Diagnosing Requirements Failure (Ellis, 2008)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"75",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Analog Circuits",title:"Advances in Analog Circuits",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book highlights key design issues and challenges to guarantee the development of successful applications of analog circuits. Researchers around the world share acquired experience and insights to develop advances in analog circuit design, modeling and simulation. The key contributions of the sixteen chapters focus on recent advances in analog circuits to accomplish academic or industrial target specifications.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-323-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5982-7",doi:"10.5772/607",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"advances-in-analog-circuits",numberOfPages:382,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle",publishedDate:"February 2nd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/75.jpg",numberOfDownloads:46397,numberOfWosCitations:42,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:8,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:85,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 18th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 15th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 20th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 19th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 2nd 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"17479",title:"Dr.",name:"Esteban",middleName:null,surname:"Tlelo-Cuautle",slug:"esteban-tlelo-cuautle",fullName:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17479/images/101_n.jpg",biography:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle received a B.Sc. degree from Instituto Tecnológico de Puebla in 1993. He then received both M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica (INAOE), in 1995 and 2000, respectively. In 2001 he was appointed as professor-researcher at INAOE. From 2009-2010, he served as a Visiting Researcher in the department of electrical engineering at the University of California Riverside, USA. He has authored seven books, fifteen book chapters, 56 journal articles and around 100 conference papers. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of the National System for Researchers (SNI-México). He serves in the editorial board of Nonlinear Science Letters B: Chaos, Fractal and Synchronization; Trends in Applied Sciences Research; and Journal of Applied Sciences. He regularly serves as a reviewer in about 22 journals and 15 international conferences. His research interests include systematic synthesis and behavioral modeling and simulation of linear and nonlinear circuits and systems, chaotic oscillators, symbolic analysis, multi-objective evolutionary algorithms, and analog/RF and mixed-signal design automation tools.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics and Electronics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"735",title:"Circuit Design",slug:"circuit-design"}],chapters:[{id:"13827",title:"Analog CMOS Design Automation Methodologies for Low-Power Applications",doi:"10.5772/14316",slug:"analog-cmos-design-automation-methodologies-for-low-power-applications",totalDownloads:4311,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Alessandro Girardi and Lucas C. Severo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13827",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13827",authors:[{id:"17450",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Girardi",slug:"alessandro-girardi",fullName:"Alessandro Girardi"},{id:"21796",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucas",surname:"Severo",slug:"lucas-severo",fullName:"Lucas Severo"}],corrections:null},{id:"13828",title:"A New Approach to Biasing Design of Analog Circuits",doi:"10.5772/15682",slug:"a-new-approach-to-biasing-design-of-analog-circuits",totalDownloads:2851,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Reza Hashemian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13828",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13828",authors:[{id:"17264",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",surname:"Hashemian",slug:"reza-hashemian",fullName:"Reza Hashemian"}],corrections:null},{id:"13829",title:"New Port Modeling and Local Biasing of Analog Components",doi:"10.5772/14244",slug:"new-port-modeling-and-local-biasing-of-analog-components",totalDownloads:1957,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Reza Hashemian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13829",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13829",authors:[{id:"17264",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",surname:"Hashemian",slug:"reza-hashemian",fullName:"Reza Hashemian"}],corrections:null},{id:"13830",title:"Behavioral Modeling of Mixed-Mode Integrated Circuits",doi:"10.5772/15864",slug:"behavioral-modeling-of-mixed-mode-integrated-circuits",totalDownloads:2885,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle, Elyoenai Martínez-Romero, Carlos Sánchez-López, Francisco V. Fernández, Sheldon X.-D. Tan, Peng Li and Mourad Fakhfakh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13830",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13830",authors:[{id:"17479",title:"Dr.",name:"Esteban",surname:"Tlelo-Cuautle",slug:"esteban-tlelo-cuautle",fullName:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle"},{id:"22102",title:"Dr.",name:"Peng",surname:"Li",slug:"peng-li",fullName:"Peng Li"},{id:"22254",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco V.",surname:"Fernandez",slug:"francisco-v.-fernandez",fullName:"Francisco V. Fernandez"},{id:"22255",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Sanchez-Lopez",slug:"carlos-sanchez-lopez",fullName:"Carlos Sanchez-Lopez"},{id:"22256",title:"MSc.",name:"Elyoenai",surname:"Martinez-Romero",slug:"elyoenai-martinez-romero",fullName:"Elyoenai Martinez-Romero"},{id:"22257",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheldon",surname:"X.-D. Tan",slug:"sheldon-x.-d.-tan",fullName:"Sheldon X.