Biodiesel yields of HOB, NOB, POB and COB by using NaOH as catalyst
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"942",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Atrial Fibrillation - Basic Research and Clinical Applications",title:"Atrial Fibrillation",subtitle:"Basic Research and Clinical Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Atrial Fibrillation-Basic Research and Clinical Applications is designed to provide a comprehensive review and to introduce outstanding and novel researches. 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Environmental pollution and diminishing supply of fossil fuels are the key factors leading to search for the alternative sources of energy. Today, 86% of the world energy consumption and almost 100% of the energy needed in the transportation sector is met by fossil fuels (Dorian et al., 2006). Since the world’s accessible oil reservoirs are gradually depleting, it is important to develop suitable long-term strategies based on utilization of renewable fuel that would gradually substitute the declining fossil fuel production. In addition, the production and consumption of fossil fuels have caused the environmental damage by increasing the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere (Westermann et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tCurrently the most often-used type of biodiesel fuel is vegetable oil fatty acid methyl esters produced by transesterification of high quality vegetable oil by methanol. Biodiesel derived from vegetable oil and animal fats is being used in USA and Europe to reduce air pollution and dependency on fossil fuel. In USA and Europe, their surplus edible oils like soybean oil, sunflower oil and rapeseed oil are being used as feed stock for the production of biodiesel (Ramadhs et al., 2004 ; Sarin and Sharma, 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tSince more than 95% of the biodiesel is synthesized from edible oil, there are many claims that a lot of problems may arise. By converting edible oils into biodiesel, food resources are actually being converted into automotive fuels. It is believed that large-scale production of biodiesel from edible oils may bring global imbalance to the food supply and demand market. Recently, environmentalists have started to debate on the negative impact of biodiesel production from edible oil (Butler, 2006). They claimed that the expansion of oil crop plantations for biodiesel production on a large scale may increase deforestation in countries like Malaysia, Indonesia and Brazil. Furthermore, the line between food and fuel economies is blurred as both of the fields are competing for the same oil resources. In other words, biodiesel is competing limited land availability with food industry for plantation of oil crops. Arable land that would otherwise have been used to grow food would instead be used to grow fuel (Anonymous, 2004). In fact, this trend is already being observed in certain part of this world. There has been significant expansion in the plantation of oil crops for biodiesel in the past few years in order to fulfill the continuous increasing demand of biodiesel. Fig. 1 shows the trend in global vegetable oil ending stocks due to the production of biodiesel in the years 1991–2005 (Anonymous, 2006). Although there is continuous increase in the production of vegetable oil; however, the ending stocks of vegetable oils are continuously decreasing due to increasing production of biodiesel. Eventually, with the implementation of biodiesel as a substitute fuel for petroleum-derived diesel oil, this may lead to the depletion of edible-oil supply worldwide.
\n\t\t\t\tGlobal vegetable oil ending stock and biodiesel production
In order to overcome this devastating phenomenon, suggestions and research have been made to produce biodiesel by using alternative or greener oil resources like non-edible oils. The non-edible vegetable oils such as Madhuca indica, Jatropha curcas and Pongamia pinnata are found to be suitable for biodiesel production under the experimental conditions (Meher et al, 2006 ; Senthil et al., 2003). Meher et al., (2006) found that the yield of methyl ester from karanja oil under the optimal condition is 97–98%. Oil content in the Castor bean, Hemp and Pongame seed is around 50, 35 and 30-40 % respectively. Neem seed contains 30% oil content. Biodiesel is the pure, or 100%, biodiesel fuel. It is referred to as B100 or ‘‘neat’’ fuel. A biodiesel blend is pure biodiesel blended with petrodiesel. Biodiesel blends are referred as Bxx. The xx indicates the amount of biodiesel blend (i.e., a B80 blend means 80% biodiesel and 20%petrodiesel).
\n\t\t\tExtensive work has been done on the transesterification of non edible oils; however, no significant work has been done on the optimization, oil characterization and fuel analysis of most of the non edible oil seeds. An optimization study on biodiesel production from castor bean, hemp, neem and pongame was done in detail with one-step alkali transesterification process along with the fuel property analysis of these oils and their blends.
\n\t\t\tThe seeds of castor bean, hemp, neem and pongame were used as raw material for biodiesel production. Seeds of these plants were expelled by using electric oil expeller (KEK P0015-10127), Germany. Methanol 99.9% purity, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and anhydrous sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) were of analytical grade obtained from Merck (Germany).
\n\t\t\tThe formation of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) through transesterification of seed oils requires raw oil, 15% of methanol & 5% of sodium hydroxide on mass basis. However, transesterification is an equilibrium reaction in which excess alcohol is required to drive the reaction very close to completion. The vegetable oil was chemically reacted with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to produce FAMEs. Glycerol was separated as a by-product of transesterification reaction (Rao et al., 2008). The transesterification process was carried out using two litres round bottom flask equipped with reflux condenser, magnetic stirrer, thermometer and sampling outlet. One liter crude oil firstly filtered and heated up to 120°C to remove the moisture. The transesterification reaction performed at 6:1 molar ratio of methanol/oil, by using 0.34%, 0.67% and 1.35% (w/w) NaOH as catalyst. The temperature and the reaction time was maintained at 60°C and stirred for 2 hr with stirring velocity of 600 rpm. The resultant mixture was cooled to room temperature for the separation of two phases (Plate 1-4). The upper phase contained biodiesel and lower phase contained glycerin (by-product). Crude biodiesel contains the excess methanol, the remaining catalyst together with the soap formed during the reaction and some entrained methyl esters and partial glycerides.
