Phases to operate FSRP plans.
Chapter 1: "Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors"\n
Chapter 2: "The Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Premolar Teeth"\n
Chapter 3: "Dental Anatomical Features and Caries: A Relationship to be Investigated"\n
Chapter 4: "Anatomy Applied to Block Anaesthesia"\n
Chapter 5: "Treatment Considerations for Missing Teeth"\n
Chapter 6: "Anatomical and Functional Restoration of the Compromised Occlusion: From Theory to Materials"\n
Chapter 7: "Evaluation of the Anatomy of the Lower First Premolar"\n
Chapter 8: "A Comparative Study of the Validity and Reproducibility of Mesiodistal Tooth Size and Dental Arch with the iTero Intraoral Scanner and the Traditional Method"\n
Chapter 9: "Identification of Lower Central Incisors"\n
The book is aimed toward dentists and can also be well used in education and research.',isbn:"978-1-78923-511-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-510-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-247-8",doi:"10.5772/65542",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dental-anatomy",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,hash:"445cd419d97f339f2b6514c742e6b050",bookSignature:"Bağdagül Helvacioğlu Kivanç",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5814.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7253,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 25th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",middleName:null,surname:"Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",slug:"bagdagul-helvacioglu-kivanc",fullName:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178570/images/7646_n.jpg",biography:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç is a dentist, a teacher, a researcher and a scientist in the field of Endodontics. She was born in Zonguldak, Turkey, on February 14, 1974; she is married and has two children. She graduated in 1997 from the Ankara University, Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey. She aquired her PhD in 2004 from the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Endodontics, Ankara, Turkey, and she is still an associate professor at the same department. She has published numerous articles and a book chapter in the areas of Operative Dentistry, Esthetic Dentistry and Endodontics. She is a member of Turkish Endodontic Society and European Endodontic Society.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"}],chapters:[{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69542",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:1482,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. 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The world’s fishing has contributed to human welfare, income, augmenting employment and meeting raised food demand. On the other hand, it has also imposed a firm threat on fishery resources and marine ecosystems by diminishing stock abundance and biodiversity, and compromising the economic viability of the fishing industry [1, 2]. The present situation compels the United Nations to draw attention toward sustainable resource management in the oceans [3]. In this regard, a reduction in only fishing effort should counteract the increase in global per capita fish intake registered over the last five decades [4, 5]. South Korea has increased the fishing pressure on many marine resources in a sustainable way in a short period [6, 7]. This situation compelled the whole nation and experts to think about exploited stock rebuilding to make sound marine ecosystem. Though conditions vary from species to species, stock assessment carried out in coastal and offshore areas in Korea revealed that the total fish harvest dropped consistently from 1.7 million tons in 1986 to 1.0 million tons in 2004 [8]. Remained fishing pressure can be one of the potential causes to deplete fish stocks by 3.5 million tons in a decade [6]. In addition, in the 2000s, the proportion of adult fish in the catches was lower than 20% [8]. This highlights that the reproductive capacity of fish stocks has been sharply decreased, which not only resulted in the decline of fishery resources but also increased the percentage of immature fish.
Besides fishing pressure, climatic variations, unbalanced catch composition, environmental contamination, and habitat destruction are other factors contributing to the decline in the biomass of marine resources [7]. Moreover, co-management of fishing grounds with neighboring countries has not been effectively carried out due to territorial conflicts. Some of the fishing management strategies conventionally adopted by the Korean Government include closures in fishing time, area closures, mesh size regulations, and mesh as well as input control. Conventional fisheries management strategies had solely focused on arbitrating within fisheries and maintaining fishing industry rather than on rebuilding stocks. Besides, management policies also were implemented ineffectively in accordance with stock data. In particular, the characteristics of coastal and offshore multi-species fisheries put the ultimate challenges in implementing management policies for each fish species. Likewise, another potential reason of depletion in fisheries resources is the failure of effectively refrain fishers from overfishing of juvenile fishes due to mix fishing [6]. As a result, the Korean government has taken step to rebuild fish stocks as the core objective of fisheries policy. The government launched the Fish Stock Rebuilding Plan (FSRP) including traditional management measures and Fish Stock Enhancement Programs (FSEP) in 2005 to effectively achieve this objective.
This study introduces the methods and insights of the Korean eco-friendly FSEP-based FSRP and its 10-year fisheries management policy. It presents different strategies proposed to overcome any issues related to the implementation of the FSRP plan.
Understanding fisheries law is not easy to Korean fishermen due to its complex structure with 3 presidential decrees and 15 ministerial ordinances. Still, the 1960s law standards are applied even though some measures are contradictory to current fisheries management plans.
In this context, the “Fisheries Resources Management Act” was announced and established by the government on April 22, 2009, to conduct “broad and methodical fisheries resource management and to establish and implement fisheries resources recovery plan” [6]. The sole goal/purpose of this law is to enhance fish stocks by conserving and managing marine resources through strengthening research and assessment. Some key features of the law are as follows:
Fisheries resources research and assessment shall be conducted each year.
Plan to recover fisheries resources shall be established every 5 years.
Institutional ground for co-management to settlement of dispute was established.
International rules like promoting international cooperation, eco-friendly fishing method, sharing data on resources management, and precautionary approach are also incorporated into the law.
Then, the Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries initiated the Fishery Resources and Environment Division to develop and implement FSRP. In addition, the Fishery Resource Recovery Team (FRCT) was established to conduct research, implement resource enhancement programs, and management. For working effectively with FRCT, fishermen, academics, governmental officers, and researchers were encouraged to participate in developing, implementing, and assessing FSRP. A newly organized Science Committee (SC) and the Fishery Resource Management Committee (FRMC) will also take part in decision making for FSRP implementation [9].
Depending upon the status of the fish species, efforts are directed toward the recovery and management of the target fish under specific ecosystem-based FSRP. A Fish Stock Rebuilding plan was set up for drastically depleted species. By contrast, fisheries management plan was taken into consideration for overexploited species. Intensive management on total allowable catch (TAC) was provided where TAC target species were key staples. To understand the situation of selected target species in offshore and coastal seas, the decision was made on the basis of three steps such as (1) investigating applicable materials and recovery of target fish; (2) classifying fish to manage and recover target species; and (3) setting target quantity at each stage for recovery.
In most cases, the only data available to assess the state of fish stocks were the annual catch data, except for a few species. Based on the method used by Garibaldi and Caddy [10], 3-year moving average fishery data were analyzed to evaluate the condition of fish stocks by using the species catch data. When catch level was less than 20% of the maximum moving average value, it was grouped as depleted stock. From an analysis at the beginning, 30% catch reduction of some fish species were targeted to recover.
By 1990s, several stocks had depleted significantly; therefore, data could not depict absolute state of stock by species. To include species for recovery, fluctuation trends of catch by species were analyzed. Hence, considering the features of fluctuation trends of catch, they were grouped into (1) very low, (2) low, (3) decreasing, (4) decreasing trend after increasing, (5) fluctuation, (6) stable, and (7) increasing. Then, the species that were within (1), (2), and (3) conditions were grouped as recovery targeted species at last. The rest of the fish species were considered as management target species.
Meanwhile, stock biomass and maximum sustainable yield, MSY, for 10 targeted species was estimated. Among those species are Sand Fish (Arctoscopus japonicus), Blue Crab/Swimming Crab (Portunus pelagicus), Octopus (Octopus vulgaris), Tokobushi Abalone (Haliotis discus), Skate/Ray (Hongeo koreana), Cod (Gadus macrocephalus), Yellow Croaker (Larimichthys polyactis), File Fish (Stephanolepis cirrhifer), Korean flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), and Purplish Washington Clam (Saxidomus purpuratus Sowerby). On the basis of the results of assessment, recovery target for every phase and recovery tenures were set.
In addition, fishery resources that required systematic and broad management were found through conducting research and assessment. FSRP, TAC, and Marine Protected Areas were also implemented after the assessment plans. A “total fishery resources information database” was created and then operated to manage systematically for implementing FSRP. Fishery resources information like fishing status, habitat, and ecological information were collected under the “total fishery resources information database.” A useful scientific research assessment system was built on the basis of this database.
Furthermore, the central and local governments divided the role in research and assessment considering features of every species and strengthening human resources on stock assessment and research. It was aimed to construct a more effective scientific research and assessment system for better management and improvement of FSRP. Thus, research, assessment manuals, and model fully based on the characteristics of each species were made. Moreover, ecological changes including climate change were taken into consideration when stock assessment by species was done. To develop and implement the FSRP, the stock assessment by species was supplied as basic data [6].
Fish Stock Enhancement Program (FSEP) is one of the major tools of rebuilding fishery stocks carried out by the Korean Fisheries Resources Agency (FIRA). FIRA is involved in Fish Stock Enhancement Programs including the construction and installation of artificial reefs, production and release of fish seeds, and building and managing marine ranches and marine forest (marine reforestation) to restore and recover fish stocks in Korea’s coastal and offshore fisheries. In Korea, the main goal of Fish Stock Enhancement Programs is to increase fish stocks and fishermen’s income by improving the marine environment and restoring productivity for natural population of fish [11]. The artificial reef program was implemented in 1971 to increase fisheries resources by creating habitats and spawning grounds. The fry stocking program has been operating since 1976 in order to complement and enhance the recruitment of fishery resources by directional fry releases of Jumbo Shrimp, Blue Crab, Flat Fish, Kuruma Prawns, Jacopevers, and Abalone. The marine ranching program was conducted in four main coastal areas since 1998 (Figure 1). This program is conducted by using multiple networks, based on the industry-university-institute model, to establish optimum technical and model development. Since 2009, the marine seaweeds forest program has been playing an important role in the spawning, breeding, and feeding grounds for many kinds of marine organisms including fishes. The program focuses on the reestablishment of marine seaweed forests destroyed by some factors such as sea temperature rise, marine pollution, and algae-eating animals.
Map of coastal marine ranches in 2014. Source: Fisheries resources agency (FIRA), homepage, business FIRA, 2015.