-D. Tan"},{id:"22258",title:"Dr.",name:"Mourad",surname:"Fakhfakh",slug:"mourad-fakhfakh",fullName:"Mourad Fakhfakh"}],corrections:null},{id:"13831",title:"Parallel Preconditioned Hierarchical Harmonic Balance for Analog and RF Circuit Simulation",doi:"10.5772/14373",slug:"parallel-preconditioned-hierarchical-harmonic-balance-for-analog-and-rf-circuit-simulation",totalDownloads:2501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Peng Li and Wei Dong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13831",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13831",authors:[{id:"17604",title:"Dr.",name:"Peng",surname:"Li",slug:"peng-li",fullName:"Peng Li"},{id:"17610",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Dong",slug:"wei-dong",fullName:"Wei Dong"}],corrections:null},{id:"13832",title:"Lifetime Yield Optimization of Analog Circuits Considering Process Variations and Parameter Degradations",doi:"10.5772/14322",slug:"lifetime-yield-optimization-of-analog-circuits-considering-process-variations-and-parameter-degradat",totalDownloads:2863,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Xin Pan and Helmut Graeb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13832",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13832",authors:[{id:"17136",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin",surname:"Pan",slug:"xin-pan",fullName:"Xin Pan"},{id:"17473",title:"Dr.",name:"Helmut",surname:"Graeb",slug:"helmut-graeb",fullName:"Helmut Graeb"}],corrections:null},{id:"13833",title:"Linear Analog Circuits Problems by Means of Interval Analysis Techniques",doi:"10.5772/15490",slug:"linear-analog-circuits-problems-by-means-of-interval-analysis-techniques",totalDownloads:2387,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zygmunt Garczarczyk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13833",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13833",authors:[{id:"21012",title:"Dr.",name:"Zygmunt",surname:"Garczarczyk",slug:"zygmunt-garczarczyk",fullName:"Zygmunt Garczarczyk"}],corrections:null},{id:"13834",title:"Analog Design Issues for Mixed-Signal CMOS Integrated Circuits",doi:"10.5772/15176",slug:"analog-design-issues-for-mixed-signal-cmos-integrated-circuits",totalDownloads:5164,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gabriella Trucco and Valentino Liberali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13834",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13834",authors:[{id:"19710",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriella",surname:"Trucco",slug:"gabriella-trucco",fullName:"Gabriella Trucco"},{id:"21161",title:"Prof.",name:"Valentino",surname:"Liberali",slug:"valentino-liberali",fullName:"Valentino Liberali"}],corrections:null},{id:"13835",title:"Tunable Analog and Reconfigurable Digital Circuits with Nanoscale DG-MOSFETs",doi:"10.5772/15432",slug:"tunable-analog-and-reconfigurable-digital-circuits-with-nanoscale-dg-mosfets",totalDownloads:3031,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Savas Kaya, Hesham F. A. Hamed and Soumyasanta Laha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13835",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13835",authors:[{id:"20807",title:"Dr.",name:"Savas",surname:"Kaya",slug:"savas-kaya",fullName:"Savas Kaya"},{id:"20814",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesham F.A.",surname:"Hamed",slug:"hesham-f.a.-hamed",fullName:"Hesham F.A. Hamed"},{id:"59851",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumyasanta",surname:"Laha",slug:"soumyasanta-laha",fullName:"Soumyasanta Laha"}],corrections:null},{id:"13836",title:"Statistical Analog Circuit Simulation: Motivation and Implementation",doi:"10.5772/15680",slug:"statistical-analog-circuit-simulation-motivation-and-implementation",totalDownloads:5065,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"David C. Potts",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13836",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13836",authors:[{id:"21599",title:"Dr.",name:"David C.",surname:"Potts",slug:"david-c.-potts",fullName:"David C. Potts"}],corrections:null},{id:"13837",title:"Advanced Statistical Methodologies for Tolerance Analysis in Analog Circuit Design",doi:"10.5772/15164",slug:"advanced-statistical-methodologies-for-tolerance-analysis-in-analog-circuit-design",totalDownloads:1885,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Bruno Apolloni, Simone Bassis, Angelo Ciccazzo, Angelo Marotta, Salvatore Rinaudo and Orazio Muscato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13837",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13837",authors:[{id:"19864",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Rinaudo",slug:"salvatore-rinaudo",fullName:"Salvatore Rinaudo"},{id:"21236",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Apolloni",slug:"bruno-apolloni",fullName:"Bruno Apolloni"},{id:"21237",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",surname:"Bassis",slug:"simone-bassis",fullName:"Simone Bassis"},{id:"21238",title:"Mr.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Ciccazzo",slug:"angelo-ciccazzo",fullName:"Angelo Ciccazzo"},{id:"21239",title:"Prof.",name:"Orazio",surname:"Muscato",slug:"orazio-muscato",fullName:"Orazio Muscato"},{id:"24224",title:"Mr.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Marotta",slug:"angelo-marotta",fullName:"Angelo Marotta"}],corrections:null},{id:"13838",title:"Analog-Aware Schematic Synthesis",doi:"10.5772/14547",slug:"analog-aware-schematic-synthesis",totalDownloads:2532,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Yuping Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13838",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13838",authors:[{id:"18125",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuping",surname:"Wu",slug:"yuping-wu",fullName:"Yuping Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"13839",title:"An SQP and Branch-and-Bound Based Approach for Discrete Sizing of Analog Circuits",doi:"10.5772/14571",slug:"an-sqp-and-branch-and-bound-based-approach-for-discrete-sizing-of-analog-circuits",totalDownloads:1929,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Michael Pehl and Helmut Graeb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13839",authors:[{id:"17473",title:"Dr.",name:"Helmut",surname:"Graeb",slug:"helmut-graeb",fullName:"Helmut