\n\t\t\tAfter separation of the two layers, the upper layer of biodiesel was purified by distilling the residual methanol at 60°C. The remaining catalyst was removed by successive rinsing with distilled water by adding 1-2 drops of acetic acid to neutralize the catalyst. The residual can be eliminated by treatment with anhydrous sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) followed by filtration. Transparent blackish liquid was obtained as the final product.
\n\t\t\tThe acid value of the reaction mixture in the first stage was determined by the acid base titration technique (ASTM, 2003).
\n\t\t\tThe fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) contents were determined by gas chromatography, model GC−6890N coupled with mass spectrometer, model MS−5973 MSD (mass selective detector). Separation was performed on a capillary column DB-5MS (30 m ×0.32 mm, 0.25µm of film thickness). The carrier gas was helium with flow rate of 1.5 mL/min. The column temperature was programmed from 120-300 °C at the rate of 10 °C/min. A sample volume of 0.1µL HOB in chloroform was injected using a split mode, with the split ratio of 1:10. The mass spectrometer was set to scan in the range of m/z 50-550 with electron impact (EI) mode of ionization.
\n\t\t\tBiodiesel samples were characterized by FT−IR, using a Bio-Rad Excalibur Model FTS3000MX in the range 4000 - 400 cm-1. The resolution was 1cm-1 and 15 scans.
\n\t\t\tNMR analyses were performed at 7.05 T using Avan CE 300 MHz spectrometer equipped with 5mm BBO probes. Deuterated chloroform and tetramethylsilane were used as solvent and internal standard respectively. 1H (300 MHz) spectra were recorded with pulse duration of 30°, a recycle delay of 1.0 s and 8 scans. The 13°C (75 MHz) spectra were recorded with a pulse duration of 30°, a recycle delay of 1.89 s and 160 scans.
\n\t\t\tVarious fuel properties of COB, HOB, NOB, POB and their blends B100, B50. B20 and B10 were determined and compared with ASTM.
\n\t\t\tThe FFA has significant effect on the transesterification of glycerides with alcohol using catalyst (Goodrum, 2002). The high FFA content (>1%w/w) will cause soap formation and the separation of products will be exceedingly difficult, and as a result, low yield of biodiesel product would be obtained. It is important to first determine the FFA content of oil. The free fatty acid (FFAs) number of hemp crude oil was 1.76%, neem 2.5 % and pongame 2%. According to Anggraini et al., (1999) if the free fatty acid content is more than 3% then the conversion efficiency decreases gradually.
\n\t\t\tTo achieve optimum yield of biodiesel from non edible oil seeds, alkali based transesterification was carried out. Alkali-catalyzed transeterification is much faster than acid-catalyzed and is used in commercial production of biodiesel. Even at ambient temperature, the alkali-catalyzed reaction proceeds rapidly usually reaching 95% conversion in 1-2 h (Rachmaniah et al., 2006). As a catalyst in the process of alkaline methanolysis, mostly sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide have been used, in concentration from 0.4 to 2% w/w of oil (Meher et al., 2006). Yield of methyl esters of HOB, NOB, POB and COB were investigated by changing catalyst concentrations while molar ratio (6:1) methanol / oil and temperature (60°C) was kept constant.The highest conversion rate was obtained with the catalyst concentration of 0.7 g, under these conditions the biodiesel yield was 74.36%, 70%, 77.16% and 70% for HOB, NOB, POB and COB respectively. When the catalyst concentration was doubled to 1.6 g, it was observed that the ester formation decreased with the increase in sodium hydroxide concentration and soap formation was increased. This is because the higher amount of catalyst may cause soap formation (Attanatho et al., 2004). Soap formation reduces catalyst efficiency, causes an increase in viscosity, leads to gel formation and makes the separation of glycerol difficult (Guo and Leung, 2003). The Conversion efficiency decreased when the catalyst concentration was reduced to half (0.4 g), as low concentration of catalyst suppress biodiesel.
\n\t\t\tThe experimental investigation was carried out for different fuel properties and the performance was evaluated according to ASTM D-445, D-1298, D-93, D-1298, D-1500, D-4294 and compared with diesel in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\tHigh viscosity is the major problem preventing the use of vegetable oils and animal fats directly in diesel engines as it affects the flow of fuel and spray characteristics
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSr.No.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPlants\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tConcentration of catalyst\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAmount of catalyst NaOH (g)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBiodiesel (%)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGlycerin (%)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSoap (%)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t74.36 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15.62 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Double | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60.62 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t44.53 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Half | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t14.42 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.44 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
2- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Double | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t68 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t16.67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Half | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t16.56 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
3- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t77.16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t12.73 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Double | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t43.77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t38.21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.91 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Half | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t62.78 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t24.20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
4- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t25.77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Double | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t13.80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t19.65 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Half | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Biodiesel yields of HOB, NOB, POB and COB by using NaOH as catalyst
(Hossain and Davies, 2010). High Speed Diesel (HSD) has viscosity of 1.3-4.1 @40 °C where as the viscosities of COB and POB are 5.67 and 5.5 respectively which is slightly higher than the viscosity of HSD. While the viscosities of HOB and NOB are 3.83 and 4.81 which were closer to HSD. It shows that viscosities of these non edible oil seeds biodiesel were comparable to HSD.