Artificial reefs are man-made structures placed in the sea to attract, protect, and cultivate marine organisms. It is one of the main methods of creating and enhancing marine resources, utilizing the environment of marine life. Selective artificial coral reefs have been used to enhance specific fish populations. Improved rugged-type reef and round reefs were used for shellfish and algae while large octagonal dams and cube and box shape reefs were used for small and medium fishes. In addition, for large fishes, composite steel fishing vessel reefs and large octagonal dome-shaped reefs were used. The installing process of artificial reefs is related to site suitability assessment, structure of reefs, and follow-up management.
Young healthy artificially produced fish and shellfish are selected and released in a suitable environment with the purpose of increasing marine resource abundances. Afterwards, continuous research is conducted in order to determine releasing efficiency and investigate any effect associated to seedling releases, including monitoring the genetic diversity and the preservation of a healthy environment after the releases. The total seedling released accounted for 4.85 billion, including government (1.58 billion), laboratories (2.5 billion), and local government (770 million) [12]. Ninety percent of the total quantity is from major species including jumbo shrimps, Blue Crabs, Flat Fish, Kuruma Prawns, Jacopevers, and Abalones. Eighty-one percent of the total expenses are from major species including Abalones, Flatfish, Blue Crabs, Sea Cucumbers, and Jacopevers. By continuing disease screening and genetic diversity evaluation, healthy fish seed was produced for fruitful operation of fish seed-releasing program.
The marine ranching programs were conducted in the coastal and sea areas of Tongyeong, followed by Jeonnam (Yeosu) Dadohae Sea in 2001, and East Sea (Uljin), Yellow Sea (Taean), and Jeju starting from 2002 (Figure 1). The Jeonnam marine ranching was completed in 2011, and the marine ranches of the East Sea, Yellow Sea, and Jeju were completed by the end of 2014. With the purpose of increasing stock biomass of fish stocks in coastal fisheries in a short period of time, the technology and experience attained from the marine ranching were applied throughout the entire program. The technology and experience acquired through the marine ranching program can also be used to develop marine ranching models that suit each specific sea environment. In order to maximize the effects of the resource enhancement, the program was implemented by a marine ranching utilization management system through mutual cooperation with research institutes and academic regional organizations and established in an efficient model for the local government and local organizations, bringing direct impacts to the fish stock rebuilding.
Destruction of spawning grounds and nursery habitats often lead to the reduction in fish stock biomass and productivity of the marine ecosystem. Marine forest creation programs were intended to restore the fish stock biomass and the ecological functioning. A total of 47 marine forests were created between 2009 and 2013 (3334 ha, KRW 72.2 billion). Fisheries authorities have raised awareness of the importance of promoting sea forest for enhancing fish stock biomass and the necessity of building a national rebuilding program to restore the fisheries stocks and ocean ecosystem in the territorial waters of Korea (approximately 8 million ha).
Korean Government established the fundamental plan for the FSRP in 2005. Its fisheries management strategies aim to mitigate the challenges of the existing fisheries management policies and to attain an expected recovery of fishery resources across EEZ territory. At national level, this ecosystem-based FSRP has been established as a comprehensive plan to enhance fish stock from the current level to a target level within a rebuilding period by choosing appropriate FSEPs.
Korea’s FSRP was primarily aimed to marine fish stock recovery by eliminating the challenges from traditional management strategies with a view to improving conventional policies in the following ways:
FSRP focuses on specific fish stock for recovering. It contrasts to the lack of goals found in traditional fisheries management policies.
Conventional fisheries management policy was implemented without scientific research and estimation. By contrast, FSRP took into consideration the condition of fish stocks and required time of recovery with pragmatic goals.
Conventional fisheries management policies were established on the initiative of central government. On the other hand, FSRP ensures voluntary fishermen participation to execute plans and making them responsible for the results.
An analysis neither before application of fisheries management measure nor after its execution regarding conventional fisheries management policies was performed. However, FSRP ensures an analysis on fisheries management measures by fishery types, sea area and species before and after operation for effective utilization.
The main objective of FSRP and its policy was to enhance the total fish stock to 8 million tons by 2017 in order to maintain a consistent catch level at 1.3 million tons annually within coastal and offshore fisheries. Hence, it is anticipated that to reach fishery resources at an optimum quantity level, Korea’s coastal and offshore sea ecosystem should break a vicious cycle chain of resource exploitation and aggravated fishery business condition and to keep a stable fishery production.
FSRP was performed by dividing the operational plan into three potential phases with mid-term and long-term plans. To establish system for operating FSRP, at first, the mid-term goals will get preference to achieve, and then long-term objectives will be attained by settling and spreading the management plans nationwide. To promote and operate each phase of FSRP, strategies and objectives were constructed as Phase 1—Institutional update and basic mid- and long-term FSRP’s foundation (2005); Phase 2—FSRP implementation by species (2006–2012); Phase 3—FSRP-based fisheries management system settlement (2013–2017) (Table 1).
Phase | Objectives | Policy enforcement |
---|---|---|
Phase 1 (2005) | Institutional update and basic mid- and long-term FSRP’s foundation | (Master Plan Establishment)
|
Phase 2 (2006–2012) | FSRP implementation by species | (Plans for Mid-term)
|
Phase 3 (2013–2017) | FSRP-based fisheries management system settlement | (Plans for Long-term)
|
Phases to operate FSRP plans.
Traditionally, Korean fisheries were managed by considering input control depend on licensing system of fishing vessels and some technical measures like gear mesh size regulation, area closure, and time closures. Besides, since 1994, vessel buyback plan has been implemented. Thereafter, the total allowable catch (TAC) as an output control measure has been implemented since 1999 to reduce excess catch of fish.
In addition, FSEP plans such as artificial reef installation, fry releasing, and seaweed forest programs also have been implemented to enhance fish stocks for coastal and offshore fisheries. Moreover, to trigger participation and encourage playing a vital role of the fisheries personnel, both Science Committee (SC) and Fishery Resource Management Committee (FRMC) were formed. Experts from various disciplines (ecology, fisheries stock assessment, statistics, etc.) were included in the Science Committee to create and improve a fish stock recovery plan exclusively relying on Fish Stock Enhancement Programs and to make pragmatic advice for considering measures to rebuild fish stocks by analyzing data from scientific researches and critical reviews. Likewise, a scientific research on fish stock is conducted by NFRDI to recover desired species and subsequently FFRMC makes action plans to rebuild fish stock. FFRMC determines the measures to manage fishery effectively by judging the comments made by academics, governmental, and nongovernmental participants. Basically, resources are managed by applying measures not only giving importance on individual species but also for refraining from using unbalanced fishing efforts and techniques. Accordingly, management took steps to install artificial coral reef and release fish fry to increase the overall fish stock in the coastal zone of Korea. In light of recovering individual fish stock, many policies and programs were taken into consideration to enforce them for the durability of fishery resources through FSEP. However, Korea’s entire fishery was not shut down for a faster fish stock recovery as in other nations [13]. Hence, ecosystem-based fisheries management was implemented though some restriction was present on individual fisheries resource exploitation for effective and quick recovery of stocks. Consequently, the minimization of overall compromised revenue due to stop fish harvest could be possible to overcome undesirable situation. Besides, Korean fishery sector also could maintain stable business during the resource recovery period [14].
One interesting attribute of FSEP-based FSRP is promising the voluntary participation of fishermen to promote community-based fisheries management. In this manner, fishermen can make decision to manage resources as efficiently as possible and take part in developing plans for FSRP. In addition, voluntary self-control management can be implemented by fishermen to avoid unregulated fishing to promote efficient FSRP for rebuilding fish stocks effectively.
Although it is difficult to evaluate a comprehensive fisheries management policy FSRP based on FSEP within only 10 years, some vivid emerging improvements were depicted at the level of biodiversity. Vital FSEP tools not only enhanced biological components in the marine ecosystem but also encouraged physical and biological manipulation to make sound habitat for lifting up the stock size.
Until now, a total of 16 FSRPs have been established, including the special programs on sandfish, swimming crab, octopus (East Sea), skate ray (Yellow Sea), cod, yellow croaker, filefish, Korean flounder (East Sea) but rest FSRPs were considered for nationwide. In 2008, 10 species were considered to reach a target level of recovery based on their stock biomass from catch data. Fish Stock Enhancement Programs were acted in supporting with stock rebuilding plans to progress fish stock level. The amount of gained biomass was computed on a yearly basis by subtracting harvested amounts in 2005 from the total harvest in each subsequent year up to 2016. Once the gain in stock biomass of each targeted species is calculated for 10 consecutive years, from 2005 to 2016, the total recovery amount was estimated by adding all values of recovered stock amount of each targeted fish. As a result, the estimated 10 targeted fish stocks recovery amounts accounted for 469,827 million tons (Table 2).
Year | Sandfish | Blue Crab* | Octopus | Tokobushi Abalone | Skate ray | Cod | Yellow Croaker | File fish | Korean Flounder | Purplish W-Clam** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2004 | 2472 | 2683 | 5953 | 19 | 259 | 2641 | 17,570 | 1267 | 5345 | 5380 |
2005 | 2401 | 3714 | 7637 | 66 | 255 | 4272 | 15,272 | 1055 | 5472 | 6534 |
2006 | 2647 | 6894 | 7894 | 54 | 392 | 6810 | 21,428 | 1071 | 5218 | 3399 |
2007 | 3769 | 13,606 | 12,033 | 62 | 375 | 7533 | 34,221 | 2998 | 7326 | 3422 |
2008 | 2720 | 17,596 | 11,838 | 102 | 1343 | 5395 | 33,200 | 2631 | 5175 | 2672 |
2009 | 3939 | 31,302 | 15,386 | 34 | 3254 | 6870 | 34,033 | 8280 | 5107 | 1918 |
2010 | 4236 | 33,193 | 10,813 | 27 | 4131 | 7289 | 31,931 | 3475 | 6671 | 1950 |
2011 | 3834 | 26,608 | 10,421 | 3 | 2925 | 8585 | 59,226 | 1606 | 6709 | 2314 |
2012 | 5836 | 26,861 | 10,080 | 5 | 2123 | 8682 | 36,840 | 1419 | 6488 | 2037 |
2013 | 6306 | 30,448 | 9109 | 5 | 1651 | 9133 | 35,280 | 1295 | 18,171 | 2199 |
2014 | 4678 | 25,310 | 9881 | 10 | 1889 | 13,402 | 27,638 | 2418 | 18,804 | 2335 |
2015 2016 | 4762 7593 | 16,374 13,558 | 8753 9683 | 4 5 | 2349 2000 | 7820 4994 | 33,254 19,271 | 2040 1805 | 17,753 15,977 | 1828 1741 |
Total increase catch amount (M/T) | 23,909 | 200,896 | 31,884 | 36 | 18,137 | 14,834 | 132,771 | 5959 | 41,401 | 0 |
Price (2016) ($/MT) | 1241 | 11,954 | 14,113 | 55,706 | 5350 | 5015 | 8022 | 6163 | 7460 | 4956 |
Increase revenue (million US$) | 29.7 | 2329.2 | 450.1 | 2.0 | 97.0 | 74.4 | 1065.1 | 36.7 | 308.9 | 0 |
FSEP-based FSRP’s economic effectiveness by target species.