Graeb"},{id:"18193",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Michael",surname:"Pehl",slug:"michael-pehl",fullName:"Michael Pehl"}],corrections:null},{id:"13840",title:"Analog Circuit for Motion Detection Applied to Target Tracking System",doi:"10.5772/14837",slug:"analog-circuit-for-motion-detection-applied-to-target-tracking-system",totalDownloads:2691,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Kimihiro Nishio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13840",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13840",authors:[{id:"17486",title:"Dr.",name:"Kimihiro",surname:"Nishio",slug:"kimihiro-nishio",fullName:"Kimihiro Nishio"}],corrections:null},{id:"13841",title:"Analog Circuits Implementing a Critical Temperature Sensor Based on Excitable Neuron Models",doi:"10.5772/14578",slug:"analog-circuits-implementing-a-critical-temperature-sensor-based-on-excitable-neuron-models",totalDownloads:2114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gessyca M., Tovar Nunez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13841",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13841",authors:[{id:"18218",title:"Dr.",name:"Gessyca M.",surname:"Tovar Nunez",slug:"gessyca-m.-tovar-nunez",fullName:"Gessyca M. Tovar Nunez"}],corrections:null},{id:"13842",title:"Evolvable Metaheuristics on Circuit Design",doi:"10.5772/14688",slug:"evolvable-metaheuristics-on-circuit-design",totalDownloads:2231,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Felipe Padilla, Aurora Torres, Julio Ponce, María Dolores Torres, Sylvie Ratté and Eunice Ponce-de-León",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/13842",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/13842",authors:[{id:"18530",title:"Dr.",name:"Felipe",surname:"Padilla",slug:"felipe-padilla",fullName:"Felipe Padilla"},{id:"18533",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurora",surname:"Torres",slug:"aurora-torres",fullName:"Aurora Torres"},{id:"18534",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",surname:"Ponce",slug:"julio-ponce",fullName:"Julio Ponce"},{id:"18535",title:"Dr.",name:"María Dolores",surname:"Torres",slug:"maria-dolores-torres",fullName:"María Dolores Torres"},{id:"23502",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Ratté",slug:"sylvie-ratte",fullName:"Sylvie Ratté"},{id:"24175",title:"Dr.",name:"Eunice",surname:"Ponce De Leon",slug:"eunice-ponce-de-leon",fullName:"Eunice Ponce De Leon"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1824",title:"VLSI Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c59a927a7019ac531e7ee1663e732657",slug:"vlsi-design",bookSignature:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle and Sheldon X.-D. Tan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1824.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17479",title:"Dr.",name:"Esteban",surname:"Tlelo-Cuautle",slug:"esteban-tlelo-cuautle",fullName:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"49",title:"Chaotic Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"chaotic-systems",bookSignature:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/49.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17479",title:"Dr.",name:"Esteban",surname:"Tlelo-Cuautle",slug:"esteban-tlelo-cuautle",fullName:"Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6749",title:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f10484c09f13914d4eaf8196b89b10e4",slug:"simulation-and-modelling-of-electrical-insulation-weaknesses-in-electrical-equipment",bookSignature:"Ricardo Albarracín Sánchez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6749.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192893",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Albarracín Sánchez",slug:"ricardo-albarracin-sanchez",fullName:"Ricardo Albarracín Sánchez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3249",title:"Analog Circuits",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f4314b0cd11348f24dcf5959d3188a5",slug:"analog-circuits",bookSignature:"Yuping Wu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3249.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18125",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuping",surname:"Wu",slug:"yuping-wu",fullName:"Yuping Wu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"71364",slug:"erratum-the-mechanism-of-misalignment-of-saw-cutting-crack-of-concrete-pavement",title:"Erratum - The Mechanism of Misalignment of Saw Cutting Crack of Concrete Pavement",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71364.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71364",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71364",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71364",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71364",chapter:{id:"71109",slug:"the-mechanism-of-misalignment-of-saw-cutting-crack-of-concrete-pavement",signatures:"Chatarina Niken",dateSubmitted:"October 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 14th 2020",datePublished:"September 23rd 2020",book:{id:"7615",title:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",slug:"fracture-mechanics-applications",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen and H. Ersen Balcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7615.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayri Baytan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozmen",slug:"hayri-baytan-ozmen",fullName:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"313776",title:"Dr.",name:"Chatarina",middleName:null,surname:"Niken",fullName:"Chatarina Niken",slug:"chatarina-niken",email:"chatarinaniken@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"71109",slug:"the-mechanism-of-misalignment-of-saw-cutting-crack-of-concrete-pavement",signatures:"Chatarina Niken",dateSubmitted:"October 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 14th 2020",datePublished:"September 23rd 2020",book:{id:"7615",title:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",slug:"fracture-mechanics-applications",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen and H. Ersen Balcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7615.