\n\t\t\t\tThe density of COB, HOB, POB and NOB at 15 °C was found to be 0.88 Kg/L, 0.81 Kg/L and 0.87 Kg/L which are closer to the density of diesel (0.83) 0.86 kg/lit can be used as an alternative fuel.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProperties\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHSD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKinematic viscosity @ 40°C cSt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3-4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDensity @15°C Kg/L\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.87 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.88 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.86 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFlash Point (°C)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t124 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60-80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sulphur % wt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNil | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNil | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tColor comparison\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPour point (°C)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-35 to 15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCloud point(°C)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-15 to 6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Comparative analysis for fuel properties of NOB,COB,POB and HOB with HSD
Flash point is the temperature that indicates the overall flammability hazards in the presence of air; higher flash points make for safe handling and storage of biodiesel (Hossain and Davis 2010). The Flash Points of biodiesel of NOB, COB and POB were 124°C, 120°C, 96°C and 90°C which are higher than that of HSD (60-80 °C) (Fig. 2). For non-edible based seeds oils flash point are higher than fossil diesel (Anonymous, 2007; Pramanik, 2003; Ziejewski et al, 1992).
\n\t\t\t\tThe most valuable result is the reduction and absence of percentage of total sulphur contents in NOB, COB, HOB and POB that will result in reduction of Sox in exhaust gases which is one of the reason of acid rain. Sulfur content of petrodiesel is 20–50 times higher than biodiesels (Shay, 1993).
\n\t\t\t\tCloud point is the temperature at which a cloud of wax crystals first appear in the oil when it is cooled. The pour point is the lowest temperature at which the oil sample can still be moved. These properties are related to the use of biodiesel in colder region (Arjun et al., 2008). The cloud points of NOB, COB, POB and HOB were 12, -6, 6, -25 °C and the pour point are 9,-9,3 and 6°C respectively. Pour point and cloud point of all oils were almost within the specified range. Lee et al (1995) argued that the cloud points were affected by the presence of monoglycerides while the pour points were not affected.
\n\t\t\t\tBlending oils with diesel fuel was found to be a method to reduce chocking and extend engine life. Zhang and Gerpen (2006) investigated the use of blends of methyl esters of soybean oil and diesel in a turbo-charged, four cylinder, direct injection diesel engine modified with bowl in piston and medium swirl type. They found that the blends gave a shorter ignition delay and similar combustion characteristics as diesel (Orchidea et al., 2007). Table 3 presents data pertinent to the mixture of petroleum diesel and biodiesel in the following fashion:
\n\t\t\t\tPetroleum diesel (90%)- biodiesel (10%) : B10
\n\t\t\t\tPetroleum diesel (80%)- biodiesel (20%) : B20
\n\t\t\t\tPetroleum diesel (50%)- biodiesel (50%) : B50
\n\t\t\t\tThe fuel properties of biodiesel blends NOB, COB, POB and HOB were compared with HSD. It was found that viscosity was slightly higher as the proportion of biodiesel in the mixtures increased. However, this event does not affect the atomization characteristics. Viscosity of B20 is very close to the viscosity of diesel. So that the biodiesel of B10, and B20 blends can be used without any heating arrangement or engine modification.
\n\t\t\t\tThe density of different blends of methyl esters were increased with increase in blend percentage. The blends of B10, and B20 of NOB and HOB were closer to the density of diesel. The flash points of different blends of methyl esters are increased with increase in methyl ester percentage. It is also observed that the flash points of pure biodiesel were in comparison with HSD. Thus, it can be used as a fuel without any fire accidents.
\n\t\t\tThe chemical composition and characterization of COB, HOB, NOB & POB based on GC-MS, NMR & FTIR analysis were shown in Fig 3-6.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFuel Properties\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPLANTS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB 100 %\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB 50 %\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB 20 %\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB 10%\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHSD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKinematic viscosity @ 40°C cSt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.81 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3-4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
COB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.43 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.48 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.52 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3-4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
POB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.532 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.1849 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.7959 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3-4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
HOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.331 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.113 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.223 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3-4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDensity @15°C Kg/L\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8785 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8578 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8476 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8450 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8295 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
COB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8873 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.88722 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.88720 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.88111 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8343 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
POB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.086 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5072 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.1639 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8295 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
HOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8195 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8145 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8224 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8116 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8343 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFlash Point (°C)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t124 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t65 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60-80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
COB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60-80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
POB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60-80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
HOB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t108 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t91 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60-80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fuel properties of Biodiesel Blends and HSD
