends on top-down-processing, but let’s use these 100 ms just to have a number to work with. Afterwards, earliest cortical processing is still sensory-related (primary areas and secondary areas). It then roughly takes another 50 to 100 ms until semantic information is being processed resulting in subconscious or even conscious information processing (Walla et al., 2001).
\n\t\t\tBesides semantic (cognitive) information processing any sensory input is also processed regarding its emotion aspects. Like cognitive information processing also emotion information processing can be but is not necessarily associated with consciousness.
\n\t\tFor some reason there is not much literature about MEG and emotion. However, because meanwhile emotion also became an interesting candidate to be divided into non-conscious and conscious, it shall nevertheless be shortly dealt with. According to Peyk et al. (2008), earliest emotion processing in terms of MEG recordings occurs between 120 ms and 310 ms post stimulus in the visual system (pleasant and unpleasant pictures compared to neutral). A two stage model has been proposed with an early and a late activity component within this time window (120 ms to 170 ms and 220 ms to 310 ms). Investigations using faces as emotion stimuli reveal similar time windows within which different brain activity was found to reflect emotion-related information processing (e.g. Streit et al., 1999, Lewis et al., 2003). Only recently, Bröckelmann et al. (2011) described the effect of emotion-associated tones that attract enhanced attention at very early auditory processing (20 ms to 50 ms after stimulus onset). In another study, influences of olfaction on subjective valence intensity ratings of visual presentations were investigated by using the MEG (Walla and Deecke, 2010). Five different emotion categories (pictures: baby, flower, erotic, fear and disgust) were simultaneously associated with different odours. First, a significant interaction was found between odour condition and emotion-picture category in terms of emotion rating performance. Second, around 300 ms after stimulus onset odour-related brain activity effects were found for all emotion picture categories as revealed by MEG. Later, around 700 ms after stimulus onset, brain activity effects occurred only in the neutral (flower) and both negative (fear and disgust) emotion categories. It was concluded that the earlier time window shows pronounced olfactory and visually induced emotion interaction, whereas the later brain activity effect shows olfaction influences only for specific emotion categories.
\n\t\t\tAgain, it has to be emphasised that the MEG is mainly picking up signals from cortical structures missing out most subcortical information processing.
\n\t\t\tAlthough nothing can be said about conscious and non-conscious emotion at this stage in terms of MEG recordings I want to emphasise that this concept makes sense and future MEG studies will provide further insight.
\n\t\t\tBecause there is more to emotion than just subjective feeling, terms such as unconscious emotion have already been introduced to the scientific community (Winkielman and Berridge, 2004). Given the distinction between implicit and explicit memory (see Rugg et al., 1998) it might even be helpful to think of a similar concept for the function of emotion (implicit versus explicit emotion). In this regard, implicit emotion would be understood as the non-conscious processing of emotion-related information influencing behaviour without leading to conscious awareness of it. In contrast, explicit emotion would be understood as conscious emotion, in other words, subjective feeling.
\n\t\t\tMoving on to cognition as the second major function to control behaviour we can look at non-conscious processes in more detail.
\n\t\tCognition is a widely used term, but most often it is not clearly defined. In the frame of this chapter, cognition is simply understood as a function that processes semantic information (meaning) in order to guide behaviour based on accumulated knowledge. Strikingly, it is suggested that semantic processing can occur both in the absence or presence of conscious awareness. The phenomenon of intuition might be a good example of subconscious cognition. Also this idea can’t be sufficiently supported by existing literature at this stage, but it is suggested as an interesting working hypothesis. Whatever cognition is understood as, in the following you’ll find a selection of MEG work about memory-related and olfaction-related phenomena as well as about self awareness that lead to the assumption that much of even highly sophisticated brain functions happen without what we commonly understand as consciousness.
\n\t\t\tThe human brain is a highly sophisticated information processing organ, but as a matter of fact it does make mistakes. Although we usually tend to believe that we know what we know there is convincing evidence to support that this is definitely not the case. It is quite impressive how we trust our conscious evaluations and decisions, but only until some objective evidence proofs us wrong.
\n\t\t\t\tOne of such mistakes is the well known phenomenon called false recognition (e.g. Walla et al., 2000, for review see Schacter and Slotnick, 2004). It occurs when new items are wrongly classified as already seen. Such wrong classifications are called false alarms. In the laboratory, false recognition happens in test phases of memory experiments where prior presented items from a study list are shown again together with new items. In such test situations some of the new items elicit feelings of familiarity leading to wrong impressions of being repetitions from the prior study list. Such familiarity arises due to similarity on either sensory or semantic processing (perceptual versus conceptual) levels (see Garoff-Eaton et al., 2007). For example, the new word
On the behavioural level a false alarm can’t be distinguished from a hit (correctly recognised repeated item) in terms of response accuracy, but it can be in terms of response time. False alarms are associated with longer response times than hits (Walla et al., 2000). From this it can already be inferred that the brain knows more than it admits, because a longer response time is the result of longer information processing, which obviously isn’t known to consciousness. Further, if brain activities are simultaneously recorded to recognition performance one always finds higher frontal brain activity elicited by false alarms (Walla et al., 2000) compared to hits. Thus, longer information processing related to false alarms seems to be due to increased frontal brain activity.
\n\t\t\t\tInterestingly, brain activities elicited by false alarms do not only differ from brain activities elicited by hits. They can also differ between false alarms themselves depending only on the level of word processing during the encoding of the prior study list. In particular, false alarms after deep semantic word encoding elicit significantly higher brain activities than false alarms after alphabetical word encoding (figure 2). Respective T-maps are presented in figures 3 and 4. Figure 3 shows t-maps related to raw MEG data. Any differences can be interpreted in terms of amplitude differences. On the other hand, figure 4 shows t-maps related to normalised MEG data. Any differences in these can be interpreted in terms of functional differences. (Anyway, at this point it is important to emphasise a very specific MEG data feature. That is, neural structures eliciting different brain activity are not located underneath the sensors that demonstrate significant differences in these t-maps. This is due to the fact that a neural generator produces a rotating magnetic field which has a maximum ingoing and a maximum outgoing field flux. In a MEG map one neural generator thus results in a red-coloured maximum and a blue-coloured maximum. As a matter of fact, sometimes only one of these two maxima shows significant differences between conditions of interest.) With respect to neural generators being involved in false recognition-related effects figure 5 provides genuine source localisation results. Keeping in mind that false alarms are actually new words without any prior history in the frame of a recognition experiment it seems odd that they elicit different brain activities just depending on how the repeated words they are presented together with were previously processed. The only reason for that must be because something connects false alarms with hits. The idea is that these connections are the above mentioned similarities. If similarities are really causing false alarms it seems plausible that if repeated words that are presented together with new words were semantically encoded during the prior study phase similarities to the new words are rather semantic-related than sensory-related. As a consequence of that the recognition of semantically encoded words influences the processing of any new words intermixed with them. Strikingly, all this happens outside consciousness.
\n\t\t\t\tDifferent rates of false alarms
Mean number of false alarms for both conditions. Note that the number of false alarms from the perceptual encoding condition is higher. The difference between these two conditions is highly significant (from Walla et al., 2001).
\n\t\t\t\tMEG maps related to false alarms after different levels of encoding
Grand MEG maps of both conditions of false alarms (after perceptual encoding and after conceptual encoding) for the latency region from 300 to 500 ms after stimulus onset averaged over 26 subjects. Note the higher magnetic field flux related to false alarms from the conceptual encoding condition (significant difference) (from Walla et al., 2000).
\n\t\t\t\tT-maps (raw data)
Distributions of significant differences (grande average) between the two false alarm conditions (conceptual minus perceptual) as calculated by t-tests for every single sensor location for consecutive time intervals. Red circles represent P values from 0.001 to 0.020, orange circles represent P values from 0.021 to 0.040 and yellow circles represent P values from 0.041 to 0.050 (from Walla et al., 2000).
\n\t\t\t\tT-maps (normalised data)
Distributions of significant differences (grande average) between the two false alarm conditions (perceptual and conceptual) as calculated by t-tests for every single sensor location for consecutive time intervals. Red circles represent P values from 0.001 to 0.020, orange circles represent P values from 0.021 to 0.040 and yellow circles represent P values from 0.041 to 0.050 (from Walla et al., 2000).