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayri Baytan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozmen",slug:"hayri-baytan-ozmen",fullName:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"313776",title:"Dr.",name:"Chatarina",middleName:null,surname:"Niken",fullName:"Chatarina Niken",slug:"chatarina-niken",email:"chatarinaniken@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7615",title:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",slug:"fracture-mechanics-applications",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen and H. Ersen Balcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7615.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayri Baytan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozmen",slug:"hayri-baytan-ozmen",fullName:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11475",leadTitle:null,title:"Food Security Challenges and Approaches",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tFood is the basic necessity, which sustains active and health life style. Everybody should have an access towards adequate amount of food that can be ensured through food security. Therefore, the concept regarding the food security has utmost importance for developed and developing nations. It measures that every individual has access to the food that fulfils the food safety and quality standards. Food availability, access, utilization and stability are the pillars of the food security. These pillars are being affected due to various factors such as natural disasters, poor agricultural and post-harvest practices, climate change and poor manufacturing and marketing strategies. The role of all these factors will aim to fall in the scope of this book.
\r\n\tFood insecurity results in fear of hunger and starvation that ultimately affects one’s ability to work for sustainability and economic growth of the country. In addition to this, food insecurity results in various chronic diseases due to reduce immunity that ultimately, a burned on the county economy. Therefore, this book will intend to discuss in detail about the food insecurity challenges and their effect on the quality of life. This book will also aim to provide an overview about the new trends and future prospective that help to resolve the food security issues.
A number of commercial software vendors sell supply chain software suites that cover essentially all needs of the enterprise. For example, a vendor’s product can handle everything from creating an order, to logistics planning for that order, to logistics execution of that order, and finally to financial settlement. Allowing a single software suite to enable all supply chain-related transactions has some significant benefits including reduced integration costs, improved data integrity, and increased process optimization; however, the reality is that many organizations explicitly choose not to perform all of their transactions in a single software suite. Instead, supply chain processes are almost always executed across a heterogeneous system landscape, often involving communications among systems that were not designed to communicate with each other.
Akin to the system landscape decision is the decision of how to implement business processes. There are some business processes in which no competitive advantage is gained from “doing things your own way”; for example, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software has optimized the processing of payroll to the point where a customized payroll process probably will not give you much of an edge over the non-customized competition. However, there are other business processes where innovation can provide a competitive advantage; for example, in the 1980s Wal-Mart enhanced its logistics operations with cross-docking and gained an operational advantage over other retailers. Process innovation is widely acknowledged as a means of increasing business value (Davenport, 1992). In such cases, a single unmodified commercial software product might not support the customized process, and the question becomes how to best develop a solution supporting the customized process while keeping interfacing and interface maintenance costs under control.
In recent years, a number of enterprise software vendors have put forward offerings in the genre we call “Model-to-Execution.” These offerings provide a viable means of designing and implementing custom solutions in a manner that is economical in terms of both implementation and maintenance costs.
We begin by presenting our hypothesis and briefly introducing the concept of Model-to-Execution. We then discuss the case study that is used to test the hypothesis and the solution that was designed and implemented via Model-to-Execution. Finally, we describe the benefits of Model-to-Execution for organizations and discuss some of our lessons learned from testing the hypothesis.
As described in the introduction, modern supply chain solutions are automated. There are two possibilities: the supply chain business processes could be automated with a single software product or with multiple software products from different vendors. Some companies have elected to use a single vendor, but most companies use products from multiple vendors. Our research focuses on an efficient and effective way to implement supply chain software in a multiple-vendor environment.
Our primary hypothesis is that logistics business processes can be described in business terms and fully automated using Model-to-Execution software solutions. To test this hypothesis, we perform an actual implementation project across multiple vendor components. This is the primary scientific contribution of this paper.
Model-to-Execution (M2E) is a methodology for designing and implementing software solutions that support business processes. “Model” refers to business process modeling, the practice of analyzing business processes and thoroughly documenting them, typically in step-by-step process flow models. However, a business process model does not execute business processes; such models only illustrate how operations “should” work. This is where “-to-Execution” becomes important. Technologies now exist for converting business process models into running workflow code, and these running workflows combined with humans, Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs), and software services can in fact execute business processes.