The composition of FA were analyzed by gas chromatography after converted into their corresponding methyl esters (FAME) (Knothe, 2001). The use of mass spectrometer would eliminate any ambiguities about the nature of eluting materials since mass spectra unique to individuals compounds would be obtained. Fatty acids (FA) components of biodiesel produced from COB, NOB, POB and HOB oil obtained by GC is presented in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCarbon number\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMyristic Acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC14:0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPalmitic Acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC16:0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t14.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStearic Acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC18:0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t14.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t65 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOleic acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC18:1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t61.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t49.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLinoleic Acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC18:2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t7.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t19.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLinolenic Acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC18:3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArachidic Acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC20:0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEicosenic acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC20:1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDocosanoic acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC22:0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTetracosanoic acid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC24:0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fatty acid content of the methyl esters from non edible oil seeds
Oleic acid was the most common FA found in Castor oil, Pongame oil and Neem oil. COB was found to have 90.2 % oleic acid (18:1), while NOB have 61.9 % oleic acid (18:1). Myristic acid was present only in COB, Eicosenic acid, Docosanoic acid and Tetracosanoic acid were absent in all oils except for pongame oil. HOB was found to contain 65% stearic acid (18:0), 15% oleic acid (18:1), 5% linoleic acid (18:2),15% palmitic acid (16:0), Stearic and Palmitic acids are the major saturated FA found in HOB. It contains approximately 20% unsaturated fatty acids. COB was found to contain 90.2 % oleic acid (18:1),4.4% linoleic acid (18:2), 0.9% palmitic acid (16:0) and 2.8% stearic acid (18:0). Oleic acid is the major unsaturated fatty acid found in COB. It contains approximately 94% unsaturated fatty acids. POB was found to contain 49.4% oleic acid (18:1), 19.0% linoleic acid (18:2), 10.6% palmitic acid (16:0) and 6.8% stearic acid (18:0). It contains approximately 70% unsaturated fatty acids. NOB was found contain 61.9 % oleic acid (18:1), 7.5% linoleic acid (18:2), 14.9% palmitic acid (16:0) and 14.4 % stearic acid (18:0). Oleic acid acid is the major Unsaturated fatty acids found in NOB. It contains approximately 69% unsaturated fatty acids.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe amount and type of fatty acids in the biodiesel determines the viscosity, one of the most important characteristics of biodiesel. Due to the presence of high amount of long chain fatty acids, POB may have a slightly higher viscosity compared to HOB, COB and NOB. The FAMEs of these species also meet the specification of 90/95% boiling point limit of 360°C specified in ASTM-D6751 and in other biodiesel standards. Generally, the FAMEs, which are mainly comprised of carbon chain lengths from 16 to 18, have boiling points in the range of 330–357°C; thus the specification value of 360°C is easily achieved. Besides, the concentration of linolenic acid and acid containing four double bonds in FAMEs should not exceed the limit of 12% and 1%, respectively (Pasto et al., 1992). FAMEs of all species are within the specified limit, so they are suitable for the production of biodiesel.
\n\t\t\t\tThe FT-IR spectra in the mid-infrared region have been used to identify functional groups and the bands corresponding to various stretching and bending vibrations in the samples of oil and biodiesel. The position of carbonyl group in FT-IR is sensitive to substituent effects and to the structure of the molecule (Safar et al., 1994). The methoxy ester carbonyl group in HOB, NOB, COB and POB was appeared at 1743 cm-1, 1741 cm-1, 1742cm-1 and 1743 cm-1 respectively. The band appeared at 3465 cm-1 showed the overtone of ester functional group (Gelbard et al., 1995). The C-O stretching vibration in HOB and COB showed two asymmetric coupled vibrations at 1119 cm-1 and 1171 cm-1 due to C-C(=O)-O and 1017 cm-1 due to O-C-C (Table 5).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSample type\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCatalyst\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC=O (cm-1) Ester Carbonyl\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC-O(cm-1)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNaOH | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1741.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1014.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNaOH | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1742 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1017 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNaOH | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1740 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1014.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNaOH | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1743 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1017 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Chemical Composition of non edible seed biodiesel based on FT-IR analysis
Biodiesel of HOB, COB, POB and NOB were characterized by 1HNMR spectroscopy as summarized in Table 6. Gelbard et al., (1995) reported that the spectroscopic determination of yield of transesterification reaction utilizing HNMR depicting its progressing spectrum (Gelbard et al., 1995). The characteristic peak of methoxy protons was observed as a singlet at 3.669 ppm, 3.64 ppm, 3.5 ppm and 3.67 ppm for HOB, POB, COB and NOB and a triplet of α−CH2 protons at 2.31 ppm, 2.8 ppm, 2.24 ppm and 2.28 ppm for HOB, POB, COB and NOB.These two peaks are the distinct peaks for the confirmation of methyl esters present in biodiesel.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSample type\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCH3-Methoxy proton (ppm) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tα CH2 Proton (ppm) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCH=CH Unsaturation (ppm) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.28 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.32 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.247 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.247-5.487 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.674 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.816 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.263-1.310 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.65 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.31 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.31-5.39 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Chemical Composition of non edible oil seed biodiesel based on 1HNMR analysis
The spectrum of 13C NMR of the HOB, POB, COB and NOB were shown in (Table 7) which shows the characteristic peaks of ester carbonyl (−COO−) and C−O at 174.2 and 51.4 ppm for HOB, 173.28 ppm and 51.45 for POB, 174.19 and 51.32 for COB and 174.23 and 51.37 for NOB respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSample type\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-COO- (ppm)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC-O (ppm)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t174.23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t51.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t174.19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t51.32 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t173.28 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t51.45 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHOB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t174.21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t51.35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Chemical Composition of Biodiesel in 13CNMR
Flash Point of Biodiesel blends
COB chemical profile: A- FT-IR spectrum, B- 1H NMR spectrum, C- Gas chromatogram & D- 13C NMR spectrum
HOB chemical profile: A- FT-IR spectrum, B- 1H NMR spectrum, C- Gas chromatogram & D- 13C NMR spectrum
NOB chemical profile: A- FT-IR spectrum, B- 1H NMR spectrum, C- Gas chromatogram & D- 13C NMR spectrum
POB chemical profile: A- FT-IR spectrum, B- 1H NMR spectrum, C- Gas chromatogram & D- 13C NMR spectrum
Extraction of oil by electric oil expeller
Filtration of crude oil
Mixing of sodium methoxide catalyst
Separation of glycerin as by product
In this study an optimized protocol for biodiesel production from non edible seeds of castor bean (Ricinus communis L.), hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) and pongame (Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre.) converted into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) through base catalyzed transesterifiction using an optimum ratio of 1:6 (Oil : Methanol) at 60 °C. The fuel properties of biodiesel blends i.e. B100, B50, B20, B10 were compared with ASTM standards. Biodiesel from these sources was analyzed for qualitative and quantitative characterization by using H1NMR, C3NMR, GC-MS and FT-IR techniques. Based on qualitative and quantitative analysis of Biodiesel and their byproducts, it is concluded that the bioenergy from these species can be feasible, cost effective, environment friendly, if mass plantation of such resources may initiated in suitable places at global perspective.