Swimming Crab.
Purplish Washington Clam, Butter Clam.
Source: 2017 Korean Fisheries Yearbook,
FSRP has contributed to rebuild fishery stocks in a relatively short period. Observations indicate a positive change in fish stock biomass during FSRP project operation. Likewise, an increment of catches triggered more revenues from targeted individual fisheries. The total revenue was computed by multiplying market price with the total recovery amount of fish over a 10-year period to evaluate the economic contribution of FSRP. Between 2005 and 2016, fishing earning increased by 4393.1 million USD (Table 2). Besides, an average yearly basis increment was seen in the fishing income of million USD 206.3 million amid FSRP operation [15]. In 10 years, the total increased 0.55 million tones fish contributed to the domestic fish market. This is an important fact taking into consideration that 70% of the food supply is imported from overseas, with the value of imported fish and seafood estimated in 3.8 billion USD [16].
A bioeconomic analysis was conducted to predict the economic impact for each species. In particular, biological and economical uncertainties were considered fully during analyzing the bioeconomic modeling. After performing this analysis, the results were used to make best policies for effectively maintaining FSEP-based Fisheries Stock Rebuilding Plans.
Effective and voluntary participation of fishermen community in promoting self-regulatory fishery is one of the main objectives of FSRP. As a novel concept in Korean fisheries management, community-based fishery allows fishermen to deliver unique ideas to manage resources as effectively as possible through improving awareness and understanding on current situation to implement FSRP. Effectiveness of community-based FSRP can be maximized by ensuring active participation of fishermen.
Before selecting the stock of a target species for enhancing, an agreement was made between the fishery resource management committee and the fishermen’s organizations. The purpose of this agreement was to stimulate voluntary and active participation of fishermen to maximize the effectiveness of FSRP in connection with community-based management associations. Tasks were made voluntarily by fishermen to refrain themselves from roaming for fishing beyond limits, using excess gears by vessels and disturbing in spawning grounds. The Science Committee arranged conferences to make a fruitful avenue to ensure active participation of fishermen. Eventually, many fisheries restrictions were watched and found limited unlawful fishing.
Korean fisheries rebuilding relies on the voluntary participation of fishermen community for effective stock enhancement through notable stock enhancement programs. Besides, many strategies were taken to ensure better participation in providing opinion, managing resources, and stopping illegal fishing. Accordingly, strengthen community-based fisheries management imposes losses upon fishermen during rebuilding stock for accepting to reduce the amount of catch from fishermen organizations.
During the entire FSRP period, the government supported fishermen by taking some fruitful steps to stabilize the market for ensuring active participation. For example, some specific support was made to fix losses such as support on reducing fishing days, improvement of habitat for small fish, and also avoidance of by-catches. Expenditure to displace fishing gear and training of fishermen was aided for minimizing losses [17].
Socially accepted FSRP also provided time-demanding education and counseling to fishermen by experts having in-depth knowledge on fisheries. In addition, a fisheries management committee was set up as a system to manage and operate FSRP. To build up awareness of fishermen, the fisheries management committee worked on strengthening public relations on rebuilding stocks of targeted fish [18].
The Science Committee, the regional fishery management committee, and the fishermen have a significant contribution to the overall monitoring of ecosystem-based stock rebuilding. There have been fruitful opinions regarding fish stock enhancement to complete the goals for recovering fisheries resources. Fisheries rebuilding operations that run for 10 years have brought positive results on several ecological, economical, and social aspects; however, there are some challenges to be considered to get the best output to continue a comprehensive national stock rebuilding approach in Korea. These are some specific factors to be taken into consideration as follows:
The first challenge involves the preservation of the genetic resources. In order to succeed, all programs must ensure a high genetic variation for the offspring of targeted species for stocking in wild environments. In Jeju, Abalone showed a reduction of its genetic diversity, probably due to intensive breeding within the same hatchery brood stock [19]. Thus, Tokobushi Abalone could not establish their population like among other targeted species in FSRP since a genetic drift also observed due to breeding practices among limited brood stocks in the same hatchery without having enough facilities to exchange broods between hatcheries to get verity of genetic characteristics in produced fish seedlings [20].
Rebuilding plans focused on maximizing stocks but did not pay attention to the reduction of unwanted by-catch species. Annual catches of Butter Clam, one of the 10 targeted species for FSRP, declined sharply due to mixed catching.
There are inherited limitations to assess the efficiency of the enhancement strategies due to the lack of data available and the fact that only few species are examined well enough to drive definite conclusions. For better result, some aspects such as environmental, production, migration, and resources may be taken into account to collect effective data and expand them to evaluate data in an appropriate way [19].
Korean coastal fisheries comprise multispecies harvesting for small-scale and commercial fishing industry. Thus, conventional fisheries management could not fulfill sole target for single species through FSRP. Accordingly, related species must be taken into consideration for carrying out ecosystem-based FSRP gradually for achieving goals to enhance stock [21].Community-based fisheries management tools are aimed for fisheries resources utilization sustainably through FSRP. Fishermen are encouraged to involve actively to both gain knowledge about their concerns and to reduce overexploitation. In order to compensate the loss in fishermen’s profitability [12] and ensure a successful rebuilding plan, market stabilization and some form of compensation support may need to be provided to the fishermen community.
Operation of FSRP in Korea will not bring fruitful result unless cooperative action can be taken to continue large marine FSRP among adjacent nations, for example, China and Japan [22].
A decade ago, Korea implemented an eco-friendly community-based national stock rebuilding approach in coastal and seashore areas within exclusive economic zone. The aim of this study is to uphold the scenarios of rebuilding fishery stocks which depleted mainly due to an excess in fishing pressure during the last 40 years. Despite the efforts of traditional fisheries management policies against unlawful fishing, unwanted trends were observed with marine fisheries resources. Based on the 10 years experience, FSEP-based FSRP in Korea has proven to be helpful for governing fishery resources for next generations. The fisheries rebuilding plan increased the fishermen’s annual income by 95%. From a social perspective, fisheries enhancement has brought a secured livelihood for increasing income in a consistent manner. Despite having many praiseworthy reasons to continue ecosystem-based fisheries management, fisheries enhancement rebuilding plans have been moving with some risks of dwelling unavoidable challenges in main policy to achieve rapid effective results. Therefore, systematic research on the biology of species, mixed catches effects, pollution management, and net income loss recovery by stabilizing market for fishermen will be helpful to carryout Korean permanent fisheries rebuilding in the future. At the bottom line, cooperative fisheries resources management by adjacent nations may be a benchmark for rebuilding marine resources not only within EEZ but also between neighboring states.
Korean fisheries have been struggling to enhance depleted stocks at sustainable level with their conventional management policies for a couple of decades. Usually, input and output control policies, for instance, vessel buyback, total allowable catch, and restriction on breeding season, were applied by government agencies to keep resources at an optimum level. Despite immense endeavor to limit fishing pressure for meeting seafood demand sustainably in the near future, a significant proportion of stocks were dropped below sustainable level. Artificial reefs, marine ranching, fry releasing, and marine gardening programs were selected in an effort to recover environmental degradation and provide a friendly ecosystem to marine communities. Awareness of fishermen was built throughout FSRP programs for a better understanding of the existing stock abundance and evaluation of risk factors.
To sum up, FSRP has brought positive results in most of the targeted species. These rebuilding plans helped fishermen to increase catches noticeably for generating additional income. Sustainable fishery has been achieved due to voluntary participation of fishermen community to restrict unlawful fishing. In addition, they were provided government-supported training to develop core strategies to keep stocks at a sustainable level in the long term. Such self-governance program was a proof to rebuild stocks effectively even though some limiting factors should have been addressed to raise effectiveness of FSRP.
Possible rebuilding of stock may be triggered by correcting bio-ecological shortfalls in comprehensive national Korean FSEP-based FSRP. Moreover, scientific analysis on stock estimation is also an important parameter to determine the exact required period of rebuilding and to select species for improving stock status. Multinational stock rebuilding is recommended to extend targeted species number from sea shore to common boundaries of neighboring countries. For instance, Japan has been running stock rebuilding programs since 2001 [6]. Likewise, in 2016, China started the 13th 5-year mega plan to restore their exclusive economic zone to get at a higher rate of fish catch [23]. Besides commercial species, other species may be taken into account for enhancing their stocks in developing a friendly marine ecosystem to improve ecosystem status.
The use of supercritical fluids (SCFs) in various processes is not new and, actually, is not a human invention. Nature has been processing minerals in aqueous solutions at near or above the critical point of water for billions of years. In the late 1800s, scientists started to use this natural process in their labs for creating various crystals. During the last 50–60 years, this process, called hydrothermal processing (operating parameters: water pressure from 20 to 200 MPa and temperatures from 300 to 500°C), has been widely used in the industrial production of high-quality single crystals (mainly gem stones) such as sapphire, tourmaline, quartz, titanium oxide, zircon and others [1].
Also, compressed water, that is, water at a supercritical pressure (SCP), but at a temperature below Tcr ≈ 374°C, exists in oceans at the depth of ∼2.2 km and deeper. If at this depth there is an active underwater volcano with the temperature of a magma above Tcr of water, conditions for existence of supercritical water (SCW) can be reached.