\n\t\t\t\tMRI and function
Source localization results for a single subject including a three-dimensional reconstruction of the brain. The upper line shows the localized dipoles related to false alarms from the conceptual encoding condition and the lower line shows the localized dipoles related to false alarms from the perceptual encoding condition. Note that false alarms from the conceptual encoding condition elicited higher brain activity than false alarms from the perceptual encoding condition in terms of dipole strength (from Walla et al., 2000). The slight difference in right hemisphere dipole localisation between the two conditions has not been further analysed.
\n\t\t\tEarly stage olfactory information processing is not associated with consciousness. The human sense of olfaction has long been neglected in terms of scientific investigation. Partly, this may be due to the subjective feeling that the encoding and processing of odours is not important to us. Only people who lost this evolutionary old sense know that not only the appreciation of food is reduced to a minimum but also some abstract feeling of evaluation (see Walla, 2008).
\n\t\t\t\tDynamic influences of olfaction on both word and face processing have been described (Lorig, 1999, Walla et al., 2003a, Walla et al., 2003b, Walla et al., 2005). Most often, it turned out that at least two stages (time windows) of odour-related information processing take place. Within this book chapter we do not go into further detail with respect to the actual influences of olfaction on word and face processing. The recent review by Walla (2008) summarises them anyway. However, what is important to us in relation to this book chapter is the fact that these two stages seem to process different aspects of an odour. In order to better understand these two stages and their functions a further study provides helpful support. Strikingly, that study highlights non-conscious aspects related to olfactory information processing. With MEG and a sophisticated computer-controlled device to accurately deliver olfactory stimuli it was shown that one of these two stages does not lead to conscious awareness, although odour-related brain activity occurred. This finding was revealed by comparing a group of participants who reported conscious odour perception with a group of participants who reported to have had no conscious odour perception during the course of an experiment (Walla et al., 2002). Crucially, both groups confirmed conscious perception of a first test stimulus, but as a matter of fact some participants were not aware of any odour stimulation during the course of the experiment. This might have been caused by the fact that all the attention had to be paid to words being visually presented with the instruction to make a semantic decision for each presentation. As a consequence olfaction was rather incidental anyway.
\n\t\t\t\tThe main finding was that although no conscious olfaction was reported in the one group MEG data revealed odour-related brain activity (Walla et al., 2002). This brain activity occurred between 200ms and 500ms after stimulus onset and it was also found in the conscious perception group. On the other hand, it was only the conscious perception group that also demonstrated later odour-related brain activity between 600ms and 900ms after stimulus onset. Obviously, regardless of conscious odour perception or not odour-related brain activity occurred. It still remains unclear what aspects of an olfactory stimulus are processed at the early stage and what exactly their effects are, but it seems obvious that consciousness is not essential for them to be processed. Figure 6 demonstrates different magnetic fields (MEG maps) between the group reporting conscious olfaction and the group without conscious olfaction.
\n\t\t\t\tMEG maps
Brain activity differences between the conditions ‘study words with odor’ and ‘study words without odor’ for both the ‘unconscious perception’ group and the ‘conscious perception’ group. Note that the activity differences between 200 and 500 ms after stimulus onset are well defined in both groups whereas the activity differences between 600 and 900 ms after stimulus onset are much more conspicuous in the ‘conscious perception’ group (from Walla et al., 2002).
\n\t\t\tThe human self has long been a focus of special interest. It is often treated as one of the most sophisticated and highest forms of neural information processing at all. How can an organ such as the brain become aware of itself?
\n\t\t\t\tBraking things down, we begin to realise that our self is in fact a combination of our own body including all its anatomical structures plus our own memories that are stored in our brains. Anatomical structures are processed through the somatosensory system (body representation) and our memories range from simple sensory experiences up to episodes of our own life. The fact that loss of our most personal material possessions (belongings) almost hurt like true physical pain may be linked with the idea that they are processed in our brain like parts of our body. While this seems nothing more than just an interesting idea, recent neuroimaging-research now provides evidence that self awareness at its deepest roots starts with processing the self as a living organism just as any other. On that level the self in our brain is no different from any other human self, perhaps not even different from any other animal. On a higher processing level though, our brain distinguishes between the self and somebody else. Interestingly, all this can happen regardless of consciousness being present or absent.
\n\t\t\t\tThe respective neuroimaging experiment was conducted with MEG and EEG. Both methods revealed similar findings about brain activities being able to process self- versus other-related information on a non-conscious level. The multiple-aspects-theory of self awareness was developed (Walla et al. 2007, 2008) and is meanwhile confirmed by another research group (Herbert et al. 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tThe MEG study by Walla et al. (2007) made use of language (German) processing to elicit self- versus other-related processing in the brain. In particular, combinations of possessive pronouns and nouns were used. To give an example, “my garden” and “his garden” versus the neutral condition of “a garden” were thought to ideally elicit self- versus other-related brain activities that can be distinguished from no person engagement such as in the neutral condition. Strikingly, such different word combinations (visually presented) had to be processed under three different conditions in terms of level of consciousness. In one condition, many of these word combinations were encoded following the instruction to only decide whether each noun contained a specific letter or not. This level of encoding is referred to as alphabetical and it does not include conscious semantic information processing and no active pronoun processing at all. In a further condition many new such combinations were encoded following the instruction to decide whether each noun’s meaning was living or non-living. This level of processing is referred to as semantic and it does again not include any active pronoun encoding. Finally, in a third condition, another set of pronoun-noun pairs was visually presented, but this time the instruction was to generate a short meaningful sentence (in their minds) containing the noun together with its pronoun. For example, “my garden is nice”. In addition, the living/non-living distinction had to be made. Statistical analysis revealed that level of processing had no effect on significant pronoun effects that were found. What did these pronoun effects look like?
\n\t\t\t\tBetween 200 ms and 300 ms after stimulus onset both “my” and “his” pronoun conditions elicited similar brain activity that was different compared to the neutral condition (figure 7). In contrast, between 500 ms and 800 ms after stimulus onset the “my” pronoun condition differed from both the “his” pronoun condition and the neutral condition (figure 8). It has been suggested that the left insular cortex is involved in processing self-related aspects (Walla et al, 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tThis is mainly due to source localisation results, which are presented in figure 9 and 10.
\n\t\t\t\tMEG maps
Early neurophysiological effect: MEG maps (magnetic field distributions) averaged across depth of word processing and across all study participants for the time interval from 200 to 300 ms after stimulus onset. First line: one map for each of the three conditions of pronoun (“ein” (“a”), “mein” (“my”), “sein” (“his”)). Second line: difference magnetic field distributions related to comparisons (subtractions) between each possible pair of pronoun condition (“mein” vs. “ein”, “sein” vs. “ein”, “sein” vs. “mein”). Sensor areas where t-tests resulted in significant differences are marked with a white dotted circle. Third line: t-maps showing the distribution of significant differences for each of the above-mentioned comparisons (raw data). Note that “mein” vs. “ein” and “sein” vs. “ein” both resulted in significant differences, whereas no differences occurred for the comparison “sein” vs. “mein”. Fourth line: t-maps showing the distribution of significant differences for each of the above-mentioned comparisons (amplitude-normalized data). Note that hardly any differences occurred (from Walla et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tMEG maps
Later neurophysiological effect: MEG maps (magnetic field distributions) averaged across depth of word processing and across all study participants for the time interval from 500 to 800 ms after stimulus onset. First line: one map for each of the three conditions of pronoun (“ein” (“a”), “mein” (“my”), “sein” (“his”)). Second line: difference magnetic field distributions related to comparisons (subtractions) between each possible pair of pronoun condition (“mein” vs. “ein”, “sein” vs. “ein”, “sein” vs. “mein”). Sensor areas where t-tests resulted in significant differences are marked with a white dotted circle. Third line: t-maps showing the distribution of significant differences for each of the above-mentioned comparisons (raw data). Note that “mein” vs. “ein” and “sein” vs. “ein” both resulted in significant differences. In addition, the comparison between “sein” and “mein” also resulted in significant differences at some of the sensor sites (no such differences were found during the early period of time). Fourth line: t-maps showing the distribution of significant differences for each of the above-mentioned comparisons (normalized data) (from Walla et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tSource localization for the earlier time range
The localized dipole in this respective region shows stronger brain activity as reflected by dipole strength (nA m) related to both personal pronouns compared to the neutral pronoun. The location of this dipole is interpreted as left occipital (from Walla et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tSource localisation for the later time range
The localized dipole in this respective region shows stronger brain activity as reflected by dipole strength (nA m) related to both personal pronouns compared to the neutral pronoun (strongest activity in the “mein”(“my”) condition). The location of this dipole is interpreted as left temporal. Most likely it is the left insular cortex that is able to discriminate between self and other. (from Walla et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\tFindings revealed by MEG and other methods clearly demonstrate that only a little fraction of brain processes related to even high cognitive functions such as our self are associated with consciousness. Or in other words, much of our even highest cognitive functions do happen non-consciously. It almost seems as if we mainly run non-conscious with only bits and pieces entering the stream of consciousness. It may be reasonable to believe that around 80 to 90 % of our daily activities are controlled outside our own awareness. However, we should not make the mistake to underestimate consciousness as it arises now in your brain while reading these lines. Consciousness still seems to be inevitable to appreciate a lot of what we are so much used to. The appreciation of music and art, the ability to love and to feel happy are just some of them. In fact, the more we learn about how dominant non-conscious processes guide our behaviour the more we learn to appreciate what our individual consciousness actually means to us.