\n\t\tASTM=American Society for Testing and Materials
\n\t\t\tB100=100 % biodiesel
\n\t\t\tB20=20 % biodiesel + 80 % high speed diesel
\n\t\t\tB10=10 % biodiesel + 90 % high speed diesel
\n\t\t\tB5=5 % biodiesel + 95 % high speed diesel
\n\t\t\tB50=50 % biodiesel + 50 % high speed diesel
\n\t\t\tC13NMR=Carbon - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
\n\t\t\tCOB= Castor Bean Oil Biodiesel
\n\t\t\tFA=Fatty Acid
\n\t\t\tFAME=Fatty Acid Methyl Esters
\n\t\t\tFFA=Free Fatty Acid
\n\t\t\tFT-IR=Fourier Transfer – Infra Red
\n\t\t\tGC-MS=Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometer
\n\t\t\tH1NMR=Hydrogen – Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
\n\t\t\tHOB=Hemp Oil Biodiesel
\n\t\t\tHSD=High Speed Diesel
\n\t\t\tMSD=Mass Selective Detector
\n\t\t\tNOB=Neem Oil Biodiesel
\n\t\t\tPOB=Pongame Oil Biodiesel
\n\t\tThe financial support for biodiesel project of Higher Education of Pakistan is highly appreciated. The project confined to the identification, production and characterization of biodiesel from plants based resources.
\n\t\tThe pension provision for citizens is the most important component of any state social policy, Russia being no exception, since the right to social security is enshrined in international laws, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [1], the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights [2] and other.
The reformation of the Russian pension system, which had been based on the “solidarity of generations” principle (pensions are paid from the pension contributions of working citizens), was launched in 2002. The funded component of the labor pension was introduced for a certain age group of Russian citizens (women and men born in 1967 and younger take part in it) and was introduced on a mandatory basis. The concept of the pension system featured a number of innovations for the Russian economy:
The creation of pension institutions in the form of legislative and regulatory acts; pension system management bodies – the Federal Service for Financial Markets (FSFM), the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection; as well as pension financial institutions – the Pension Fund of Russia (PFR) and non-state pension funds (NPF);
The creation of a system for investing pension funds in the financial market through non-state pension funds;
The creation of a non-state pension system for the formation of corporate (voluntary) pensions.
The reform had the following prerequisites: the demographic factor (increased life expectancy and falling birth rate); the need to establish the dependence of the pension level on income, which requires the use of unique knowledge and skills by a citizen, i.e. elimination of the egalitarian nature of the state pension system; the need to reduce the dependence of state obligations in terms of social security on social payments [3].
The objective of the Russian pension system reformation was to increase the economic opportunities of citizens upon retirement thanks to savings made during an active working age, and to reduce the amount of state obligations towards senior citizens.
The research methodology includes:
analysis of scientific works on pension issues of famous economists Abramov A.E., Danilov Y.A., Disney R., Guseva I.A., Schulz H.J.;
analysis of normative Russian and international regulatory documents and guidance on pension issues;
analysis of statistical data on the Russian labor market, employment and wages, as well as features of the Russian pension system.
This led to the conclusion that the following factors should be taken into account when studying the income level of pensioners:
The sufficient size of the pension;
The availability of savings;
The availability of additional cash sources;
The availability of benefits and social assistance.
The guaranteed level of a pensioner’s financial support in Russia is legislatively oriented to the minimum wage [4], which determines the creation of an additional social protection system.
When analyzing statistics on labor relations, it becomes obvious that the pension size is not sufficient to ensure a dignified life for a pensioner (definition of a “Dignified life” term is not fixed in the Russian law). Pensioner’s dignified life means for us the ability to not only eat normally and pay utility bills (in Russia pensioners have the privilege for reduced bill payment) but also the opportunity to enjoy leisure and go on vacation, buy gifts to grandchildren or spend time with them in the Disneyland (in Moscow they call it Dream Island). Table 1 shows minimal prices for services and tickets as well as the ratio of these prices to pension rates in Moscow as of 2018.
No | Aspect | Price, rubles | The ratio of the price to the average pension rate |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Minimum subsistence level (a commodity basket + utility bill costs) | 10,287 | 77% |
2 | Visit to a cinema show | 400 | 3% |
3 | Visit to a theatre | 500 | 4% |
4 | Average restaurant lunch bill | 1000 | 7.5% |
5 | Hair cut at an economy-class hairdresser | 300 | 2% |
6 | Manicure | 500 | 4% |
7 | Pedicure | 1600 | 12% |
8 | A visit to Disneyland with a grandchild:
| 1650 1900 | 12.4% 14% |
9 | Rest in a sanatorium (recreational/medical facility) (in Russia) | For free, once every two years | - |
10 | Holidays abroad | Paid from own funds | - |
11 | Leisure-time activities – sporting activities, language learning, mastering computer user skills, etc. | For free, Moscow Longevity program | - |
The ratio of minimal prices for services to pension rates in Moscow at 2018.
Source: data from the Federal State Statistics Service (Analytical portal) [5].
It is important to note that this data is true for the city of Moscow, pensioners in small towns and villages have limited opportunities.