The first works devoted to the problem of heat transfer at supercritical pressures (SCPs) started as early as the 1930s. Schmidt et al. [2] investigated free-convection heat transfer to fluids at a near-critical point with the application to a new effective cooling system for turbine blades in jet engines. They found that the free-convection heat transfer coefficient (HTC) at the near-critical state was quite high, and decided to use this advantage in single-phase thermosyphons with an intermediate working fluid at the near-critical point [3].
In the 1950s, the idea of using SC “steam” (actually, SCW) appeared to be rather attractive for the Rankine power cycle. The objective was to increase a thermal efficiency of coal-fired thermal power plants (ThPPs) (see Table 1). This change, that is, substantially higher operating pressures in the Rankine cycle from subcritical ones, and, correspondingly to that, higher inlet-turbine temperature up to 625°C, has allowed increasing of thermal efficiencies from 40–43% to 50–55% (gross) (in total by 7–15%). Currently, SCP coal-fired thermal power plants (world electricity generation with coal 38%—the largest source for electricity generation; in India—77%; China—65%; Germany—37%; and in USA—30%) are the second ones by thermal efficiencies after gas-fired combined-cycle ThPPs (world electricity generation with natural gas 23%—second largest source for electricity generation; in Russia—59%; UK—44%; Italy—42%; and in USA—34%) [4, 5]. More details on ThPPs can be found in Pioro and Kirillov [8] and many other sources.
No. | Power plant | Gross thermal efficiency |
---|---|---|
1 | Combined-cycle ThPP (combination of Brayton gas-turbine cycle (fuel—natural gas or LNG); combustion-products parameters at gas turbine: Pin ≈ 2.3 MPa and Tin ≈ 1650°C) and Rankine cycle steam-turbine parameters: Pin ≈ 12.5 MPa and Tin ≈ 585°C (Tcr = 374°C) | Up to 62% |
2 | SCP coal-fired ThPP (Rankine cycle “steam”-turbine parameters (see Figure 1): Pin ≈ 23.5–38 MPa (Pcr = 22.064 MPa), Tin ≈ 540‑625°C (Tcr = 374°C) and steam reheat at: P ≈ 0.25·Pin and Treheat ≈ 540‑625°C) | Up to 55% |
3 | Subcritical-pressure coal-fired ThPP (older plants; Rankine cycle steam-turbine parameters (see Figure 2): Pin = 17 MPa (Tsat = 352°C), Tin = 540°C (Tcr = 374°C), and steam reheat at: P ≈ 0.25·Pin and Treheat = 540°C) | Up to 43% |
4 | Carbon dioxide-cooled reactor (advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)) NPP (Generation-III) (reactor coolant (carbon dioxide): P = 4 MPa and T = 290–650°C; Rankine cycle steam-turbine parameters (see Figure 2): P = 17 MPa (Tsat = 352°C); Tin = 540°C (Tcr = 374°C), and steam reheat at: P ≈ 0.25·Pin and Tin = 540°C) | Up to 42% |
5 | Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) (BN-600; BN-800) NPP (reactor coolant (sodium): P ≈ 0.1 MPa (above sodium level) and Tmax = 550°C; Rankine cycle steam-turbine parameters (see Figure 3): P = 14 MPa (Tsat = 337°C); Tin = 505°C (Tcr = 374°C) and steam reheat at: P ≈ 0.25·Pin and Tin = 505°C) | Up to 40% |
6 | Pressurized water reactor (PWR) NPP (Generation-III+, new reactors) (reactor coolant (light water): P = 15.5 MPa (Tsat = 345°C) and T = 280‑322°C; Rankine cycle steam-turbine parameters (see Figure 4): P = 7.8 MPa and Tin = Tsat = 293°C and steam reheat at Pin ≈ 1 MPa and Tin ≈ 273°C) | Up to 36‑38% |
7 | Pressurized water reactor (PWR) NPP (Generation-III, current fleet) (reactor coolant: P = 15.5 MPa (Tsat = 345°C) and T = 292–329°C; Rankine cycle steam-turbine parameters (see Figure 4): P = 6.9 MPa and Tin = Tsat = 285°C and steam reheat at Pin ≈ 1 MPa and Tin ≈ 265°C) | Up to 34‑36% |
8 | Boiling-water-reactor (BWR) or advanced BWR NPP (Generation-III and III+, current fleet) (Pin = 7.2 MPa and Tin = Tsat=288°C (direct cycle) and steam reheat at Pin ≈ 1 MPa and Tin ≈ 268°C (see Figure 4)) | Up to 34% |
9 | Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) NPP (Generation-III, current fleet) (reactor coolant: Pout = 10 MPa (Tsat = 311°C) and T = 260–310°C; Rankine cycle steam-turbine parameters: P = 4.6 MPa and Tin = Tsat = 259°C and steam reheat at l Pin ≈ 1 MPa and Tin ≈ 240°C) | Up to 32% |
T-s diagram of generic SCP Rankine “steam”-turbine power cycle (modern advanced coal-fired thermal power plants and future SCWR NPPs) [6, 7].
T-s diagram of generic subcritical-pressure Rankine steam-turbine power cycle (older coal-fired thermal power plants and AGR Torness NPP) [6, 7].
T-s diagram of generic subcritical-pressure Rankine steam-turbine power cycle (old coal-fired thermal power plants and SFR NPPs) [6, 7].
T-s diagram of generic subcritical-pressure Rankine saturated-steam-turbine power cycle (PWR and BWR NPPs) [6, 7].
Also, at SCPs there is no liquid-vapor-phase transition; therefore, there is no such phenomenon as critical heat flux (CHF) or dryout. It is only within a certain range of parameters a deteriorated heat transfer (DHT) regime may occur. Work in this area was mainly performed in Germany, USA, former USSR, and some other countries in the 1950–1980s [9].
At the end of the 1950s and the beginning of the 1960s, early studies were conducted to investigate a possibility of using SCW in nuclear reactors. Several concepts of nuclear reactors using SCW were developed in Great Britain, France, USA, and former USSR. However, this idea was abandoned for almost 30 years with the emergence of light water reactors (LWRs), but regained interest in the 1990s following LWRs maturation ([6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]).
This interest was triggered by economical considerations, because nuclear power plants (NPPs) with LWRs (and, especially, with PHWRs) have relatively low thermal efficiencies within the range of 30–36% for Generation-III reactors and up to 37% (38%) for advanced reactors of Generation-III+ (see Table 1) compared to those of modern ThPPs (up to 62% for combined-cycle plants and up to 55% for SCP Rankine cycle plants (see Table 1)) [6]. Therefore, NPPs with various designs of water-cooled reactors at subcritical pressures cannot compete with modern advanced ThPPs. Also, it should be noted that currently, water-cooled reactors are the vast majority of nuclear-power reactors in the world [14, 15]: (1) PWRs—299 units or 68% from the total number of 441 units; (2) BWRs—65 units or 15%; (3) PHWRs—48 units or 11%; (4) light water, graphite-moderated reactors (LGRs)—13 units of 3%.
Therefore, six concepts of nuclear-power reactors/NPPs of next generation, Generation-IV, were proposed (see Table 2), which will have thermal efficiencies comparable with those of modern thermal power plants. Supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR) is one of these six concepts under development in a number of countries [6, 17]. Analysis of Generation-IV concepts listed in Table 2 shows that SCFs, such as helium and water, will be used as reactor coolants, and SCFs such as helium, nitrogen (or mixture of nitrogen (80%) and helium (20%)), carbon dioxide, and water will be used as working fluids (WFs) in power Brayton and Rankine cycles (critical parameters of selected SCFs are listed in Table 3). However, it should be mentioned that helium as the reactor coolant and as the working fluid in Brayton power cycle will be at supercritical conditions, which are far above by pressure and temperature critical parameters, that is, helium will behave as compressed gas.
No. | Nuclear power plant | Gross eff., % |
---|---|---|
1 | Very high-temperature reactor (VHTR) NPP (reactor coolant—helium (SCF): P = 7 MPa and Tin/Tout = 640/1000°C; primary power cycle—direct SCP Brayton helium-gas-turbine cycle; possible back-up—indirect Brayton or combined cycles (see Figures 5 and 6)) | ≥55 |
2 | Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) or high-temperature reactor (HTR) NPP (reactor coolant—helium (SCF): P = 9 MPa and Tin/Tout = 490/850°C; primary power cycle—direct SCP Brayton helium-gas-turbine cycle (see Figure 7); possible back-up—indirect SCP Brayton or combined cycles (see Figures 8 and 9)) | ≥50 |
3 | Supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR) NPP (one of Canadian concepts; reactor coolant—SC light water: P = 25 MPa and Tin/Tout = 350/625°C (Tcr = 374°C); direct cycle; SCP Rankine cycle with high-temperature secondary-steam superheat: Tout = 625°C; possible back-up–indirect SCP Rankine “steam”-turbine cycle with high-temperature secondary-steam superheat) (for details of SCP Rankine cycle, see Table 1 Item No. 2 and Figure 1) | 45–50 |
4 | Molten salt reactor (MSR) NPP (reactor coolant—sodium-fluoride salt with dissolved uranium fuel: Tin/Tout = 700/800°C; primary power cycle—indirect SCP carbon dioxide Brayton gas-turbine cycle; possible back-up—indirect Rankine steam-turbine cycle) | ∼50 |
5 | Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) NPP (Russian design BREST-OD-300*: reactor coolant—liquid lead: P ≈ 0.1 MPa and Tin/Tout = 420/540°C; primary power cycle—indirect subcritical-pressure Rankine steam cycle: Pin ≈ 17 MPa (Pcr = 22.064 MPa) and Tin/Tout = 340/505°C (Tcr = 374°C); high-temperature secondary-steam superheat (in one of the previous designs of BREST-300 NPP primary power cycle was indirect SCP Rankine “steam” cycle: Pin ≈ 24.5 MPa (Pcr = 22.064 MPa) and Tin/Tout = 340/520°C (Tcr = 374°C); also, note that power-conversion cycle in a different LFR designs from other countries is based on SCP carbon dioxide Brayton gas-turbine cycle | ∼41–43 |
6 | Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) NPP (Russian design BN-600: reactor coolant—liquid sodium (primary circuit): P ≈ 0.1 MPa and Tin/Tout = 380/550°C; liquid sodium (secondary circuit): Tin/Tout = 320/520°C; primary power cycle—indirect Rankine steam-turbine cycle: Pin ≈ 14.2 MPa (Tsat ≈ 337°C) and Tin max = 505°C (Tcr = 374°C); secondary-steam superheat: P ≈ 2.45 MPa and Tin/Tout = 246/505°C; possible back-up in some other countries—indirect SCP carbon dioxide Brayton gas-turbine cycle) | ∼40 |
Estimated ranges of thermal efficiencies (gross) of Generation-IV NPP concepts (Generation-IV concepts are listed according to thermal-efficiency decrease) [6, 16].