\n\t\tThe author wants to thank Lüder Deecke for providing the essential equipment and general support, Wilfried Lang for mentorship and general support. Thanks also go to Dennis Balson for helpful financial support.
\n\t\tThe 2xxx aluminum alloys are widely used in the aircraft industry due to their high specific strength and lightweight [1]. These alloys contain elements, as copper, used to improve their mechanical properties. The presence of this element, together with others of lower content, and the history of associated thermal treatments, promotes the formation of some copper-rich sites, known as intermetallics. Unfortunately, the heterogeneous microstructures of intermetallic make 2024 alloy become more susceptible to pitting corrosion in the media containing chloride ions, due to the formation of microscopic galvanic couples [2].
\nMetallic corrosion occurs because of chemical reactions between the metal surface and the environment, changing the metal over its original ore. To prevent the beginning of localized corrosion processes and to extend the service life, in the aircraft industry, the most common practice is to avoid the direct contact of the electrochemically active matrix with the surrounding environment by applying a protective coating system [3].
\nThe traditional surface passivation treatment for aluminum alloy is conversion coating, which is produced in two steps: (i) dissolution of the base metal through reaction with the passivating solution and (ii) precipitation of insoluble compounds, a layer of corrosion product capable of resisting further chemical attack [4]. Chromate conversion coatings, typically generated from mixtures of soluble hexavalent chromium salts and chromic acid, participate in oxidation-reduction reactions with aluminum surfaces, precipitating a continuous layer of insoluble trivalent chromium and soluble hexavalent chromium compounds [5].
\nCorrosion protection occurs as hexavalent chromium leaches into defect sites, forming dense, insoluble trivalent chromium products. Chromate conversion coatings comparatively promote very good adhesion of organic coatings and offer as a whole system excellent corrosion protection [6]. The hexavalent chromium-containing compounds used in chromate conversion coatings are known to be carcinogenic and generally regarded as very hazardous soil and groundwater pollutants. Stricter environmental regulations have mandated the near-term removal of Cr(III)-containing compounds from corrosion inhibiting packages used for the protection of aluminum-skinned aircraft. Therefore, the need for the development of protection process exists, following nontoxic, chromium-free and environmentally friendly materials and protocols.
\nSeveral techniques are used for the deposition of coatings on metals; these methods include physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), electrochemical deposition, plasma spraying, and sol-gel process. The sol-gel process has emerged as a versatile method for preparing a host of oxide materials to protect the metal surface [7]; moreover, sol-gel materials are candidates as it is possible to form highly adherent, chemically inert films. In comparison with other deposition technologies, sol-gel technics offer several potential advantages, such as (i) preparation in room temperature, (ii) diverse and complex system, (iii) cured treatment at relative low temperature, and (iv) considered as a “green method” [8]. Thin films may be readily prepared from water-based systems, resulting in low volatile organic compound (VOC) content materials and processes. Instead, the primers and topcoats have VOC contents of 340 and 420 g/l, respectively, in comparison with the aqueous sol-gel solutions suitable for spray coating on aluminum substrates, which have a VOC content of 100–200 g/l [9]. On the other hand, the method allows to obtain thin films of sub-micrometer thickness with high purity in multiple combinations. By forming dense coatings, sol-gel films act as barriers for diffusion of aggressive species, such as chlorine and oxygen, blocking the electron transfer of metal surface to and from the environment. Moreover, the flexibility of the sol-gel process also permits the incorporation of corrosion inhibiting compounds, thereby providing another mechanism for corrosion protection. These characteristics lead to the possibility of forming environmentally compliant coatings capable of improving corrosion resistance without the use of metal chromates or the generation of liquid hazardous waste products [6].
\nThe anticorrosion behavior of coating is studied using electrochemical methods, which allow to obtain the susceptibility of metal to be corroded. The most important technics used are polarization curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.
\nIn the following topics, we will describe the methodology to obtain coating from oxide species using sol-gel technics. Moreover, the diversity and complex system of hybrid coating will be reviewed. In this way, the advantages and disadvantages of using modified sol-gel polymer films for the generation of smart coatings will be discussed also. Finally, the chemical characterization and the feasibility of evaluating the mechanical properties of the coatings will be analyzed as well.
\nThe sol-gel process can be described as the evolution of an oxide network by continuous condensation reactions of molecular precursors in a liquid medium [10]. Two ways to prepare sol-gel coating have been proposed: the inorganic method and the organic method. The inorganic method involves the evolution of networks through the formation of a colloidal suspension (usually oxides) and gelation of the sol (colloidal suspension of very small particles (1–100 nm)) to form a network in continuous liquid phase. But the most widely used method is the organic approach, which generally starts with a solution of metal/metalloid alkoxide precursors, M(OR)n, in an alcohol or other low molecular weight organic solvent, where M can represent different elements such as Si, Ti, Zr, Al, Fe, B, etc. and R is typically an alkyl/allyl group. Sol-gel processing proceeds in several steps which will be discussed later: (i) hydrolysis and condensation of the molecular precursors and formation of sols, (ii) gelation (sol-gel transition), (iii) aging, and (iv) drying [11].
\nIn the sol-gel process, hydrolysis and condensation are equilibrium reactions and can proceed simultaneously once the hydrolysis reaction has initiated. The reaction mechanisms for acid or base catalysis are very different and have to be considered separately [12]. The pH is an especially important parameter to control the morphology of coatings. At intermediate pH, the reaction rate of condensation is proportional to the concentration of the OH− ions. At pH lower than about 2, the silicic acid species are positively charged, and the reaction rate of the condensation is proportional to the concentration of H+. While under strong alkaline conditions, the solutions contain mainly anionic species. For this reason, the rate of Si─O─Si cleavage or redissolution of particles is high at alkaline pH.
\nUnder acidic conditions, the oxygen atom of a ≡Si─O−, ≡Si─OH, or ≡Si─OR group is protonated in a rapid first step. A good leaving group (water or alcohol) is thus created. In addition, electron density is withdrawn from the central silicon atom, rendering it more electrophilic and thus more susceptible to attack by water (in hydrolysis reactions) or silanol groups (in condensation reactions).
\nUnder basic conditions (Figure 1), the reaction proceeds by nucleophilic attack of either an OH− (in hydrolysis reactions) or a ≡Si─O− ion (in condensation reactions) to the silicon atom with an SN2-type mechanism. The entering OH− or ≡Si─O− group is formed by deprotonation of water or a ≡Si─OH group. Under strong alkaline conditions, the Si─O─Si bonds can be cleaved again by OH−. Inductive effects of the substituents attached to a silicon atom are very important, because they stabilize or destabilize the transition states or intermediates during hydrolysis and condensation. The electron density at the silicon atom decreases in the following order: ≡Si─R` > ≡Si─OR > ≡Si─OH > ≡Si─O─Si.
\nGeneral mechanisms of synthesis sol-gel catalyzed (a) acid, and (b) base conditions.
For acid catalysis, the electron density at the silicon atom should be high since the positive charge of the transition state is then stabilized better. Therefore, the reaction rates for hydrolysis and condensation under acidic conditions increase in the same order as the electron density. For base catalysis, a negatively charged intermediate must be stabilized.
\nTherefore, the reaction rates for hydrolysis and condensation increase in the reverse order of the electron density.