Figures 1 and 2 show, in part, the similar approaches taken by two M2E vendors: Oracle and Software AG. We note the common elements “Implement,” “Execute,” and “Monitor”, as well as doing either “Model” or “Strategize” and “Design” prior to implementation. We know from experience with the Oracle and Software AG product offerings that many of the software tools in their suites are also analogous across the two vendors. In fact, the same business process modeling tool is used in both vendors’ M2E offerings—the ARIS Platform from IDS-Scheer. (IDS-Scheer was purchased by Software AG in 2009, and the ARIS product is included in the Oracle Fusion Middleware (OFM) suite under the name Oracle Business Process Analysis (BPA) Suite).
A key component of Model-to-Execution is the business process modeling. Business process modeling is performed primarily by business analysts and serves several purposes. First, because a process is executed across organizational stovepipes, it assembles all relevant business process stakeholders into the same room, something that does not occur often enough in many organizations. Second, it drives agreement. Forcing all constituencies to collectively draw a single representation of the solution helps ensure that differences in vision are worked through and agreed upon before the implementation is started. Third, it provides a significant portion of the content for a requirements document for describing the desired solution to the implementation team. If the purpose of a development initiative is to build an executable business process, then a detailed diagram of the business process is necessary to have in the requirements document. Finally, in all Model-to-Execution packages that we have worked with to date, the business process model is transformed into the skeleton around which the rest of the solution is built. Without the business process model the rest of the solution cannot be built using this methodology.
Oracle BPM [Business Process Management] Lifecycle (Oracle Corporation,
Software AG BPE [Business Process Excellence] Lifecycle (
Conversion of the business process model into executable software occurs in several steps that vary by M2E platform. This conversion is performed primarily by technical staff since the work involved is to some degree (again varying by M2E platform) like “coding” of software. However, as mentioned, the business process model is transformed into the skeleton around which the rest of the solution is built, helping to ensure that the technical resources are building the solution envisioned by the business analysts. An analogy is that the technical resources attach muscles (software engines and services), brains (business rules, software logic, etc.), nerves (“alerts” that monitor Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and notify people when significant events occur), and skin (graphical user interfaces) to the skeleton.
Figure 3, by Gulledge (2010), illustrates this process of converting a business process model into executable software. The left side of Figure 3 shows the business process model (labeled as “Business BPM”). The business process model is turned into a skeleton, depicted in the center of Figure 3 (labeled “Technical BPM”) prior to adding additional functionality (the muscles, brains, nerves, and skin) to it. Finally, the right side of Figure 3 (labeled “Development/ Deployment”) shows the skeleton as it is being “fleshed out” with the additional functionality. Whereas the business process model on the left is just a picture and the un-fleshed-out skeleton in the center is also incapable of action, a fully fleshed-out skeleton on the right is capable of executing the business process on which it was based.
Going from Model to Execution (
Although this is not a requirement of M2E, Model-to-Execution lends itself readily to Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA). This is in part because the SOA pattern of breaking down a large software task into smaller tasks performed by reusable Services dovetails nicely with the Business Process Management (BPM) pattern of breaking down a large business task into its smaller component tasks. SOA also embraces the idea of work being performed by multiple systems not under the direct control of the process owner, something that is often encountered in an end-to-end business process. Finally, SOA promotes the idea of loose coupling between systems, which we have found to be a good approach in our M2E implementations thus far as it allows one to quickly swap out one service or sub-process for another.
Model-to-Execution is not the ideal approach to every problem. The following non-exhaustive list contains some of the characteristics that would make a business problem a good candidate for applying the Model-to-Execution approach:
Possibly a custom or highly specialized business process: Routine problems are probably already solved in a commercial software package
The desired solution is not well-defined (perhaps it is new or innovative) and requires much analysis and agreement before implementation can begin: If the solution is already well-defined, then the process modeling effort adds overhead but minimal benefit.
The business process changes frequently (i.e., the solution requires flexibility and agility): The more frequently an organization desires to change a business process, the more important it is for Information Technology (IT) to adapt quickly to these desires. M2E helps with quickly communicating the desired changes from business staff to technical staff; A frequently changing process leverages the M2E agility advantage more often.
The business process involves more than one person and/or a heterogeneous system landscape: We leverage the workflow aspect of M2E when we route tasks between different people and systems; The functionality that a system exposes to external callers is typically less powerful and less optimized than what is available to the system internally. M2E solutions will typically call other systems from the outside, so if only one system is involved then perhaps working natively is a better solution.
Cognizant of the fact that supply chain organizations often run more than a single enterprise system, we present a case study examining the potential of Model-to-Execution for executing a supply chain business process within a heterogeneous system landscape.
The proposed business scenario is as follows: Company XYZ is a small printer and fax distributor in the United States (US). It ships printers from several warehouses around the US directly to customer locations. The company’s customer delivery performance was deteriorating, and management identified a few issues in the supply chain execution process that were impacting their KPIs:
Orders were being confirmed and released from warehouses with insufficient inventory. The company wanted to ensure that if orders could not be filled from a particular warehouse location, then inventory would be released from a different warehouse to fulfill that order. This would allow for accurate management of inventory turns.