BREST-OD-300 is Fast Reactor with “NATural safety”-Test-Demonstration in Russian abbreviations (БРЕСТ-OD-300—Быстрый Реактор с ЕСТественной безопасностью—Опытно –Демонстрационный).
Layout of 600-MWth VHTR NPP with SC-CO2 power cycle (based on figure from Bae et al. [17]) [18].
T-s diagram for 600-MWth VHTR NPP with SC-CO2 (S-CO2) power cycle (based on Figure 5) [18].
Schematic of 600-MWth GFR concept considered initially by GIF with direct Brayton helium cycle (Courtesy of GIF) (see also [6]).
Layout of 2400-MWth GFR NPP with He-N2 indirect combined power cycle (based on figure from Anzieu [23]) [18].
T-s diagrams of 2400-MWth GFR NPP combined power cycle (based on Figure 8) [18].
No. | Fluid | Molar mass | Tcr | Pcr | ρcr | Application in power engineering at SCPs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
kg/kmol | °C | MPa | kg/m3 | |||
1 | Carbon dioxide,1 CO2 | 44.01 | 30.978 | 7.3773 | 467.6 | WF in Brayton and Rankine power cycles (see Figures 5 and 6) |
2 | Ethanol, C2H6O | 46.068 | 241.56 | 6.268 | 273.19 | N/A |
3 | Helium,2 He | 4.0026 | Reactor coolant in VHTR & GFR (see Figure 7); WF in Brayton power cycle (see Figure 7) | |||
4 | Methanol, CH3OH | 32.042 | 239.45 | 8.1035 | 275.56 | N/A |
5 | Nitrogen, N2 | 28.013 | ‑146.96 | 3.3958 | 313.3 | WF in Brayton cycle (also, mixture of N2 (80%) & He (20%) is proposed (see Figures 8 and 9)) |
6 | R-12, CCl2F2 | 120.91 | 111.97 | 4.1361 | 565.0 | Modeling fluid in thermalhydraulic tests |
7 | R-134a, CF3CH2F | 102.03 | 101.06 | 4.0593 | 511.9 | Modeling fluid in thermalhydraulic tests |
8 | Water3, H2O | 18.015 | 373.95 | 22.064 | 322.0 | WF in Rankine cycle of coal-fired ThPP; reactor coolant in SCWR; WF in Rankine power cycle (see Figure 1) |
Nowadays, the most widely used SCFs are water, carbon dioxide, and refrigerants [9]. Quite often, carbon dioxide and refrigerants are considered as modeling fluids and used instead of SCW due to significantly lower critical pressures and temperatures, which decreases the complexity and costs of thermalhydraulic experiments. However, they can be/will be used as working fluids in new SCP power cycles: Brayton and Rankine ones [6] (for details, see Table 3).
Also, other applications of SCFs will be discussed in the following chapters and are listed in Pioro and Duffey [9].
Prior to a general discussion on specifics of forced-convective heat transfer at critical and supercritical pressures, it is important to define special terms and expressions used at these conditions [6, 9]. For a better understanding of these terms and expressions their definitions are listed in Glossary (see below) (also, see Figures 10–35). Specifics of thermophysical properties at SCPs are described in Pioro et al. [23]; Handbook [6]; Mann and Pioro [24]; Gupta et al. [25]; Pioro and Mokry [26]; and Pioro and Duffey [9] (for more details, see Table 4).
Thermodynamics diagrams for water: (a) pressure-temperature and (b) temperature-specific entropy (based on NIST [25]).
Profiles of selected thermophysical properties (density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, and dynamic viscosity) vs. temperature for SCW at pressure of 24.0 MPa (based on NIST [25]).
Temperature and HTC profiles along heated length of vertical bare tube with upward flow of SCW (data by Kirillov et al. [26]): D = 10 mm; Lh = 4 m; qdht = 316 kW/m2 at G = 503 kg/m2s; points—experimental data; curves—calculated data; curve for HTC is calculated through Dittus-Boelter correlation (Eq. (1)). Profiles of density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, and dynamic viscosity vs. temperature for SCW at pressure of 24.0 MPa are shown in Figure 11. Uncertainties of primary parameters are listed in Table 5.
(a) Temperature and HTC profiles along heated length of vertical bare tube with upward flow of SCW (data by Kirillov et al. [26]): D = 10 mm; Lh = 4 m; points—experimental data; curves—calculated data. Uncertainties of primary parameters are listed in Table 5; and (b) temperature and thermophysical-properties profiles along heated length of vertical tube: operating conditions in this figure correspond to those in (a); and thermophysical properties based on bulk-fluid temperature. Profiles of density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, and dynamic viscosity vs. temperature for SCW at pressure of 24.0 MPa are shown in Figure 11.
Profiles of bulk-fluid and inside-wall temperatures, and HTC along heated length of vertical bare tube with upward flow of SCW at various heat fluxes: (a) q = 944 kW/m2; Tb in = 313°C (entrance region can be identified within Lh = 0–150 mm) and (b) q = 2079 kW/m2; Tb in = 308°C (data by Razumovskiy et al.). For both graphs, qdht = 1575 kW/m2 at G = 2193 kg/m2s (based on Eq. (5) [51]: P = 23.5 MPa; G = 2193 kg/m2s; and. Points—experimental data; curves—calculated data; curves for HTC and Tw are calculated through Dittus-Boelter correlation (Eq. (1)). Uncertainties of primary parameters are similar to those listed in Table 6.
Density profiles vs. reduced temperature and temperature for water, carbon dioxide, ethanol, and methanol (based on NIST [25]) (prepared by D. Mann): (a) at critical pressures; and (b) at 25 MPa for water and equivalent pressures for other SCFs (based on reduced-pressure scaling (for details, see Table 4 and [21])).
Thermal-conductivity profiles vs. reduced temperature and temperature for water, carbon dioxide, ethanol, and methanol (based on NIST [25]) (prepared by D. Mann): (a) at critical pressures; and (b) at 25 MPa for water and equivalent pressures for other SCFs (based on reduced-pressure scaling (for details, see Table 4 and [21])).
Dynamic-viscosity profiles vs. reduced temperature and temperature for water, carbon dioxide, ethanol, and methanol (based on NIST [25]) (prepared by D. Mann): (a) at critical pressures; and (b) at 25 MPa for water and equivalent pressures for other SCFs (based on reduced-pressure scaling (for details, see Table 4 and [21])).
Specific-heat profiles vs. reduced temperature and temperature for water, carbon dioxide, ethanol, and methanol (based on NIST [25]) (prepared by D. Mann): (a) at critical pressures; and (b) at 25 MPa for water and equivalent pressures for other SCFs (based on reduced-pressure scaling (for details, see Table 4 and [21])).
Specific-enthalpy profiles vs. reduced temperature and temperature for water, carbon dioxide, ethanol, and methanol (based on NIST [25]) (prepared by D. Mann): (a) at critical pressures; and (b) at 25 MPa for water and equivalent pressures for other SCFs (based on reduced-pressure scaling (for details, see Table 4 and [21])).
Prandtl-Number profiles vs. reduced temperature and temperature for water, carbon dioxide, ethanol, and methanol (based on NIST [25]) (prepared by D. Mann): (a) at critical pressures; and (b) at 25 MPa for water and equivalent pressures for other SCFs (based on reduced-pressure scaling (for details, see Table 4 and [21])).
Heat transfer coefficient vs. bulk-fluid enthalpy in vertical tube with upward flow of SCW at various heat fluxes (data from Yamagata et al. [46]).
3-D image of vertical annular channel (a) and three-rod bundle (b) cooled with upward flow of SCW (for other details, see Figure 23) [35]: heated rods equipped with four helical ribs.
Radial cross-sections of annular channel (single rod) and three-rod bundle (for other details, see Figure 22) [35]: heated rods equipped with four helical ribs; all dimensions in mm; and Ukrainian stainless steel has been used for heated rods, by content and other parameters, this steel is very close to those of SS-304.
Profiles of bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC along heated length of vertical annular channel (one-rod bundle; rod with four helical ribs) cooled with upward flow of SCW ([36])—P = 22.6 MPa and G = 2000 kg/m2s (bare tube qdht = 1431 kW/m2 (based on Eq. (5)): (a) qave = 2.244 MW/m2 and Tin = 210°C; and (b) qave = 2.547 MW/m2 and Tin = 214°C). For details of test section, see Figure 23. Points are experimental data; curves are calculated data; curves for HTC and Tw are calculated through Dittus-Boelter correlation (Eq. (1)). Uncertainties of primary parameters are listed in Table 6.
Profiles of bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC along heated length of vertical annular channel (three-rod bundle; each rods with 4 helical ribs) cooled with upward flow of SCW ([36])—P = 27.5 MPa; qave = 3.07 MW/m2; G = 1500 kg/m2s (bare tube qdht = 1059 kW/m2 (based on Eq. (5)): (a) Tin = 166°C and (b) Tin = 212°C. Bare tube qdht = 1431 kW/m2 at G = 2000 kg/m2s (based on Eq. (5)); for details of test section, see Figure 23). Points are experimental data; curves are calculated data; curves for HTC and Tw are calculated through Dittus-Boelter correlation (Eq. (5)). Uncertainties of primary parameters are listed in Table 6.