\nDuring the gelation, the colloidal particles and condensed species link together to become a three-dimensional network and the viscosity increases sharply. Physical characteristics of the gel network will depend greatly upon the size of particles and extent of cross-linking prior to gelation [13]. Aging of the prepared sol-gel prior to application on the metallic substrate also affects strongly the corrosion protection properties of the resulting coatings. Aging of the sol can promote the condensation reactions of the precursors, including formation of further crosslinks and increasing the viscosity of the sol-gel, which can eventually lead to the formation of thick coating with a high defect density [14]. During drying, loss of water, alcohol, and other volatile components takes place. The evaporation of the liquid from a wet gel generally proceeds in more than one stage, where the liquids flow through the polymer evolving to a stable rigid condition, and where the effect of the surface tension on the mechanical properties of the final coating, is also considered [15].
\nTwo processes are important for the collapse of the network. First, the slower shrinkage of the network in the interior of the gel body results in a pressure gradient that causes crack. Second, larger pores will empty faster than smaller pores during drying; that is, if pores with different radii are present, the meniscus of the liquid drops faster in larger pores. The wall between pores of different sizes is therefore subjected to uneven stress and crack. Low-temperature drying is normally employed for drying of hybrid sol-gel coatings entrapping organic compounds. Although compact crack-free films can be obtained, room temperature cured sol-gel coatings exhibit higher water sensitivity compared to those cured at higher temperatures. Higher cure temperatures (up to 200°C) promoting condensation reactions and formation of dense hybrid coating improve the barrier properties. By controlling the aging and drying conditions, further pore size and mechanical strength control may be achieved.
\nDespite the fact that the most used alkoxides are the silicon-type in sol-gel coating synthesis, it is pertinent to make a brief mention about the transition metal alkoxides.
\nThere are two important differences between silicon and transition metal alkoxides that have to be considered when we want to synthesize a sol-gel coating [16]: (i) metals are more electropositive (Lewis acidic) than silicon and therefore more susceptible to a nucleophilic attack and (ii) the preferred coordination number is higher than their valence. The increase of the coordination number beyond the valence is reached by interaction with any nucleophilic (Lewis basic) entity in the system. When we compare SiO2 and TiO2, both central atoms are in the IV oxidation state. However, silicon is always four coordinated (tetrahedral SiO4 building blocks) while titanium in rutile is six coordinated (octahedral TiO6 building blocks). The mechanisms of condensation reactions of metal alkoxides are similar to those of silicon alkoxides in a sense that an M─OH group undergoes nucleophilic attack by another metal atom. Due to the higher propensity of metal atoms to interact with nucleophilic agents, base or acid catalysts are not needed in most cases.
\nWhen a silica network grows, the question that decides the morphology of the obtained coating is whether condensation occurs preferentially at the end of chain of corner sharing SiO4 tetrahedra or at a central atom. For transition metals, this issue is more complicated and hardly understood in detail in most cases. An additional difference between metal alkoxide and silicon alkoxide-driven sol-gel process is the morphology of the final material. While in the silicon-based sol-gel process only amorphous materials are produced, the metal alkoxides can form crystalline compounds.
\nTwo points are considered by the time of synthesis of sol-gel coating, alkoxy group/H2O ratio (Rw) and solvent. Alkoxides are employed as precursors for the sol-gel process, as mentioned above. In the case of silicon, the most prominent alkoxides are tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) (Figure 2) [10]. Both precursors are liquid under standard conditions, and TMOS shows a faster hydrolysis reaction compared to TEOS but, at the same time, generates methanol, which is avoided for its toxicity. The application of these precursors in the sol-gel process would lead to a three-dimensional network and finally, after heating, to a coating. Considering that alkoxides must first be hydrolyzed before condensation reactions can take place, the hydrolysis rates of alkoxysilanes are influenced by both the inductive effects and steric factors. Any branching of the alkoxo group or increasing of the chain length lowers the hydrolysis rate of the alkoxysilanes. It means that the reaction rate decreases in the order Si(OMe)4 > Si(OEt)4 > Si(O``Pr)4 > Si(O`Pr)4.
\nExamples of some precursors commonly used in sol-gel coatings.
The overall reaction for sol-gel processing of tetraalkoxysilanes implies that two equivalents of water (Rw = 2) are needed to covert Si(OR)4 if no condensation takes place. Increasing the water proportion generally favors the formation of silanol groups over Si─O─Si groups. The Rw, together with the kind of catalyst, strongly influences the properties of the silica gels [17].
\nA solvent may be necessary to homogenize the reaction mixture of alkoxide-based systems, especially at the beginning of the reaction. Polarity, dipole moment, viscosity, and protic or non-protic behavior of the solvent influence the reaction rates and thus the structure of the sol-gel coating. Polar and particularly protic solvents (H2O, alcohols, etc.) stabilize polar species such as (Si(OR)x(OH)y)n by hydrogen bridges. The latter generally play a very important role in sol-gel systems. Nonpolar solvents (dioxane and tetrahydrofuran) are sometimes used for organotrialkoxysilanes (R`Si(OR)3) or incompletely hydrolyzed alkoxide systems [17].
\nA sol-gel coating can be applied to a metal substrate through various techniques, such as dip coating and spin coating, which are the two most commonly used coating methods. Spraying [18] and electrodeposition [19] also emerged recently and could be the major sol-gel coating application methods in the future. In both methods, spin coating and dip coating, the sol-gel is directly deposited onto the support. The condensation reaction can also occur between silanol and hydroxyl groups of the metal (obtained by the activation of the surface with bases), leading to the covalent bonding of silane to the surface: ─SiOH + HO-surface → ─Si─O-surface + H2O (1).
\nIt is generally accepted that during the sol-gel process, the sol precursor first hydrolyzes, and then, the hydrolyzed species are adsorbed onto the surface undergoing cross-linking to form a continuous film.
\nThe production of thin films by spin coating was initially reported by Ogawa in the 1996 [20]. Among other techniques, spin coating is the most easily applicable one for obtaining uniform thin layers on flat surfaces [21]. Experimentally, a small amount of the coating material is deposited onto the center of the support. Subsequently, the support is rotated at high speed in order to spread the coating material by the centrifugal force. In general, the higher the rotation speed, the thinner the film. Therefore, by selecting the appropriate spin rate, it is possible to modulate the film thickness [21].
\nBesides the very interesting results obtained and the very good performances of this simple deposition technique, spin coating possesses some drawbacks concerning the size and shape of the substrates. In fact, as reported by Tyona [22], large supports are difficult to be homogeneously deposited by this method. Additionally, in a typical spin-coating deposition, minority of the 5% of the starting solution is deposited successfully onto the substrate forming the thin film, whereas the complement percentage is lost due to the rotation of the spinner. Further, the final morphology of the coated substrate can be influenced by several parameters such as spin speed, time of spin, acceleration, fume exhaust, etc.
\nDip coating is one of the most convenient methods used in the laboratory and industry to deposit films onto a metallic surface with a controlled thickness from a sol-gel solution. This method is simple and provides excellent reproducibility [23]. Basically, the method may be separated into three important stages: (1)
The electrochemical deposition of sol-gel films provides an alternative for shifting the pH on the substrate. In aerated aqueous media, it is well known that by applying cathodic potential, the following reactions occur at the electrode surface:
\nBoth reactions generate OH− ions that increase the interfacial pH near the cathode, which catalyzes the sol-gel process facilitating the film formation. There are three advantages of electrodeposition technic: (1) pH varies only close to the cathode, so the stability of the bulk solution is not affected, (2) the deposition process is controllable by electrochemical parameters, and (3) the film deposition is restricted to the conducting part of the surface and controlled by the kinetics of the electrochemical process [24].
\nIn order to overcome the limitations associated with conventional inorganic sol-gel coatings, such as brittle oxide films, thicker coatings (>1 μm), crack-free, and relatively high temperatures (400–800°C), the hybrid coatings by the incorporation of organic groups in the inorganic sol-gel network have shown good results [24].
\nTwo different approaches can be used for the incorporation of organic groups into an inorganic network by sol-gel processing, namely, embedding of organic molecules into gels without chemical bonding (class I hybrid materials) and incorporation of organic groups through covalent bonding to the gel network (class II hybrid materials). Embedding of organic molecules is achieved by dissolving them in the precursor solution. The gel matrix is formed around them and traps them, and the organic and inorganic entities interact only weakly with each other. The inorganic network and the organic network interpenetrate but are not bonded to each other [14]. Despite the presence of weak dispersion forces and Van der Waals interactions between organic and inorganic components of such hybrids, the physical bonds are not stable enough for long-term applications involving weathering. Formation of strong covalent bonds between organic and inorganic components can significantly improve corrosion protective properties of the hybrid coatings. Very important sol-gel materials are obtained when functional or nonfunctional organic groups are covalently linked to oxide networks (class II hybrid materials). Silicate hybrids are mostly done by using organotrialkoxysilanes, R`Si(OR)3, as precursors to sol-gel processing. Nearly any organic group R` can be employed; the only requirement is that the group R` must be hydrolytically stable. Since Si─C bonds are hydrolytically stable, the organic groups are retained in the final material after sol-gel processing.