Customer delivery addresses were inaccurate, resulting in undeliverable shipments. The company preferred that “the system” confirm a delivery address before orders are released.
Company XYZ automate its logistics and transportation using the Oracle Transportation Management (OTM) product. However, it automate its back-office processes using SAP Business One, making this a heterogeneous system landscape. In addition, the Warehouse Management System (WMS) is proprietary, presenting unique interfacing challenges compared to commercial products with documented interfaces. Finally, despite the desire to confirm customer delivery addresses in an automated manner, the company only has the ability to manually confirm.
This case study scenario, while not performed for any particular customer, is based on real-world observations. For example, many organizations use OTM for shipment planning and execution, and even though OTM has order-creation capability, they elect to create orders in SAP. The problem of sending items to invalid addresses frequently occurs, as does the problem of interfacing proprietary systems with the rest of the IT landscape. Finally, the integration of multiple disparate systems to enable cross-functional business processes is a problem area that that is well known in the research literature.
We will now describe in detail the different steps followed in the M2E approach to create the solution. In this case study, the task of taking one from Order to Shipment is accomplished not by a single software application, but rather by a “composite application” made up of the three applications previously mentioned (SAP Business One, proprietary WMS, and OTM) and a fourth application—an address-checking service provided by the United States Postal Service (USPS). Note that the steps followed in this case study are by no means the only way in which M2E could be applied to this problem. Nor are the tools used and systems involved necessarily the tools and systems we would choose today if redoing this case study. The point of the case study is merely to demonstrate that a working solution to a real problem can be developed via the M2E methodology.
Model-to-Execution requires roughly the following components:
A tool for modeling the business process. (The reader will recall that the “skeleton” from our body analogy is created from the business process model.)
Tools for fleshing out the skeleton, turning what was “just a skeleton” into executable code by: Attaching various software components to the skeleton; Building new software components that are needed but do not exist ahead of time; Writing business rules or other process logic needed to guide the process execution.
An environment for running the executable code. Just as Mac programs won’t run on a personal computer (PC) and PC programs won’t run on a Mac, likewise M2E executable code will not run unless it’s in an appropriate environment.
The tools we chose for this project are the following:
Oracle Business Process Analysis (BPA) Suite for modeling the business process, and also for converting the process model into a skeleton.
Oracle JDeveloper for fleshing out the skeleton.
Oracle Application Server (OAS) for executing the code produced by Oracle JDeveloper.
These three components are a part of what Oracle brands as Oracle Fusion Middleware (OFM). The inherent integration of the various suite components was one of the primary drivers for choosing to take the development stack from a single vendor (not to be confused with taking the entire application stack from a single vendor). Minimal effort is involved in converting a business process model into a skeleton, and it is likewise easy to move the fleshed-out skeleton into the execution environment. We could have used the same logic to select the Software AG development stack instead, and indeed have done so on other M2E projects. Rarely would we choose to take development stack components from multiple vendors, as this often means extra effort on the part of the development team to make the components of the stack work together.
There is also another problem associated with using components from multiple vendors. Kemsley (2010) says that “using separate, non-integrated tools created a communication barrier between business and IT.”
The project team was small: one business analyst (an experienced supply chain consultant), one technical person (an experienced software developer), and a few Subject-Matter Experts (SMEs) (technology consultants, supply chain consultants, former warehouse operations employee). The whole solution was essentially built by two people—the business analyst and the technical resource—in the span of a few months, not by an army of programmers over the course of several years.
The small team size is an advantage of this approach, and is enabled by several factors. Among these is the fact that we are not building an entire solution from the bottom up. Rather, we are leveraging many things that already exist and just building the parts that do not exist. For example, it would take a long time to build a shipment planning feature from scratch, so we instead leverage the shipment planning feature already built in OTM. However, the Warehouse Management System had no feature for rerouting an order in the case of insufficient inventory, so we had to build this feature from scratch.
The Business Process Modeling effort was led by the business analyst, with the technical resource having only a supporting role in the effort. Through several process-modeling workshops held with the SMEs, the business analyst obtained an understanding of how the SMEs wanted the business process to work, modeled the process in Oracle BPA Suite, and validated the model with the SMEs to confirm that her understanding was correct. Figure 4 shows the result.
Those not familiar with the Event-driven Process Chain (EPC) notation used in this process model can think of a green or blue rectangle as an action (“Function”) performed during the business process, and a pink hexagon as an “Event” that triggers the next step in the process. The blue rectangles with gear icons represent fully-automated steps in the process—“the system” should execute these actions without any human interaction. The green rectangle in the middle-right with the person icon is a manual human task—a human must take some sort of action (in this case, reviewing the order and either making corrections or rejecting it outright), often through a GUI. The other green rectangle in the lower-right with the mail icon is a notification step—“the system” sends an email notifying someone of something (in this case, “The order is being canceled”).