3-D view (a) and cross-sectional view of vertical seven-rod bundle (b) cooled with upward flow of SCW [41, 42]: heated rods equipped with four helical ribs; all dimensions in mm; and Ukrainian stainless steel has been used for heated rods, by content and other parameters this steel is very close to those of SS-304.
Profiles of bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC vs. heated length; vertical seven-rod bundle (see Figure 26) cooled with upward flow of SCW [42]: P = 22.6 MPa. Uncertainties of primary parameters are listed in Table 6. (a) G = 1000 kg/m2s; qave = 1.29 MW/m2 (bare tube qdht = 0.69 MW/m2); Tin = 178ºC; and central and peripheral rods; (b) G = 1000; qave = 1.29 MW/m2 (bare tube qdht = 0.69 MW/m2); Tin = 178ºC; and G = 800 kg/m2s; qave = 1.18 MW/m2 (bare tube qdht = 0.54 MW/m2); Tin = 210ºC; and central rod.
Spacer grid locations and dimensions (all dimensions are in mm) [43].
Photo of central part of 7-element bundle with spacer grid [43].
Bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC profiles along heated length of vertical bare 7-element bundle (Dhy = 4.7 mm) cooled with upward flow of SC R-12 [43, 44]: Run 3: Pin = 4.65 MPa; G = 508 kg/m2s; qave = 19.4 kW/m2, and Tin = 74°C.
Bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC profiles along heated length of vertical bare 7-element bundle (Dhy = 4.7 mm) cooled with upward glow of SC R-12 [43, 44]: Run 7: Pin = 4.64 MPa; G = 517 kg/m2s; qave = 33.4 kW/m2, and Tin = 112°C.
Temperature and HTC profiles along 4-m circular tube (D = 10 mm) with upward flow of SCW (data by Kirillov et al. [26]) [54]: Pin ≈ 24 MPa, G = 500 kg/m2s; qave = 287 kW/m2; comparison of calculated HTC values through the “proposed correlation”—Eq. (2) with experimental data within Normal Heat Transfer (NHT) regime.
Temperature and HTC profiles along circular tube (D = 7.5 mm) with upward flow of SCW (data by Yamagata et al. [46]) [54]: Pin = 24.5 MPa; G = 1260 kg/m2s; qave = 233 kW/m2; comparison of calculated HTC values through the “proposed correlation”—Eq. (2) with experimental data within normal and improved heat transfer (NHT and IHT) regimes.
Wall temperature and HTC profiles along vertical circular tube (D = 8 mm and L = 2.208 m) with upward flow of SC CO2 (data by I. Pioro): P = 8.8 MPa; G = 940 kg/m2s; q = 225 kW/m2, and Tin = 30°C.
Wall temperature and HTC profiles along vertical circular tube (D = 8 mm and L = 2.208 m) with upward flow of SC CO2 (data by I. Pioro): P = 8.8 MPa; G = 2000 kg/m2s; q = 428 kW/m2, and Tin = 29°C.
Compressed fluid is the fluid at a pressure above the critical pressure, but at a temperature below the critical temperature (see Figure 10).
Critical point (also called a critical state) is the point in which the distinction between the liquid and gas (or vapor) phases disappears (see Figure 10), that is, both phases have the same temperature, pressure, and specific volume or density. The critical point is characterized with the phase-state parameters: Tcr, Pcr and vcr (or ρcr), which have unique values for each pure substance.
Deteriorated heat transfer (DHT) is characterized with lower values of the HTC compared to those for normal heat transfer (NHT); and hence, has higher values of wall temperature within some part of a heated channel (see Figures 12,13a,24b,25b,27,31, and 35) or within the entire heated length (see Figure 14b).
Improved heat transfer (IHT) is characterized with higher values of the HTC compared to those for NHT; and hence, lower values of wall temperature within some part of a heated channel (see Figures 12,21,25,27b,33, and 34) or within the entire heated length. In our opinion, the IHT regime or mode includes peaks or “humps” in the HTC profile near the critical or pseudocritical points.
Normal heat transfer (NHT) can be characterized in general with HTCs similar to those of subcritical convective heat transfer far from the critical or pseudocritical regions, when they are calculated according to the conventional single-phase Dittus-Boelter-type correlations: Nu = 0.0243 Re0.8Pr0.4 (see Figures 12,13a,14a,21,24,25,27, and 30–34).
Overheated vapor is the vapor at pressures below the critical pressure, and at temperatures above the saturation temperature, but below the critical temperature (see Figure 10).
Pseudocritical line is the line, which consists of pseudocritical points (see Figure 10).
Pseudo-boiling is a physical phenomenon similar to subcritical-pressure nucleate boiling, which may appear at SCPs. Due to heating of an SCF with a bulk-fluid temperature below the pseudocritical temperature (high-density fluid, i.e., “liquid-like”) (see Figures 10,11,13b and 15), some layers near the heated surface may attain temperatures above the pseudocritical temperature (low-density fluid, i.e., “gas-like”). This low-density “gas-like” fluid leaves the heated surface in a form of variable density volumes (bubbles). During the pseudo-boiling, the HTC usually increases (IHT regime).
Pseudocritical point (characterized with P and Tpc) is the point at a pressure above the critical pressure and at a temperature (Tpc > Tcr) corresponding to the maximum value of specific heat at this particular pressure (see Figures 10,11, and 13b).
Pseudo-film boiling is a physical phenomenon similar to subcritical-pressure film boiling, which may appear at SCPs. At pseudo-film boiling, a low-density fluid (a fluid at temperatures above the pseudocritical temperature, i.e., “gas-like”) prevents a high-density fluid (a fluid at temperatures below the pseudocritical temperature, i.e., “liquid-like”) from contacting (“rewetting”) a heated surface. Pseudo-film boiling leads to the DHT regime.
Supercritical fluid is the fluid at pressures and temperatures that are higher than the critical pressure and critical temperature (see Figure 10). However, in the present paper, the term supercritical fluid usually includes both terms—supercritical fluid and compressed fluid.
Supercritical “steam” is actually supercritical water, because at supercritical pressures fluid is considered as a single-phase substance (see Figure 10). However, this term is widely (and incorrectly) used in the literature in relation to supercritical-“steam” generators and turbines.
Superheated steam is the steam at pressures below the critical pressure, but at temperatures above the critical temperature (see Figure 10).
No. | Literature source | Fluid | P, MPa | T, °C | Properties |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Pioro et al. [19] | Properties of selected metals, alloys, and diamond Properties of selected insulating materials Radiative properties of selected materials Properties of selected nuclear fuels Properties of selected gases at atmospheric pressure Properties of selected cryogenic gases Properties of selected fluids on saturation line Properties of selected supercritical fluids Properties of selected liquid alkali metals Thermophysical properties of nuclear-reactor coolants | |||
2 | Handbook [6] | H2O, CO2, He | ‑ | ‑ | T-s diagrams |
H2O (BWR, PHWR, PWR) | 7, 11, 15 | 50‑375 | ρ, k, μ, ν, cp, H, Pr, β | ||
H2O (SCW) | Pcr, 25, 30, 35, 40 | 350‑600 | ρ, k, μ, ν, cp, H, Pr, β | ||
CO2 (SC CO2) | Pcr, 8.4, 10.0, 11.7 | 0‑165 | ρ, k, μ, ν, cp, H, Pr, β | ||
He | Pcr and other pressures | Range of T | k, cp, β | ||
Air, Ar, CO2, He, H2, Kr (gases) | 0.1 | 0‑1000 | ρ, k, μ, cp, Pr, β | ||
CO2 (AGR) | 4 | 250‑1000 | ρ, k, μ, cp, H, Pr, β | ||
FLiNaK (MSR) | 0.1 | ||||
H2O/SCW (PWR/SCWR) | 15.5/25 | ||||
He (VHTR, GFR) | 7, 9 | ||||
Na, Pb, Pb-Bi (SFR, LFR) | 0.1 | ||||
3 | Mann and Pioro [20] | SC R-134a | Pcr, 5, 10, 13, 15 | ‑100‑175 | k, cp, β |
4 | Gupta et al. [21] | SCW SC CO2 SC R-134a (three fluids on same graph) | 25.0 8.4* 4.6* | ρ, k, μ, cp, H, Pr | |
5 | Pioro and Mokry [22] | H2O | ‑ | ‑ | T-s diagram |
H2O (SCW) | Pcr, 25, 30, 35 | 350‑600 | ρ, k, μ, ν, cp, H, Pr, β | ||
R-12 (SC R-12) | Pcr, 4.65 | 0‑350 | ρ, k, μ, ν, cp, H, Pr, β | ||
6 | Pioro and Duffey [9] | R-134a (SC R-134a) | Pcr, 4.6 | 70‑150 | ρ, k, μ, ν, cp, H, Pr, β |
Selected list of literature sources on thermophysical properties of fluids, gases, and other materials.
Pressures for SC carbon dioxide, R-134a, and R-12 are equivalent for SCW pressure of 25 MPa, based on, so-called, reduced-pressure scaling:
Parameters | Uncertainty |
---|---|
Test-section power | ±1.0% |
Inlet pressure | ±0.25% |
Wall temperature | ±3.0% |
Mass-flow rate | ±1.5% |
Heat loss | ≤3.0% |
Uncertainties of primary parameters [51].
Also, profiles of the basic thermophysical properties (density, thermal conductivity, dynamic viscosity, specific heat and specific enthalpy) and Prandtl number for four SCFs: water, ethanol, methanol, and carbon dioxide; at critical and one supercritical pressure, which is 25 MPa for water and the corresponding to that equivalent pressures for all other SCFs vs. reduced temperature (temperature) are shown in Figures 15–20.
Water is the most widely used coolant or working fluid at SCPs. The largest application of SCW is in SC “steam” generators and turbines, which are widely used in the thermal power industry worldwide. Currently, upper limits of pressures and temperatures used in the thermal-power industry are about 30–38 MPa and 600–625°C, respectively (see Table 1). A new direction in SCW application in the power industry has been the development of SCWR concepts (see Table 2), as part of the Generation-IV International Forum (GIF) [27] initiative (for details, see [6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 28, 29, 30]; and Proceedings of the International Symposiums on SCWRs (ISSCWR) (selected augmented and revised papers from ISSCWRs have been published in the ASME Journal of Nuclear Engineering and Radiation Science in 2020, Vol. 6 No. 3; in 2018, Vol. 4, No. 1, and 2016, Vol. 2, No. 1).