\nDifferent functional groups impart different corrosion protective properties to hybrid coatings. Moreover, the corrosion protective properties of the hybrid coatings dramatically depend on the presence, the type, and the number of the reactive groups of the used agent. For this reason, organotrialkoxysilanes are typically copolymerized with tetraalkoxysilanes or metal alkoxides to obtain the properties characteristic of highly cross-linked networks. This allows incorporation of organic groups without lowering the network connectivity because one Si─O─Si entity is replaced by Si─R``─Si. The groups R`` can range from simple alkylene or arylene groups to more complex entities. The hybrid sol-gel coatings containing functional groups show a higher cross-link density and better mechanical properties [25]. Not only the nature of organic components but also their content in the hybrid sol-gels plays a very important role in the final properties of the hybrid coatings. An increase in the organic content of the hybrid coatings leads to the formation of less porous and thicker films appropriate for barrier protection of metals. However, a high concentration of organic component can lower the adhesion and the mechanical properties of the final coating. So it is important to point out that there is an optimum ratio for inorganic-organic components to deliver maximum corrosion resistance. The optimum organic/inorganic ratio varies depending on the precursors employed and on the coating application technique [26]. Hydrophobic hybrid coatings can reduce the kinetics of the corrosion processes by delaying penetration of water and other electrolytes toward the metal/coating interface. However, a prolonged exposure of the hybrid coatings to water/electrolyte will eventually result in moisture penetration of the metal/coating interface. Considering the reversible nature of hydrolysis and condensation reactions involved in the creation of the coating, water penetration can promote hydrolysis of the bonds formed during condensation reaction resulting in delamination [27]. The final film can carry specific organic functions, which can present certain properties, such as good adhesion, self-healing, abrasion resistance, scratch resistance, hydrophobicity, etc. Network formation is only possible if the precursor used has at least three possible cross-linking sites. Both, tetraalkoxysilanes Si(OR)4 and trialkoxysilanes (RO)3SiR´, possess this ability.
\nThis route of synthesis means that the polymer is mixed with the precursors and hydrolysis and condensation are started [28]. It is important to determine the best reaction conditions to avoid phase’s separation. Therefore, the right choice of solvent is of major significance. Typical polymer solvents depending on the functional groups and polarity of the polymers are tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethoxyethane (DME), alcohols (methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, etc.), acetic acid, etc. During sol-gel reaction, alcohols are liberated which can change the solvent properties resulting to precipitation of the initially soluble polymers, leading to heterogeneous films. Therefore, the choice of the polymer and solvent is important in this synthetic route. Polymers with functional groups can interact with the sol-gel structures, for example, by hydrogen bonding, such as alcohols or amines. In many cases, an effective interaction between the polymer and the inorganic structure results in a homogeneous distribution of small inorganic structures in the polymer matrix.
\nDespite the effective barrier protection of metallic substrates by hybrid sol-gel coatings, these systems are prone to fail because of water ingress into the films. For this reason, incorporation of active species such as binding agents and corrosion inhibitors, which add active protection mechanisms to the system, can improve the protective properties of the hybrid sol-gel coatings. Thus, incorporation of nanoparticles such as silica, ceria, zirconia, alumina, titania, and zeolite, as mechanical reinforcement, were the first proposed approaches for modification of hybrid sol-gel coatings [29]. The improved mechanical properties, increased thickness, and lower crack sensitivity achieved by addition of a controlled amount of the particles resulted in enhanced corrosion protection of the underlying substrate. However, the particle size and surface modification have shown to be critical, as agglomeration of the embedded particles promoted by gelation process could lead to coating rupture and deterioration of the coating barrier properties [14]. It is important to point out that the critical dopant concentration, which physical/mechanical properties in the coating starts to degrade, must always be considered. Moreover, a strong interaction between particle and matrix interfaces is required. Corrosion inhibitors can either be added (i) directly to the coating formulation or (ii) immobilized in carriers to reduce the possible interactions with the matrix and control release of the inhibitor [30]. In addition, nanoparticles not only can be added but also can be formed in situ in the coatings, eliminating some of the challenges associated with the strong interfacial forces between matrix and particles [31].
\nThe most common way of inclusion of corrosion inhibitors into sol-gel systems is mixing them with the coating formulation [32]. The most important factor to be considered in such systems is the solubility of inhibitor in the corrosive media. While a low solubility of inhibitor can lead to a weak self-healing effect due to the low concentration of active agents at damaged site, a high solubility will limit prolonged healing effect because of rapid leach out of the active agents from coating, producing the coating degradation by blistering and delamination. Despite the potential drawback of this class of extrinsic self-healing sol-gel coatings, they have been extensively studied for protection of different metallic substrates due to ease of preparation. The corrosion inhibitors used can be divided according to their nature into (i) inorganic and (ii) organic inhibitors [33]. Some of the most used inorganic inhibitors are the rare earth metals and some transition metals such as Ce, La, and Zr which have showed an improved anticorrosive performance in the doped hybrid coatings compared to the undoped ones [34]. Incorporation of the active Ce ions not only facilitates preparation of dense and defect-free hybrid coatings but also increases the protection mechanism via selective leaching of Ce ions to the damage site restoring the coating’s protective properties [35]. Organic inhibitors prevent corrosion by either increasing the anodic or cathodic polarization resistance of the corrosion cell or retarding diffusion of corrosive agents to the metallic surface [36]. However, their inhibition efficiency depends on the chemical composition, molecular structure, and affinity of the metal surface. Organic inhibitors such as phosphonic acid, 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), 2-mercaptobenzimidazole (MBI), benzotriazole (BTA), etc. have been successfully incorporated into sol-gel systems to improve their corrosion protection properties by inducing active protection [37]. In several cases, release of organic molecular species from the hybrid sol-gel matrix is based on a pH-triggered release mechanism. With this method, it is possible to release inhibitors only at damaged areas due to local pH changes.
\nAlthough incorporation of corrosion inhibitors into sol-gel coatings is a promising route in the development of active corrosion protective hybrid coatings, there are inevitable drawbacks associated with direct mixing of active agents into coating formulation. Firstly, it is quite difficult to control leach out of entrapped inhibitors especially when they are poorly soluble within the coating matrix. Secondly, inhibitors can chemically interact with the coating matrix losing their own activity and lowering the barrier properties of the matrix. A probable solution to this problem is the encapsulation of active species or complexing them with other chemicals [38]. A quite simple approach for inhibitor entrapment/immobilization is based on the complexation of organic molecules with β-cyclodextrin. Cyclodextrins are cyclic oligosaccharides that possess a unique molecular cup-shaped structure with a hydrophilic exterior and a hydrophobic interior cavity. They are able to form complexes with various organic guest molecules which fit within their cavities. Organic aromatic and heterocyclic compounds are normally the main candidates for the inclusion complexation reaction. 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole (MBI) were successfully loaded in β-cyclodextrin [33]. In the case of cyclodextrin complexes, incorporation of the inhibitor-loaded particles in sol-gel coatings has been more efficient than direct inhibitor loading in imparting long-term self-healing function. On the other hand, ceramic particles such as silica and alumina can be employed as micro-/nano-containers to immobilize corrosion inhibitors. The selected inhibitors can be entrapped on the carriers through controlled hydrolysis of the relevant precursors in the inhibitor-containing aqueous solutions [39].
\nThe proposal of this topic is to show an overview of some methodologies of characterization in order to understand the information related to properties of film coating. The most useful and used technics to characterize the sol-gel coating are infrared spectroscopy (IR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
\nInfrared spectroscopy is based on the vibrations of atoms of a molecule. An IR spectrum is obtained by passing an IR radiation through a sample and determining what fraction of the incident radiation is absorbed at determinate energy. The energy at which any peak in an absorption spectrum appears corresponds to the frequency of a vibration of a part of a sample molecule. The interactions of IR radiation with matter may be understood in terms of changes in molecular dipoles associated with vibrations and rotations [40].
\nIR technic allows characterize bonds Si─O, Si─Si, and Si─C. Furthermore, this analysis is used to determine the presence of active molecules in hybrid sol-gel film which has been modified using, among others, organic substituent such as hydrocarbon chain (C─H, C─C) [41], organic compound [42], and inhibitor [43].