The short description of the process is as follows: an end-user enters an order into the SAP Business One system. Two process steps are then executed in parallel: the delivery address specified in the order is automatically verified against a system run by the US Postal Service, and an automated check for and subsequent reservation of inventory is made against the proprietary Warehouse Management System. Assuming these process steps encounter no problems, execution follows the left leg of the model where the order is moved into Oracle
Business Process Model
Transportation Management (OTM) for shipment planning and execution. (The Functions “Retrieve Destination Location Code” and “Create Location Code” get or create technical information required when putting an order into OTM.) However, if either the address is declared invalid or there is insufficient inventory to cover the order, then execution follows the right leg of the model and enters the Human Step. A screen built specifically for this case study enables human intervention in hopes of resolving the problem. In resolvable cases (e.g., a mistyped ZIP code), the human can make a fix and send the order down the left path to OTM. In irresolvable cases (e.g., a delivery address containing a city, state, and ZIP code but no street address), the order is canceled and order owners are notified accordingly.
Note that various M2E solutions may use different modeling notations. Two that we commonly encounter are the EPC notation used above, and Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN). The choice of notation is driven primarily by organizational preference and what formats the modeling and conversion tools support. The oracle BPA Suite supports both EPC and BPMN notation, and we have worked on projects where the process modeling was first done in EPC for one audience and converted into BPMN for a second audience. The notation doesn’t necessarily matter so long as the SMEs and modelers understand the notation and the model can be converted into a skeleton.
As mentioned in the previous section, the Oracle BPA Suite was used to model the business process; however, the model is not executable (i.e., one cannot click a “Go” button and watch an order move from SAP Business One into OTM). For a model to be executable, the model must be transformed into a skeleton and fleshed out with technical components. The Oracle BPA Suite is not able to flesh out the model, but it does handle converting the model into a skeleton.
In this project, we created a skeleton in the Business Process Execution Language (BPEL) format, as this is a format that can be easily imported into Oracle JDeveloper. Other tools may use other skeleton formats; for example, if using Software AG’s technology stack, we would convert the EPC into BPMN, and the BPMN to XML Process Definition Language (XPDL)—the XPDL would then be imported into the development environment as the skeleton. In the toolsets we have worked with to date, these conversions have been almost entirely automated—simple copies-and-pastes or right-clicks or wizards make for a painless process of creating the skeleton from the business process model. In this case study, the conversion is initiated by choosing the menu option “Share Blueprint with IT” in the Oracle BPA Suite.
Finally, the skeleton must be moved into the development environment. Our development tool, Oracle JDeveloper, provided a menu option for importing the skeletons from the Oracle BPA Suite database. The specifics of moving a skeleton into a development environment will vary by toolset, and we have seen various vendors making this part of the process more streamlined across new toolset releases.
Once the skeleton was in the development environment, the technical resource’s work began in earnest. As the reader will remember, the skeleton itself does nothing but provide shape and structure; it is the muscles that do the work, the brain that coordinates the actions of the muscles, and so forth.
One of the first things built was a software component that determined when the business process should execute. In this case study, we execute the process when a new order is created in the SAP Business One system, so we wrote code (or the BPEL equivalent) to occasionally poll SAP Business One and determine when a new record had been written to the Orders table. Once a new order was identified, the relevant information about the order (what was ordered, how much was ordered, to where the order would be delivered, etc.) was queried from the database for use by the rest of the business process.
The above approach to retrieving the order would be considered a “pull” of information. Alternatively, we could have extended SAP Business One software to “push” the new order to us as soon as it was created. The business result is the same: the process is initiated with all the information needed to execute the process. However, there are technical and social considerations that are not the same. For example, the owner of the SAP Business One system might object to your continual polling of her system and prefer to push you the data. Or, alternatively, she may prefer to have you poll the database rather than modify the existing SAP Business One implementation. Thus, while this is a trivial decision from the business perspective, there are technical and social factors that should be considered when determining how the process will “know” to begin execution.
In the executing process, data are passed to each process step; for example, in order for the Address Validation step to execute, an address must be passed in. In some cases, a process step also passes data out; for example, the Address Validation step must signal either “Valid” or “Invalid” so that the process can proceed down an appropriate path. This raises several questions, including:
What data must I pass in?
Do I have all the data I need to pass in, or are there missing items that I need to obtain before calling the next process step?
What data will be passed out?
Of the data that was passed out, which data do I actually need to execute this process and which are extraneous to this process? (For example, consider listening to the entire weather report when all you really need to know is tomorrow’s high temperature.)
Do I have the data structures needed to hold the data I will work with?