This conclusion is confirmed by the results of the statistical data analysis on the Russian labor market, employment and salaries (Table 2).
Indictors, rubles | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average pensions awarded | 7476 | 8203 | 9041 | 9918 | 10786 | 11,986 | 12,391 | 12,887 | 13,360 |
Minimum wage on average per capita | 5688 | 6369 | 6510 | 7306 | 8050 | 9701 | 9828 | 10,088 | 10,287 |
Average monthly accrued salary of employees | 20,952 | 23,369 | 26,629 | 29,792 | 32,495 | 34,4030 | 36,709 | 39,167 | 43,445 |
Pensions/average monthly salary size | 0.36 | 0.35 | 0.34 | 0.33 | 0.33 | 0.35 | 0.34 | 0.33 | 0.31 |
Pensions/minimum wage size | 1.31 | 1.29 | 1.39 | 1.36 | 1.34 | 1.24 | 1.26 | 1.28 | 1.3 |
Some indicators of the Russian labor market and salaries and their correlation.
Source: data from the Federal State Statistics Service (Russia in Figures) [6].
Table 2 shows that the ratio of accrued pensions to employee salary (replacement rate) slightly exceeds 30% and demonstrates a downward trend. It should be noted that according to Convention No. 102: Social Security (Minimum Standards) (Geneva, June 20, 1952) of the International Labor Organization (ILO), the replacement rate for pensioners should not be less than 40% of the salary a citizen had prior to retirement. In Russia, this standard is not met.
Thus, we can conclude that pensioners’ economic opportunities do not allow them to maintain an acceptable standard of living if pension is their only source of income.
Table 2 shows the average data for the country, therefore, we believe that when conducting more detailed studies in this area, it is necessary to take into account the regional characteristics of the Russian Federation, namely the vast extent of the territory with various climatic zones and significant differences in the economic development of 85 Russian regions. The size of pensions and the minimum wage in each region are different; moreover, pension provision also depends on the level of additional payments and benefits provided by regional authorities.
Regions and municipalities provide additional benefits to pensioners residing in this area. Such benefits most often include:
tax benefits;
public transport benefits;
benefits for purchase of medication;
health resort treatment benefits;
discounted payment of utilities.
Since 2018, the Unified State Information System for State Social Security (EGISSO) has been operating in Russia, providing information on social support from budgets of all levels across the country and regions (benefits and subsidies).
There are various categories of pensioners, depending on age, marital status, general status, that have additional social benefits compared to recipients of age-related pension. These categories include:
single pensioners;
Heroes of the Soviet Union and Heroes of Socialist Labor as well as citizens awarded with other state orders;
Veterans of the Great Patriotic War (1941–1945);
labor veterans (have an officially confirmed rank);
military pensioners (citizens who have served the required amount of time in the armed forces of the Russian Federation);
pensioners over 80 years of age;
pensioners over 70 years of age;
disabled people.
As stated above, benefits in various regions are different, since the capacities of regional budgets also differ. Thus, pensioners in Moscow and St. Petersburg have more benefits than others, since the amount of budget funds in these cities is significantly higher compared to other cities. For example, in Moscow, all pensioners have the right to unlimited free travel on public transport, including the suburbs which certainly increase the mobility of senior people. In St. Petersburg, free suburban train passes have time limits. There are benefits for free garbage removal, for a tax on movable and immovable property of a pensioner, for the return of tax paid in previous years. Each region selects the most significant grounds for pensioners’ benefits and compensation, depending on the capacities of the regional budget. The article further analyzes the amount of funds allocated by the state for social benefits and compensation in relation to pension payments.
However, it should be borne in mind that in each region the main objective of social benefits is to increase pensions to the minimum wage level established in a certain region of the country. Therefore, in this case we cannot speak about a socially acceptable level of pension protection for Russian citizens.
It is worth noting that the article provides the analysis for one type pension only and that is the insurance pension (that exists as state and funded pensions, formed from one source – insurance premium made by various institutions: the Pension Fund of Russia is responsible for the insurance pension component and private pension funds – for the funded one), since the first pensioner to receive a mandatory funded pension will retire in 2027 according to Russian law (the retirement age in Russia is 65 years for men, 60 years for women [7]). It is obvious that the funded pension will allow citizens to receive additional income. Today, as of June 30, 2019, 4620.2 billion rubles are concentrated in the system of mandatory savings (pension savings), and 1363.4 billion rubles are in the system of voluntary (corporate) pensions (pension reserves), which in total amounts to 5.5% of the GDP of the Russian Federation. We also observe an increase in investment income, demonstrated by non-state pension funds for the indicated assets.
The Russian pension sector has long shown the best results among all segments of the non-banking financial market, also in case of international comparisons. According to Russian economists, “thanks to the influx of new pension savings into private pension funds and management companies until 2014, as well as noticeable progress in the development of private pension funds after the adoption of legislation on the introduction of a system of guaranteeing pension contributions by the criterion of the pension savings size relative to GDP, Russia looked quite good against other BRIC countries, but significantly outrunning China and India, which still have underdeveloped pension savings systems” ([8], p. 27). Nevertheless, in 2014, the Government of the Russian Federation announced a moratorium on the transfer of insurance contributions to non-state pension funds for the mandatory funded pension until 2022, explaining it by the need to reduce the budget deficit of the Russian Pension Fund and, thus, increasing its obligations to citizens.