\nX-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is an established quantitative method for the determination of elemental abundance and the assessment of chemical binding [44]. Photoelectron production in its simplest form describes a single-step process in which an electron initially bound to an atom/ion is ejected by a photon. Since photons are a massless (zero rest mass), charge less package of energy, these are annihilated during photon-electron interaction with complete energy transfer occurring. The general equation for this process is \n
The popularity of XPS stems from its ability to: (a) Identify and quantify the elemental composition of the outer 10 nm or less of any solid surface with all elements from Li-U detectable. Note: This is on the assumption that the element of interest exists at >0.05 atomic %. (b) Reveal the chemical environment where the respective element exists in, that is, the speciation of the respective elements observed. (c) Obtain the information above with relative ease and minimal sample preparation [45].
\nIn this way, the XPS help in the analysis of sol-gel coating in order to determine the oxide state of doped polymer [46], the presence of metal [47], and the bond between metal and polymer [6].
\nA basic SEM consists of an electron gun (field emission type or others) that produces the electron beams; electromagnetic optics guide the beam and focus it. The detectors collect the electrons that come from the sample (either direct scattering or emitted from the sample), and the energy of the detected electron together with their intensity (number density) and location of emission is used to put the image together. SEM also offer energy dispersive photon detectors that provide analysis of X-rays that are emitted from the specimen due to the interactions of incident electrons with the atoms of the sample [48].
\nSEM technic allows to characterize the coated metallic surface [49] and determine the thickness of deposited polymer [41].
\nThe properties of sol-gel coatings have a strong dependence on the substrate on which they have been generated. The requirements for the coating vary depending on the type of substrate, ranging from purely physical (e.g., optical properties), through chemical (e.g., anticorrosion properties), to purely mechanical (e.g., resistance to wear). The type of coating generated is a direct function of the desired final properties, being able to choose between inorganic coatings or hybrid coatings (organic-inorganic).
\nThe main qualities required of any coating generated on a metallic substrate, regardless of its application in service, are:
Homogeneity of the thickness of the obtained coating
Homogeneity in the chemical composition of the coating, to present the same mechanical behavior throughout the sample
High adhesion to the substrate, guaranteeing structural and mechanical stability over time
The first two requirements are easily achievable with sol-gel coatings. Regarding the adhesion, ceramic coatings obtained following the sol-gel route present a high adhesion to the metallic substrates due to the presence of hydroxyl radicals (─OH) on the surface of the latter which manage to form a chemical bond between atoms of the deposited
Aluminum alloy substrates have been coated with sol-gel to improve their corrosion behavior, using mainly alloys with aeronautical or automotive applications, as well as structural interest in the civil field. The surface preparation of the substrates to be coated is usually initiated with chemical degreasing. Subsequently, the substrate can be simply coated, or it can be subjected to the generation of a certain roughness by roughing or polishing. The coating generated by the sol-gel route can be the only protection system, or it can be used in combination with other systems, such as special paint for aeronautical applications.
\nThe main characteristics of the sol-gel coatings on aeronautical aluminum alloys are anticorrosive and mechanical together with wear behavior.
\nGarcía-Heras et al. [50] demonstrate the importance of the surface preparation of the substrate and the concentration of alkoxide precursor in the anticorrosive efficiency of silica coatings manufactured on the 2024 T6 aluminum alloy. Hamdy and Butt [51] demonstrate the effectiveness against corrosion of inorganic silica coatings, starting from TEOS as a precursor, on the 6063 aluminum alloy without anodizing and anodizing prior to deposition, as well as the influence of the treatment thermal densification. It has been reported that the use of hybrid coatings generates, on the one hand, greater coating thicknesses, and in addition, a very adherent surface is formed for the subsequent painting system on the 2024 alloy [52]. The same degree of protection as by coating and painting systems has been achieved by Liu et al. [53]. An alternative way of generating hybrid coatings is by adding inorganic particles to sol solutions of alkoxides with non-hydrolyzable groups [54], although the percentage of added particles must be optimized, since an excess means the formation of thicker coatings but with pores, favoring the formation of pitting corrosion. The amount of inorganic particles added to the sol-gel is not the only determining factor to obtain a good behavior against corrosion, since hydrophobic particles generate greater resistance to corrosion than hydrophilic particles [55].
\nIt should be noted that hybrid coatings have greater thickness than inorganic coatings, so their effectiveness against corrosion is usually greater. The greater thickness of these coatings is due to the presence of residual internal porosity, generated by the non-hydrolyzable organic groups of the structural network of the coating [56]. These pores are closed and are not detrimental to the anticorrosive behavior of the coating, although they do significantly reduce their mechanical behavior.
\nCurrently, it is sought that the sol-gel coatings on aluminum alloys, in addition to having a good corrosion behavior, also have a good mechanical behavior. The mechanical properties of the coatings made by the sol-gel route are not easy to determine; the modulus of elasticity, the hardness, the adhesion of the coatings to the metallic substrates, and the tribological properties (wear) are the main properties that have been evaluated in this type of coatings.
\nParameters such as modulus of elasticity (
The microhardness test instruments (micro-durometers) do not allow to apply forces small enough to provide penetrations of the order of 10% of the thickness of the coating, necessary to avoid the influence of the substrate in the measurements made, an essential factor when the coating has small thickness. In addition, the durometers base the determination of the hardness in the measurement of the size of the residual footprint left by the penetrator on the surface tested, but at such a low load, to achieve low penetration, this residual trace cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy as to provide acceptable hardness values. As an example, the uncertainty associated with the determination, by conventional optical methods, of a diagonal measuring 5 μm corresponding to the residual footprint made with Vickers indenter is of the order of 20%. This uncertainty increases as the size of the diagonal decreases, being able to reach 100% for a size of 1 μm.
\nThis leads to the need of developing new mechanical characterization techniques for thin coatings. Among them the most used, and that allows the determination of both
In this technique, the applied load displacement curve inside the material is recorded continuously. In the initial part of the load cycle, at low applied load, the tested material elastically deforms, to become plastically deformed at higher loads. If the plasticization of the material has taken place during the loading process, the load-displacement data of the discharge branch are different from those of the load branch. In this way, a trace is generated on the surface of the material tested, because the plastic deformation generated has not been recovered, only the elastic deformation. The Berkovich indentator is the one commonly used in nanoindentation tests, because it has a three-sided pyramid geometry in which it is easier to achieve a point vertex than with a four-sided pyramid (Vickers), allowing better control of the process of indentation.
\nThe nanoindentation tests in this type of coatings are generally carried out by means of a nanoindentation module coupled to an AFM equipment, avoiding the mechanical response of the substrate. This allows having the resolution of the AFM in the horizontal and vertical displacement and therefore carrying out the tests in the selected areas with high precision.
\nThe mechanical properties of the coating, as well as its resistance to corrosion, are also modified by the densification temperature used, since it conditions the microstructure of the obtained coating, being able to go from an amorphous state to a crystalline state. Olonfinjama and collaborators [57] proved the improvement of the mechanical properties obtained in mononane and multilayer titania coatings with crystalline microstructure (densification at 500°C) deposited on metal substrates, with respect to obtaining amorphous microstructure (densification at room temperature). The results obtained by nanoindentation at very low load show that the obtaining of crystalline coatings implies a 25% increase in the hardness of the coating (1.5 GPa) and an increase of approximately 40% of the modulus of elasticity (85 GPa) with respect to the coating values in the amorphous state. This shows that by means of the heat treatment at high temperature, the coating has gone from an amorphous initial state to a crystalline structure, beneficial for the mechanical performance of the coating. The influence of the thickness of the coatings in the mechanical properties of these is null.
\nBy means of thermal treatments at a high-temperature furnace, the densification of the coatings is achieved, although there are other ways to achieve this densification. The influence of the densification technique on the mechanical properties of the coating is evident in the research carried out by Jämting et al. [58], which densify titania sol-gel coatings by bombardment with hydrogen ions and by heating in an oven. The nanoindentation technique demonstrates that by bombardment the highest densifications are obtained in the coating in contact with the substrate, while densifying in the furnace the greater densifications of the coating is achieved in the surface area. The time used in the densification also modifies the mechanical properties of the coating, as Lucca et al. [59] confirm in zirconia coatings made by sol-gel and coatings by immersion on metal substrates.