Experiments at SCPs are very expensive and require sophisticated equipment and measuring techniques. Therefore, some of these studies (e.g., heat transfer in fuel-bundle simulators) are proprietary and, hence, usually are not published in open literature.
The majority of studies deal with heat transfer and hydraulic resistance of working fluids, mainly water, carbon dioxide, refrigerants, and helium, in circular bare tubes [9, 22, 31, 32, 33, 34]. A limited number of studies were devoted to heat transfer and pressure drop in annuli and bundles [9, 10, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45].
New experiments in the 1990s–2000s were triggered by several reasons: (1) thermophysical properties of SCW have been updated from the 1950s–1970s, for example, a peak in thermal conductivity in the critical/pseudocritical points was “officially” introduced in the 1990s; (2) experimental techniques have been improved; (3) in SCWRs various bundle flow geometries will be used instead of bare-tube geometry; and (4) in SC “steam” generators of thermal power plants larger diameter tubes/pipes (20–40 mm) are used, however, in SCWRs hydraulic-equivalent diameters of proposed bundles will be within 5–12 mm.
Accounting that SCW, SC carbon dioxide and SC R-12 are the most widely used fluids, specifics of heat transfer, including generalized correlations, will be discussed in this paper. Specifics of heat transfer and pressure drop at other conditions and/or for other fluids are discussed in the book by Pioro and Duffey [9].
All primary sources (i.e., all sources found by the authors from a total of 650 references dated mainly from 1950 till beginning of 2006) of heat transfer experimental data for water and carbon dioxide flowing inside circular tubes at supercritical pressures are listed in the book by Pioro and Duffey [9].
In general, three major heat transfer regimes (for their definitions, see Section 2, Glossary) can be noticed at critical and supercritical pressures (for details, see Figures 12,13a,14,21,24,25,27,30–35):
Normal heat transfer;
Improved heat transfer; and
Deteriorated heat transfer.
Also, two special phenomena (for their definitions, see Section 2, Glossary) may appear along a heated surface: (1) pseudo-boiling; and (2) pseudo-film boiling. These heat transfer regimes and special phenomena appear to be due to significant variations of thermophysical properties near the critical and pseudocritical points and due to operating conditions.
Therefore, the following conditions can be distinguished at critical and SCPs:
Wall and bulk-fluid temperatures are below a pseudocritical temperature within a part of (see Figure 12) or the entire heated channel (see Figures 14a,24a, and 30);
Wall temperature is above, and bulk-fluid temperature is below a pseudocritical temperature within a part of (see Figures 13a,31,34, and 35) or the entire heated channel (see Figure 14b);
Wall temperature and bulk-fluid temperature is above a pseudocritical temperature within a part of or the entire heated channel (see Figures 12,13a,21,31–35);
High heat fluxes (see Figures 13a, 24 and 25);
Entrance region (see Figures 12,13a,32, and 34);
Upward and downward flows;
Horizontal flows; and
Effect of gravitational forces at lower mass fluxes; etc.
All these conditions can affect SC heat transfer.
Figure 13b shows bulk-fluid-temperature and thermophysical-properties (thermal conductivity, dynamic viscosity, specific heat, and Prandtl number) profiles along the heated length of a vertical bare circular tube (operating conditions in this figure correspond to those in Figure 13a).
Some researchers have suggested that variations in thermophysical properties near critical and pseudocritical points result in the maximum value of HTC. Thus, Yamagata et al. [46] found that for SCW flowing in vertical and horizontal tubes, the HTC increases significantly within the pseudocritical region (Figure 21). The magnitude of the peak in HTC decreases with increasing heat flux and pressure. The maximum HTC values correspond to a bulk-fluid enthalpy, which is slightly less than the pseudocritical bulk-fluid enthalpy.
In future SCWRs the main flow geometry will be bundles of various designs [6, 10]. Therefore, a limited number of experiments have been performed in simplified bundle simulators cooled with SCW and heated with an electrical current [10, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. An annulus or a one-rod (single-rod) bundle is the simplest bundle geometry (see Figures 22a and 23), and Figure 24 shows profiles of bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC along heated length of vertical annular channel (one-rod bundle). Figures 22b and 23 show three-rod-bundle flow geometry, and Figure 25 shows profiles of bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC along heated length of vertical three-rod bundle. Figure 26 shows seven-rod-bundle flow geometry, and Figure 27 shows profiles of bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC along heated length of the vertical seven-rod bundle.
Analysis of data in Figures 25b and 27b shows that all three HT regimes, which were noticed in bare circular tubes, are also possible in annuli and bundle flow geometries. Figures 24 and 25 show a comparison between the HTC experimental data obtained in annulus and three-rod bundle with those calculated through the Dittus-Boelter correlation (Eq. (1)). The comparison showed that, in general, there is no significant difference between calculated HTC values and experimental ones. This finding means that in spite of the presence of rod(s) with four helical ribs in SCW flow, which can be considered as an HT enhancement surface(s), there is no significant increase in HTC. However, when qdht values reached in SCW-cooled annulus and 3- and seven-rod bundles were compared to those obtained in bare tubes, it was found that qdht in bare tubes were 1.6–1.8 times lower (see Table 7).
Parameters | Maximum uncertainty | |
---|---|---|
Measured | Inlet pressure | ±0.2% |
Bulk-fluid temperature | ±3.4% | |
Wall temperature | ±3.2% | |
Calculated | Mass-flow rate | ±2.3% |
Heat flux | ±3.5% | |
HTC | ±12.7% | |
Heat loss | ≤3.4% |
No. | Test section | Operating conditions | qdht, MW/m2 | Increase in qdht value compared to that of bare tube |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Bare tube | P = 24.1 MPa and G = 2000 kg/m2s | 1.43 | 1.8 |
2 | Annulus | P = 22.6 MPa and G = 2000 kg/m2s | 2.55 | |
3 | Bare tube | P = 24.1 MPa and G = 2700 kg/m2s | 1.95 | 1.6 |
4 | Three-rod bundle | P = 22.6 MPa and G = 2700 kg/m2s | 3.20 | |
5 | Bare tube | P = 24.5 MPa and G = 800 kg/m2s | 0.54 | 1.8 |
6 | Seven-rod bundle | P = 24.5 MPa and G = 800 kg/m2s | 0.96 |
Figures 28 and 29 show a seven-rod bundle test section, which can be considered as a bare bundle, and Figures 30 and 31 show profiles of bulk-fluid and wall temperatures, and HTC vs. heated length of the central rod at three circumferential locations. Analysis of Figures 30 and 31 shows that we also have here all three HT regimes plus sometimes quite significant differences in local HTC values and wall temperatures around the central rod circumference.
Unfortunately, satisfactory analytical methods for practical prediction of forced-convection heat transfer at SCPs have not yet been developed due to the difficulty in dealing with steep property variations, especially, in turbulent flows and at high heat fluxes [10, 48]. Therefore, generalized correlations based on experimental data are used for HTC calculations at SCPs.
There are numerous correlations for convective heat transfer in circular tubes at SCPs (for details, see in Pioro and Duffey [9]). However, an analysis of these correlations has shown that they are more or less accurate only within the particular dataset, which was used to derive the correlation, but show a significant deviation in predicting other experimental data. Therefore, only selected correlations are considered below.
In general, many of these correlations are based on the conventional Dittus-Boelter-type correlation (see Eq. (1)) in which the “regular” specific heat (i.e., based on bulk-fluid temperature) is replaced with the cross-sectional averaged specific heat within the range of (Tw − Tb);
It should be noted that usually generalized correlations, which contain fluid properties at a wall temperature, require iterations to be solved, because there are two unknowns: (1) HTC and (2) the corresponding wall temperature. Therefore, the initial wall temperature value at which fluid properties will be estimated should be “guessed” to start iterations.
The most widely used heat transfer correlation at subcritical pressures for forced convection is the Dittus-Boelter [49] correlation. In 1942, McAdams [50] proposed to use the Dittus-Boelter correlation in the following form, for forced-convective heat transfer in turbulent flows:
However, it was noted that Eq. (1) might produce unrealistic results at SCPs within some flow conditions (see Figure 12), especially, near the critical and pseudocritical points, because it is very sensitive to properties variations.
In general, experimental HTC values show just a moderate increase within the pseudocritical region. This increase depends on mass flux and heat flux: higher heat flux—less increase. Thus, the bulk-fluid temperature might not be the best characteristic temperature at which all thermophysical properties should be evaluated. Therefore, the cross-sectional averaged Prandtl number, which accounts for thermophysical-properties variations within a cross-section due to heat flux, was proposed to be used in many SC HT correlations instead of the regular Prandtl number. Nevertheless, this classical correlation (Eq. (1)) was used extensively as a basis for various SC HT correlations [9].
The majority of empirical correlations were proposed in the 1960s–1970s [9], when experimental techniques were not at the same level (i.e., advanced level) as they are today. Also, thermophysical properties of SCW have been updated since that time (for example, a peak in thermal conductivity in critical and pseudocritical points within a range of pressures from 22.1 to 25 MPa for water was not officially recognized until the 1990s).
Therefore, new correlations within the SCWRs operating range, were developed and evaluated by I. Pioro with his students (mainly, by S. Mokry et al. (bulk-fluid-temperature approach) and S. Gupta et al. (wall temperature approach)) using the best SCW dataset by P.L. Kirillov and his co-workers and adding smaller datasets by other researchers:
The Pioro-Mokry correlation (Eq. (2)) was verified within the following operating conditions (only for NHT and IHT regimes (see Figures 32 and 33), but not for the DHT regime): SCW, upward flow, vertical bare circular tubes with inside diameters of 3–38 mm, pressure—22.8–29.4 MPa, mass flux—200–3000 kg/m2s, and heat flux—70–1250 kW/m2. All thermophysical properties of SCW were calculated according to NIST REFPROP software [25]. This correlation has accuracy of ±25% for HTCs and ±15 for wall temperatures (Figure 34). Eventually, this nondimensional correlation can be also used for other SCFs. However, its accuracy can be less or even significantly less in these cases.