Unfortunately, from time to time the question of cancelling the existing system of funded pensions formation in its current form is brought up for discussion. The government is trying to prove that this system is ineffective; however, an analysis of private pension funds’ activities shows that this is not true. Thus, according to the Central Bank of Russia (mega-regulator of the Russian financial market) [9], investments in the real sector of the economy, that make up 38% of the total assets of pension savings, dominate the portfolio of pension savings of non-state pension funds. By the end of the year, the trend towards the redistribution of funds from the state and financial sectors to the real sector of the economy was observed in the portfolio of pension reserves. As a result, the amount of investments in the financial sector decreased to 689.3 billion rubles, while the amount of investments in the public sector decreased to 250.3 billion rubles. The share of pension reserves investments in the real sector in the portfolio amounted to 33.5%.
These transformations of pension funds from one sector to another indicate the importance of pension money for the economy, while an increase in the return on these investments suggests an increase in investment efficiency, despite the unfavorable conditions created for the development of the funded pension on the Russian stock market. We believe that the funded pension that Russian citizens will start receiving in 2027 will significantly increase the pension coverage of Russian citizens. We would like to explain that the Russian pension system allows Russian citizens to choose whether they get a state pension only (in this instance, 22% of the payroll is paid to the Pension Fund of Russia) or a pension comprised of a state pension (16% of the payroll is paid to the Pension Fund of Russia) and funded pension (6% of the payroll is paid to private pension funds). Currently 37 million Russian citizens generate pensions of both types, i.e. about 49% of 75 million economically active people (i.e. citizens capable of working). It suggests that the stratification of older people by income will not only continue, but also intensify.
Economic inequality exists both between senior people and the rest of the population, and among senior people themselves. Many lack income and opportunities to improve their financial situation (decent job) [10], they have no significant savings, nor additional sources of financing (funds invested in investment funds or in securities portfolios). The analysis of incomes and expenses of Russian citizens shows that the increase in their savings is insignificant (Table 3).
Indicator | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cash income of citizens, billion rubles | 32,498 | 35,648 | 39,904 | 44,650 | 47,309 | 53,153 | 54,325 | 55,938 | 58,163 |
Increase in financial assets of citizens, billion rubles | 5614 | 4340 | 4161 | 4838 | 124 | 3803 | 3518 | 2566 | 826 |
Share of savings in the income of citizens, % | 17.3 | 12.2 | 10.4 | 10.8 | 0.3 | 7.2 | 6.5 | 4.6 | 1.4 |
The correlation of savings and income of Russian citizens.
Source: data from the Federal State Statistics Service (Analytical portal) [5].
Based on the data in Table 3, we can conclude that the annual increase in savings of Russian citizens is less than 10% of their income, which will not allow them to accumulate a sufficient amount of savings and other assets to ensure their own economic security/independence in old age.
Studies on pension provision [11, 12, 13] show that governments of different countries need to take serious measures to increase the sustainability of their pension systems when transferring responsibility for solving pension problems to the private sector. In accordance with the OECD [14] Core Principles of Private Pension Regulation, for their effective operation the following should be created:
effective legislation governing the pension sector;
optimal infrastructure of financial markets;
systems of optimization and risk control in managing pension funds;
a reliable system of guarantees for the fulfillment of obligations, both for state and non-state pensions.
Regulatory principles proposed by the OECD have been developed and implemented in Russia. However, as a result of constant reformation of the pension system: changes in the age of citizens included in the pension system with a funded pension; moratorium on the transfer of a part of the insurance contribution to the funded pension (from 2014 to 2022); changes in the retirement age, etc., the level of citizens’ confidence in the pension system decreases. Therefore, for Russian citizens, the availability of additional financial resources is very important.
Given the fact that the stock market began forming in Russia in the early 90s of the last century, Russian citizens have started developing skills in investing in the stock market recently. Until 2015, the number of private investors did not exceed 1 million people, however, in recent years, the main drivers of growth in the number of private investors were federal loan bonds “OFZ-n” called “popular” and individual investment accounts (IIAs) introduced on the Russian market, which were interesting for citizens as an investment mechanism and increased the number of private investors to 3.1 million people or 2% of the country’s population (according to the Moscow Exchange). It should also be noted that in practice, these mechanisms are new for Russian investors and there is no statistics on the number of pensioners using the stock market as an additional source of income.
The Government of the Russian Federation is now proposing to transform the funded pension from mandatory to voluntary pension in order to encourage the activities of private investors in the financial market, as well as to solve the issue of pension capital formation. Under Russian law, pension funds of citizens are not their property. Despite the fact that the insurance premium for the insurance state pension is paid to the Pension Fund of Russia at the amount of 22% of a citizen’s payroll (it is paid through an employer who acts as a withholding agent in this case), the state but not the citizen owns these funds. If a citizen builds up a funded pension as well (6% out of 22% of a payroll earned by this citizen), these funds belong to private pension funds and not to the citizen. This suggests unregulated property relations in Russia and does not allow Russian citizens to implement pension schemes of 401 (k) plan in the USA, which allows employees to manage pension savings themselves and to withdraw funds from an individual pension account for certain purposes and on certain conditions, as well as an IRA account on a tax-deferred basis [15].
We assume that the change in the conditions for the funded pension formation from a mandatory to a voluntary system is quite challenging today, as in Russia activation of citizens’ choice of voluntary pension programs faces a number of restrictions that need to be taken into account when deciding on the priority development of this particular system:
low level of salaries of Russian citizens, which prevents them from investing in voluntary pension programs;
insufficient development of the consulting and financial services system and high cost of such services, which prevents most citizens from understanding the features of the market mechanism and market products for investment;
the lack of developed mechanisms for the functioning of social partnership institutions, for example, trade unions, which in Western corporate pension systems establish, on the basis of collective agreements between employees and employers, different levels of pension contribution rates, different conditions for receiving pensions for different categories of workers;
poor information coverage of the activities of market financial institutions in the pension system.