\nThe nanoindentation technique was also used to calculate the fracture toughness of coatings [60], since the load-displacement curves obtained from the tests make it possible to determine the load at which the coating cracks.
\nMammeri et al. [61] investigated the mechanical properties of hybrid silica coatings by nanoindentation, demonstrating that the test discharge curve does not reflect only the elastic properties of the coating but shows the creep induced by the response of the polymeric zones of the coating. Therefore, the time in which the discharge is performed must be designed to avoid this temporary response of the coating as much as possible, making a series of corrections [62] for the calculation of the modulus of elasticity and the hardness of the material.
\nA novel way of obtaining and densifying sol-gel coatings are by using the laser technique [63] with which coatings with high values of
The usual techniques for determining the adhesion of coatings such as three-point bending techniques or the technique of peeling with adhesive tapes lose effectiveness when evaluating the adhesion of fine ceramic coatings. This is normally because the failure of these coatings is due to cracking, since they are fragile coatings.
\nTechniques such as nanoindentation or nanoray are being used to determine the adhesion of this type of coatings, including coatings obtained by sol-gel. In nanoindentation tests, cracking at the interface is detected in the load-displacement curve since a change in slope occurs during the loading process. By means of the nanoray tests, in which the normal load applied to the material increases while the indenter moves over the surface of a series of microns, the loads can be detected at which the separation between coating and substrate occurs, either by acoustic methods, by sudden increase in the coefficient of friction, or by the subsequent observation of the scratching track.
\nThe surface roughness of the substrate and the densification temperature of the coating are factors that influence the adherence of the coatings. Xie and Hawthorne [64] show that the adhesion of the sol-gel coatings increases with increasing surface roughness of the substrates and the densification temperature. When the generated sol-gel coating is hybrid, increasing the proportion of the non-hydrolyzable alkoxide increases the adhesion of the coating to the substrate [65].
\nAnother way to determine the adhesion between coating and substrate is the use of traction tests on pieces joined to a simple overlap using an epoxy base adhesive.
\nSo that the coating can be used in anti-wear applications, it must have thicknesses between 0, 5, and 10 μm, with which multilayer systems are used when the sol-gel route is chosen to manufacture the said coatings. Normally, high temperatures are used for the densification of the coating, so it can meet the anti-wear requirements [65]. The temperature must be selected considering that the mechanical properties of the substrate do not decrease. This is especially important when working with substrates of aluminum alloys, since the temperatures at which this change in properties occurs are much lower than in the case of titanium alloys or carbon steels. The densification temperatures influence the final structure of the coating. Thus, high temperatures tend to form crystalline coatings, while low temperatures tend to form amorphous coatings.
\nSol-gel coatings for anti-wear applications are usually fundamentally inorganic, with the most common being those of alumina, zirconia, or silica. The use of hybrid coatings is less widespread, due to the mechanical limitations that often appear in these coatings because of their high percentage of porosity. However, the use of modified inorganic coatings is extended, either by the addition of lubricating particles that reduce the coefficients of friction or by the addition of organic modifiers to the starting sol that generate a decrease in the roughness of the coating.
\nTaktak and Baspinar [66] demonstrated an augment of the wear resistance by increasing the crystalline and decreasing of the coefficient of friction. These effects were explained based on two concepts: First, the presence of crystalline phase in an amorphous matrix prevents the propagation of cracks originated during the wear process, due to the presence of crystalline grain boundaries [67]. The presence of crystalline phase in an amorphous matrix increases the strength and the fracture tenacity of the material, due to the compression stresses that the said phase generates [68].
\nThe doping of hard coatings is another of the widely ways used to improve their mechanical or tribological properties [69].
\nA typical way to evaluate the wear behavior of the coating is through
The coating obtained using sol-gel processing has shown good performance as corrosion barrier in the protection of metal substrate. The versatility along with the “green” methodology makes this process an excellent alternative to replace the conventional coating.
\nThe hybrid polymer improves the mechanical properties and allows a better control in the preparation of coat. Moreover, the process to obtain the polymer allows the incorporation of organic and inorganic compounds. Thus, considering these points, the effort of the scientific community is obtaining a “smart coating,” which present multiple properties.
\nThe authors thank FONDECYT (Grant 11170419), PIA-CONICYT (Grant ACT-1412), DICYT-USACH (051742PC_DAS), and AFOSR (Grant FA 9550-16-1-0063) for financial support.
\nAll Works published by IntechOpen prior to October 2011 are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-BC-SA 3.0). Works published after October 2011 are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0), the latter allowing for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
",metaTitle:"Translation Policy",metaDescription:"Translation of Works - Book Chapters",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/translation-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All Works licensed under CC BY-BC-SA 3.0 can be freely translated and used for non-commercial purposes. Works licensed under CC BY 3.0 license can be freely translated and used for both commercial and non-commercial purposes.
\\n\\nAll translated Chapters have to be properly attributed in accordance with the requirements included in IntechOpen's Attribution Policy. Besides proper attribution translated sections of Works must include the following sentence: "This is an unofficial translation of a work published by IntechOpen. The publisher has not endorsed this translation".
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and other compilations are reserved by IntechOpen. The copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a Copyright separate from any that exists in the included Works.
\\n\\nA Book in its entirety, or a significant part of a Book, cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Requests for permission can be made at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'All Works licensed under CC BY-BC-SA 3.0 can be freely translated and used for non-commercial purposes. Works licensed under CC BY 3.0 license can be freely translated and used for both commercial and non-commercial purposes.
\n\nAll translated Chapters have to be properly attributed in accordance with the requirements included in IntechOpen's Attribution Policy. Besides proper attribution translated sections of Works must include the following sentence: "This is an unofficial translation of a work published by IntechOpen. The publisher has not endorsed this translation".
\n\nAll rights to Books and other compilations are reserved by IntechOpen. The copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a Copyright separate from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\nA Book in its entirety, or a significant part of a Book, cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Requests for permission can be made at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5817},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5282},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1755},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10511},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:906},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15915}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119159},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"20"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10672",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cfe87b713a8bee22c19361b86b03d506",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10674",title:"Topics on Quantum Information Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d7481712cff0157cd8f849cba865727d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Sergio Curilef and Dr. Angel Ricardo Plastino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10674.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"125424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Curilef",slug:"sergio-curilef",fullName:"Sergio Curilef"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10852",title:"Electromagnetic Compatibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f5d2cce3a2adbd5d108d3301ee97025b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ahmed Kishk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10852.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"150146",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Kishk",slug:"ahmed-kishk",fullName:"Ahmed Kishk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10921",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c45670ef4b081fd9eebaf911b2b4627b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Aamir Shahzad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10921.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10956",title:"Pulsed Lasers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"88bd906b149fc3d1c5d6fdbd9916826c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10956.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:46},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5319},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9536",title:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cf6891060eb438d975d250e8b127ed6",slug:"education-at-the-intersection-of-globalization-and-technology",bookSignature:"Sharon Waller, Lee Waller, Vongai Mpofu and Mercy Kurebwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharon",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"sharon-waller",fullName:"Sharon Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9524",title:"Organ Donation and Transplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ef47e03cd4e6476946fc28ca51de825",slug:"organ-donation-and-transplantation",bookSignature:"Vassil Mihaylov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313113",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassil",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylov",slug:"vassil-mihaylov",fullName:"Vassil Mihaylov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",middleName:null,surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1100",title:"Rhinology",slug:"rhinology",parent:{title:"Otorhinolaryngology",slug:"otorhinolaryngology"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:70,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"rhinology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7245",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67a331ebb2dd2b8f73228fa4daa7382f",slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",bookSignature:"Tang-Chuan Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7245.