Pioro-Gupta correlation (wall temperature approach) [53]:
Eq. (3) has an uncertainty of about ±25% for HTC values and about ±15% for calculated wall temperatures within the same ranges as those for Eq. (2). Also, it was decided to add an entrance effect to make this correlation even more accurate. This entrance effect was modeled by an exponentially-decreasing term as shown below:
where,
The following empirical correlation was proposed by I. Pioro and S. Mokry for calculating the minimum heat flux at which the DHT regime appears in vertical bare circular tubes:
Pioro-Mokry correlation for qdht [51]:
Correlation (Eq. (5)) is valid within the following range of experimental parameters: SCW, upward flow, vertical bare tube with inside diameter 10 mm, pressure 24 MPa, mass flux 200–1500 kg/m2s, and bulk-fluid inlet temperature 320–350°C. Uncertainty is about ±15% for the DHT heat flux.
Wang et al. [33] have evaluated 15 qdht correlations for SCW, and they have concluded that Pioro-Mokry correlation (Eq. (5)) “may be used for preliminary estimations.”
A recent study was conducted by Zahlan et al. [55, 56] in order to develop a heat transfer look-up table for the critical/SCPs. An extensive literature review was conducted, which included 28 datasets and 6663 trans-critical heat transfer data (Figure 35). Tables 8 and 9 list results from this study in the form of the overall-weighted average and root-mean-square (RMS) errors: (a) within three SC sub-regions; and (b) for subcritical liquid and superheated steam. Many of the correlations listed in these tables can be found in Zahlan et al. [55, 56] and Pioro and Duffey [9]. In their conclusions, Zahlan et al. [55, 56] determined that within the SC region, the latest correlation by Pioro-Mokry [51] (Eq. (2)) showed the best prediction for the data within all three sub-regions investigated (based on RMS error) (see Table 8). Also, the Pioro-Mokry correlation showed quite good predictions for subcritical-pressure water and superheated steam compared to other several correlations (see Table 9). Also, it was concluded that Pioro-Gupta correlation (Eq. (3)) was quite close by RMS errors to the Pioro-Mokry correlation.
No. | Correlation | Regions | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liquid-like | Gas-like | Critical or pseudocritical | |||||
Errors, % | |||||||
Ave. | RMS | Ave. | RMS | Ave. | RMS | ||
1 | Dittus-Boelter [49] | 24 | 44 | 90 | 127 | ‑ | ‑ |
2 | Sieder and Tate [59] | 46 | 65 | 97 | 132 | ‑ | ‑ |
3 | Bishop et al. [60] | 5 | 28 | 5 | 20 | 23 | 31 |
4 | Swenson et al. [61] | 1 | 31 | ‑16 | 21 | 4 | 23 |
5 | Krasnoshchekov et al. [62] | 18 | 40 | ‑30 | 32 | 24 | 65 |
6 | Hadaller and Banerjee [63] | 34 | 53 | 14 | 24 | ‑ | ‑ |
7 | Gnielinski [64] | 10 | 36 | 99 | 139 | ‑ | ‑ |
8 | Watts and Chou [65], NHT | 6 | 30 | ‑6 | 21 | 11 | 28 |
9 | Watts and Chou [65], DHT | 2 | 26 | 9 | 24 | 17 | 30 |
10 | Griem [66] | 2 | 28 | 11 | 28 | 9 | 35 |
11 | Koshizuka and Oka [67] | 26 | 47 | 27 | 54 | 39 | 83 |
12 | Jackson [68] | 15 | 36 | 15 | 32 | 30 | 49 |
13 | Mokry et al. [51, 52] | ‑5 | 26 | ‑9 | 18 | ‑1 | 17 |
14 | Kuang et al. [69] | ‑6 | 27 | 10 | 24 | ‑3 | 26 |
15 | Cheng et al. [70] | 4 | 30 | 2 | 28 | 21 | 85 |
16 | Gupta et al. [53] | ‑26 | 33 | ‑12 | 20 | ‑1 | 18 |
Chen et al. [57] has also concluded that the Pioro-Mokry correlation for SCW HT “performs best” compared to other 14 correlations.
The following correlation was proposed by S. Gupta (an MASc student of I. Pioro) [21] for SC carbon dioxide flowing inside vertical bare tubes:
Uncertainties associated with this correlation are ±30% for HTC values and ± 20% for calculated wall temperatures (see Figures 36 and 37). Ranges of parameters for the dataset used to develop Eq. (6) are listed in Table 10.
HTC and Tw variations along L = 2.208 m circular tube (D = 8 mm): q = 90.7 kW/m2P = 8.4 MPa, and G = 1608 kg/m2s. Wall Approach Corr. is Eq. (6) and Mokry et al. Corr. – Eq. (2).
HTC and Tw variations along L = 2.208 m circular tube (D = 8 mm): q = 161.2 kW/m2P = 8.8 MPa, and G = 2000 kg/m2s. Wall Approach Corr. is Eq. (6) and Mokry et al. Corr. – Eq. (2).
P, MPa | Tin, °C | Tout, °C | Tw, °C | q, kW/m2 | G, kg/m2s |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
7.57‑8.8 | 20‑40 | 29‑136 | 29‑224 | 9.3‑616.6 | 706‑3169 |
Ranges of parameters of dataset used to develop Eq. (6).
Table 11 list mean and root-mean square (RMS) errors in HTC and Tw for proposed correlations using equations shown below:
Errors in HTC (for the reference dataset), % | ||
---|---|---|
Mean Error | RMS | |
Proposed new correlation (Tb approach) | 0.9% | 22.4% |
Proposed new correlation (Tfilm approach) | 0.2% | 21.7% |
Proposed new correlation (Tw approach—Eq. (6)) | 0.8% | 20.3% |
Swenson et al. [61] correlation | 89% | 132% |
Mokry et al. [51] correlation for SCW | 68% | 123% |
Gupta et al. [53] correlation for SCW | 78% | 130% |
Mean and RMS errors for HTC values of proposed correlations (values in bold represent minimum errors) [21].
It was also decided to develop the qdht correlation for SC carbon dioxide based on the dataset obtained by I. Pioro in vertical bare tube with upward flow, which ranges are listed in Table 10 [58]. Therefore, based on the identified 41 cases of DHT within the SC carbon dioxide dataset, the following correlation for the minimal heat flux at which deterioration occurs was proposed:
In general, the total pressure drop for forced convection inside a channel can be calculated according to expressions listed in Pioro and Duffey [9] and Pioro et al. [71].
Supercritical fluids are used quite intensively in various industries. Therefore, understanding specifics of thermophysical properties, heat transfer, and pressure drop in various flow geometries at supercritical pressures is an important task.
In general, three major heat transfer regimes were noticed at critical and supercritical pressures in various flow geometries (vertical bare tubes, annulus, three- and seven-rod bundles) and several SCFs (SCW, SC carbon dioxide, and SC R-12): (1) normal heat transfer; (2) improved heat transfer; and (3) deteriorated heat transfer. Also, two special phenomena may appear along a heated channel: (1) pseudo-boiling; and (2) pseudo-film boiling. These heat transfer regimes and special phenomena appear to be due to significant variations of thermophysical properties near the critical and pseudocritical points and due to operating conditions.
Comparison of heat transfer-coefficient values obtained in bare circular tubes with those obtained in annulus (one-rod bundle)/three-rod bundle (rod(s) equipped with four helical ribs) shows that there are almost no differences between these values. However, the minimal heat flux at which deterioration occurs (qdht) in annulus, and three- and seven-rod bundles are in 1.6–1.8 times higher compared to that recorded in bare tubes.
The current analysis of a number of well-known heat transfer correlations for supercritical fluids showed that the Dittus-Boelter correlation [49] significantly overestimates experimental HTC values within the pseudocritical range. The Bishop et al. [60] and Jackson [68] correlations tend also to deviate substantially from the experimental data within the pseudocritical range. The Swenson et al. [61] correlation provided a better fit for the experimental data than the previous three correlations within some flow conditions, but does not follow up closely the experimental data within others.
Therefore, new correlations were developed by Pioro with his students Mokry et al. [51] (bulk-fluid-temperature approach) and Gupta et al. [21] (wall temperature approach), which showed the best fit for the experimental data within a wide range of operating conditions. These correlations have uncertainties of about ±25% for HTC values and about ±15% for calculated wall temperature. Also, based on an independent study performed by Zahlan et al. [55, 56], Pioro-Mokry correlation (given as Eq. (2)) is the best for superheated steam compared to other well-known correlations. Also, this correlation showed quite good predictions for subcritical-pressure fluids.
The author would like to express his appreciation to his former and current students, S. Clark, A. Dragunov, S. Gupta, M. Mahdi, D. Mann, S. Mokry, R. Popov, G. Richards, Eu. Saltanov, H. Sidawi, E. Tamimi, and A. Zvorykin, for their assistance in the preparation of figures and developing of correlations.
area, m2 specific heat at constant pressure, J/kg K averaged specific heat within the range of (Tw – Tb); inside diameter, m mass flux, kg/m2s; specific enthalpy, J/kg heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K thermal conductivity, W/m K heated length, m mass-flow rate, kg/s; pressure, Pa heat transfer rate, W heat flux, W/m2; specific entropy, J/kg K temperature, °C film temperature, °C; volume-flow rate, m3/s specific volume, m3/kg axial coordinate, m thermal diffusivity, m2/s; volumetric expansion coefficient, 1/K difference efficiency, % dynamic viscosity, Pa·s density, kg/m3 kinematic viscosity, m2/s; Nusselt number; Prandtl number; cross-sectional average Prandtl number within the range of (Tw – Tb); Reynolds number; average bulk calculated correlation critical deteriorated heat transfer flow heated hydraulic-equivalent inlet maximum minimum outlet pseudocritical saturation thermal wall
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
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\n\n',metaTitle:"Open Access Statement",metaDescription:"Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0)",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-statement/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Formats
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\\n\\n\\n\\nCosts
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
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\n\n\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
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