Many older people in Russia rely on family support upon retirement. In Russia, a patriarchal family system still persists, when grandparents help in raising grandchildren. This is because of economic reasons (saving money on hiring a nanny, undeveloped habit of going out to eat, etc.), and the problem of spending leisure time with a child (long 3-month summer holidays at school require the organization of holidays for children and adolescents. It is the grandparents who look after their grandchildren since the parents are at work and the children do not go to school and are left on their own.). This allows many Russian pensioners to realize the “function of necessity” for their family and society as a whole. Often this is what motivates retirement upon reaching retirement age, especially among women. However, the current economic and social changes, such as a decrease in family size, an increase in life expectancy and growing insecurity in the labor market, reduce the opportunities for economic support traditionally provided by families to their elderly relatives. Therefore, the social security systems existing in western countries assume the responsibility of providing the economic security of senior people today.
Economic measures of social support include:
social payments and benefits;
protection of living standards by providing various forms of compensation;
assistance to the unemployed;
social services.
The adequacy of pensions is obviously measured by their ability to prevent poverty in old age, which is a key task according to the relevant documents [16], but not limited to this. The most important task is also to maintain a socially acceptable standard of living for pensioners, i.e. the possibility for retirees to use the public goods to which they are accustomed. Therefore, it would be interesting to compare the budget expenditures of the Russian Federation for social support and the amount of pension funds paid to Russian pensioners over the past 6 years (Table 4).
Indicator | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Budget expenditures of the Russian Federation on social support, billion rubles | 170.8 | 151.5 | 153.5 | 162.0 | 172.1 | 215.8 |
Budget implementation of the Pension Fund of Russia, billion rubles | 6388 | 6159 | 7127 | 7625 | 8260 | 8333 |
The share of social support in pension payments, % | 2.7 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.6 |
The correlation of the total social support expenditures and pension payments in Russia.
Source: data from the Federal State Statistics Service (Analytical portal) [5].
The analysis of Table 4 shows that the level of social support provided by the state is low, which is also confirmed by the fact that the share of pensioners in the poor population is 12–13%, which is why Russian pensioners are trying to continue their labor activities. However, not all pensioners have such a work history, health and profession to receive sufficient income after retirement. Analysis of the labor market shows that the proportion of working pensioners is growing (Table 5).1
Indicators | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Distribution of the employed by age groups in % of the total number | |||||||||
Aged 60-72 | 3.8 | 4.2 | 4.6 | 4.7 | 4.8 | 5.1 | 5.3 | 5.6 | 5.9 |
The unemployment rate among pensioners in % of the total number | |||||||||
Pensioners | 7.4 | 7.9 | 7.9 | 12.9 | 14.4 | 14.0 | 13.7 | 15.6 | 15.5 |
The average annual number of people employed in the economy by type of activity in % of the total number |
Analysis of some indicators in the Russian labor market.
Source: data from the Federal State Statistics Service (Russia in Figures) [6].
The data in the Table 5 allow us to draw the following conclusions:
The number of working pensioners for the period under review increased 1.55 times;
The unemployment rate among pensioners for the period under review increased 2.1 times;2
The number of highly qualified specialists employed in the economy is growing.
Unfortunately, there is no individual statistics on the number of pensioners belonging to the category of intellectual employees; however, it can be assumed that their number will also increase, since this category of pensioners has great prospects for employment.
Russia has recently launched a lot of activities for pensioners at the municipal level – holding various classes free of charge: physical therapy exercises, computer literacy training, foreign language learning, musical instrument training, etc. Nevertheless, pensioners do not seek to retire. This is especially evident in the field of creative and intellectual work among scholars, university and college instructors, performers, artists, etc.
The analysis showed a rather low level of financial security among Russian pensioners and not too high level of state social support, however, some other factors affecting the maintenance of decent lifestyle by senior people should be taken into account:
any person needs to be aware of their “usefulness” to society;
senior people have accumulated a large amount of knowledge, they have the tools to put this knowledge into practice and need to use this potential;
communication with other age groups of the population prevents them from focusing on their problems only, but rather broadens their horizons and promotes socialization.
Thus, when analyzing the problems of pensioners, it is necessary to take a differentiated approach to solving them, considering not only economic indicators, but also the mentality of the society, the pensioners’ sphere of activity, their qualifications and accumulated experience. Sate social support should take these factors into account when creating jobs, including those for pensioners, in an effort to create conditions for older people to continue to benefit society. Therefore, the government of the Russian Federation has the following objectives in the near future:
To develop and improve the mandatory funded pension due to the small incomes of Russian citizens that prevent them from accumulating substantial savings;
To develop and propose optimal investment mechanisms and tools for citizens with the aim of creating additional sources of income;
To improve social support for citizens, also by creating jobs that allow the use of the pensioners’ experience and knowledge in such fields as education and training, caring for the sick and infirm, etc.
To ensure the confidence of Russian citizens in the pension system by creating predictable rules for its improvement.
The current stage of the Russian pension scheme implementation lacks a Pension System Development Concept. The major document that regulates the pension system improvement is called Development Strategy for the Pension System of the Russian Federation up to 2030 and has been worked out based on the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation # 597 On Measures Concerning Implementation of State Social Policy, dated May 7, 2012 and based on a number of regulatory documents that legislatively set forth the standards established by the Government, like the increased retirement age, etc. However, these documents cannot be attributed to the Development Concept since they lack specific targets.
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