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201262",title:"Dr.",name:"Tang-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"tang-chuan-wang",fullName:"Tang-Chuan Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5911",title:"Paranasal Sinuses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"96eef6e794a6b96952fdd1ce1e46f411",slug:"paranasal-sinuses",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5911.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:null,name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"798",title:"Peculiar Aspects of Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e7271d569863813004b2f22624d06a1",slug:"peculiar-aspects-of-rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Gian Luigi Marseglia and Davide Paolo Caimmi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78317",title:"Dr.",name:"Gian Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Marseglia",slug:"gian-luigi-marseglia",fullName:"Gian Luigi Marseglia"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"24280",doi:"10.5772/25349",title:"Rhinosinusitis - Its Impact on Quality of Life",slug:"rhinosinusitis-its-impact-on-quality-of-life",totalDownloads:9165,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"peculiar-aspects-of-rhinosinusitis",title:"Peculiar Aspects of Rhinosinusitis",fullTitle:"Peculiar Aspects of Rhinosinusitis"},signatures:"Petr Schalek",authors:[{id:"63053",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Schalek",slug:"petr-schalek",fullName:"Petr Schalek"}]},{id:"55475",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69090",title:"CBCT Imaging of Paranasal Sinuses and Variations",slug:"cbct-imaging-of-paranasal-sinuses-and-variations",totalDownloads:1689,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"paranasal-sinuses",title:"Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Kaan Orhan, Secil Aksoy and Ulas Oz",authors:[{id:"199784",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Seçil",middleName:null,surname:"Aksoy",slug:"secil-aksoy",fullName:"Seçil Aksoy"},{id:"199788",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaan",middleName:null,surname:"Orhan",slug:"kaan-orhan",fullName:"Kaan Orhan"},{id:"203116",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulas",middleName:null,surname:"Oz",slug:"ulas-oz",fullName:"Ulas Oz"}]},{id:"63699",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80603",title:"Management of the Complications of Maxillary Sinus Augmentation",slug:"management-of-the-complications-of-maxillary-sinus-augmentation",totalDownloads:4839,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Alper Sindel, Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan and Öznur Özalp",authors:[{id:"244837",title:"Dr.",name:"Alper",middleName:null,surname:"Sindel",slug:"alper-sindel",fullName:"Alper Sindel"},{id:"244918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Özarslan",slug:"mehmet-mustafa-ozarslan",fullName:"Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan"},{id:"244919",title:"Ms.",name:"Öznur",middleName:null,surname:"Özalp",slug:"oznur-ozalp",fullName:"Öznur Özalp"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63699",title:"Management of the Complications of Maxillary Sinus Augmentation",slug:"management-of-the-complications-of-maxillary-sinus-augmentation",totalDownloads:4839,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Alper Sindel, Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan and Öznur Özalp",authors:[{id:"244837",title:"Dr.",name:"Alper",middleName:null,surname:"Sindel",slug:"alper-sindel",fullName:"Alper Sindel"},{id:"244918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Özarslan",slug:"mehmet-mustafa-ozarslan",fullName:"Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan"},{id:"244919",title:"Ms.",name:"Öznur",middleName:null,surname:"Özalp",slug:"oznur-ozalp",fullName:"Öznur Özalp"}]},{id:"55472",title:"Paranasal Sinus Anatomy: What the Surgeon Needs to Know",slug:"paranasal-sinus-anatomy-what-the-surgeon-needs-to-know",totalDownloads:4486,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"paranasal-sinuses",title:"Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Abdulmalik S. Alsaied",authors:[{id:"199716",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulmalik",middleName:"Saad",surname:"Alsaied",slug:"abdulmalik-alsaied",fullName:"Abdulmalik Alsaied"}]},{id:"67836",title:"The Immunology of Asthma and Allergic Rhinitis",slug:"the-immunology-of-asthma-and-allergic-rhinitis",totalDownloads:415,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"rhinosinusitis",title:"Rhinosinusitis",fullTitle:"Rhinosinusitis"},signatures:"Andrew Kiboneka and Dan Kibuule",authors:[{id:"202850",title:"Mr.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Kibuule",slug:"dan-kibuule",fullName:"Dan Kibuule"},{id:"280538",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Kiboneka",slug:"andrew-kiboneka",fullName:"Andrew Kiboneka"}]},{id:"55496",title:"The Role of Simulation in Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Training",slug:"the-role-of-simulation-in-endoscopic-sinus-surgery-training",totalDownloads:1174,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"paranasal-sinuses",title:"Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Benjamin Stew and Eng Ooi",authors:[{id:"200147",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Eng",middleName:null,surname:"Ooi",slug:"eng-ooi",fullName:"Eng Ooi"},{id:"200530",title:"Mr.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Stew",slug:"benjamin-stew",fullName:"Benjamin Stew"}]},{id:"55445",title:"Nasal Packing after Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery",slug:"nasal-packing-after-functional-endoscopic-sinus-surgery",totalDownloads:1320,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"paranasal-sinuses",title:"Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Tang‐Chuan Wang and Hung‐Ta Hsiao",authors:[{id:"201262",title:"Dr.",name:"Tang-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"tang-chuan-wang",fullName:"Tang-Chuan Wang"},{id:"205510",title:"Dr.",name:"Che-Lun",middleName:null,surname:"Hsu",slug:"che-lun-hsu",fullName:"Che-Lun Hsu"}]},{id:"65767",title:"Turbinate Surgery in Chronic Rhinosinusitis: Techniques and Ultrastructural Outcomes",slug:"turbinate-surgery-in-chronic-rhinosinusitis-techniques-and-ultrastructural-outcomes",totalDownloads:748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"rhinosinusitis",title:"Rhinosinusitis",fullTitle:"Rhinosinusitis"},signatures:"Giampiero Neri, Fiorella Cazzato, Elisa Vestrini, Pasquina La Torre, Giampaolo Quaternato, Letizia Neri and Lucia Centurione",authors:[{id:"279401",title:"Prof.",name:"Giampiero",middleName:null,surname:"Neri",slug:"giampiero-neri",fullName:"Giampiero Neri"},{id:"281582",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiorella",middleName:null,surname:"Cazzato",slug:"fiorella-cazzato",fullName:"Fiorella Cazzato"},{id:"281583",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquina",middleName:null,surname:"La Torre",slug:"pasquina-la-torre",fullName:"Pasquina La Torre"},{id:"281584",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Centurione",slug:"lucia-centurione",fullName:"Lucia Centurione"},{id:"281585",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Vestrini",slug:"elisa-vestrini",fullName:"Elisa Vestrini"},{id:"290429",title:"Dr.",name:"Giampaolo",middleName:null,surname:"Quaternato",slug:"giampaolo-quaternato",fullName:"Giampaolo Quaternato"},{id:"290430",title:"Mrs.",name:"Letizia",middleName:null,surname:"Neri",slug:"letizia-neri",fullName:"Letizia Neri"}]},{id:"62423",title:"Relation between Metopic Suture Persistence and Frontal Sinus Development",slug:"relation-between-metopic-suture-persistence-and-frontal-sinus-development",totalDownloads:758,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Silviya Nikolova, Diana Toneva, Ivan Georgiev and Nikolai Lazarov",authors:[{id:"101891",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Lazarov",slug:"nikolai-lazarov",fullName:"Nikolai Lazarov"},{id:"244263",title:"Dr.",name:"Silviya",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolova",slug:"silviya-nikolova",fullName:"Silviya Nikolova"},{id:"244268",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Toneva",slug:"diana-toneva",fullName:"Diana Toneva"},{id:"244269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiev",slug:"ivan-georgiev",fullName:"Ivan Georgiev"}]},{id:"65562",title:"Aerosol Particles in Lungs: Theoretical Modeling of Deposition and Mucociliary Clearance",slug:"aerosol-particles-in-lungs-theoretical-modeling-of-deposition-and-mucociliary-clearance",totalDownloads:497,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"rhinosinusitis",title:"Rhinosinusitis",fullTitle:"Rhinosinusitis"},signatures:"Gennady Fedorovitch",authors:[{id:"279406",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gennady",middleName:null,surname:"Fedorovitch",slug:"gennady-fedorovitch",fullName:"Gennady Fedorovitch"}]},{id:"65822",title:"Refractory Rhinosinusitis",slug:"refractory-rhinosinusitis",totalDownloads:568,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"rhinosinusitis",title:"Rhinosinusitis",fullTitle:"Rhinosinusitis"},signatures:"Yi-Tsen Lin and Te-Huei Yeh",authors:[{id:"276980",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Te-Huei",middleName:null,surname:"Yeh",slug:"te-huei-yeh",fullName:"Te-Huei Yeh"},{id:"276981",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Tsen",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"yi-tsen-lin",fullName:"Yi-Tsen Lin"}]},{id:"65679",title:"Use of Nasal Cytology in Diagnosis of Sinonasal Disorders",slug:"use-of-nasal-cytology-in-diagnosis-of-sinonasal-disorders",totalDownloads:471,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"rhinosinusitis",title:"Rhinosinusitis",fullTitle:"Rhinosinusitis"},signatures:"Marco Capelli",authors:[{id:"280265",title:"M.D.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Capelli",slug:"marco-capelli",fullName:"Marco Capelli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"rhinology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/141157/denver-cheddie",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"141157",slug:"denver-cheddie"},fullPath:"/profiles/141157/denver-cheddie",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()