What data formats are used by the process steps I am calling? What formats should I use for my data structures? If they are not the same, how do I convert between them?
Similar questions arise for branches in the process:
Which field or combination of fields tell me which branch to go down?
If the decision criterion is complicated or may change in the future, should we employ a business rules engine to, for example, simplify complicated decision criteria into a simple “Go Left” or “Go Right” flag?
Is such a flag already in my data structure, or do I need to create one?
These questions relate to discussions about enterprise data models, canonical data models, etc. that we will not get into in this chapter. A few of our suggestions relating to data are:
If your organization has an enterprise data model, canonical data model, etc., then the interfaces (inputs and outputs) to your process should follow the standards defined in them.
If a field is extraneous to your process, consider excluding it as an input. However, consider including it if it is part of a data structure containing other useful information. The idea is to make it easy to invoke your process, whether that means passing in one Purchase Order data structure or just the minimum number of fields.
Within your process, use a process-specific data structure to carry the process from start to finish. It may be an unnecessary complexity to carry a hundred-field Purchase Order if you only need five fields off the purchase order. Likewise, you will probably find a need for fields (such as the “Go Left or Go Right” flag) that would not exist on any business process model or enterprise architecture. However, keep in mind that your process will be calling other processes and services, and any such calls made to processes and services created by your enterprise will be expecting data in the canonical data format.
Expect defining the process-specific data structure to be an iterative process. Despite our best efforts, we rarely anticipate 100% of the structures, fields, and flags needed prior to writing our first line of code.
When calling other processes or services, accept their input and output formats as given and map to them, even if your data representation is “better.” It is rare that the other party will change to accommodate you, especially if they already have other users of that data.
As you implement, search for opportunities to improve or extend the enterprise data model and canonical data model. It may be that you are the first to use a field or data structure that the rest of the enterprise will soon find valuable, especially if the data model is young or you are entering a new line of business.
After analyzing the triggering of the executable process and initially defining the data structures, we began implementing the process. In general, it was easiest to start at the beginning and work sequentially. Testing was done after each component was built to ensure that it was behaving as expected, as the outputs of a component or the path chosen by a logic gate affected what happened farther downstream. Several of the different objects we built are described in subsequent paragraphs.
Address validation was performed through a web service hosted by the United States Postal Service (USPS). A “wrapper” web service was created in Oracle JDeveloper to convert the composite application’s data into the format required by the USPS web service. Wiring was done in Oracle JDeveloper to connect the composite application and the wrapper web service, and the wrapper web service to the USPS web service
The proprietary Warehouse Management System posed a different challenge: rerouting an order in the case of insufficient inventory was an entirely new feature, so there was no existing functionality to leverage. Rather, since the company owned the WMS, the technical resource modified the WMS and coded this functionality from scratch. He then used Oracle JDeveloper to create a web service interface exposing this and other features of the WMS. Finally, he used Oracle JDeveloper to wire up the composite application to call the new web service.
A GUI was needed to facilitate the human task of reconciling faulty orders (invalid addresses or insufficient inventory). It was decided that the GUI would be displayed in the Oracle BPEL Worklist application, an out-of-the-box application from Oracle facilitating task execution. Figure 5 shows the Oracle BPEL Worklist displaying a list of tasks to be executed, and Figure 6 shows the GUI built for our particular human task. The actual building of the GUI was done in Oracle JDeveloper.
Oracle BPEL Worklist
Human Task as rendered in Oracle BPEL Worklist
The email notification was also created in the Oracle JDeveloper. Oracle Fusion Middleware did not send the email, but instead leveraged an external mail server. Oracle JDeveloper was used to specify the port and address of the email server, as well as any other relevant configuration information. Oracle JDeveloper was also used to define the content of the email.
Interfacing with OTM involved integrating directly with OTM’s HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) POST interface. We did this by wrapping the HTTP POST interface in a web service. Calls were made from the composite application to the web service, and the web service created the HTTP POST message and sent it to OTM. All of this work was done in Oracle JDeveloper.
Wiring between the various steps was done within Oracle JDeveloper. This consisted mostly of passing variables into and out of process steps, converting between formats via eXtensible Style Sheet Transformation (XSLT) as needed. When all the components were wired up, the skeleton was fully fleshed out and the composite application was ready for deployment.
As mentioned, testing was done along with building in an incremental, iterative manner. We would build a feature or component, test it, and remove any bugs prior to beginning work on the next feature or component. This let us catch and fix as many problems as possible upstream, before downstream functionality was built around flawed upstream inputs. Oracle JDeveloper has a built-in feature for executing the web services locally prior to integrating with the Enterprise Service Bus (ESB) for what we might call developer-level testing, but it is recommended that one follow standard software development practice and maintain a separate environments for development and production.
In testing this type of composite application, two types of testing are very important. The first is the component test. Each sub-process or web service should be built such that it can be reused by other processes; thus each sub-process or web service must be tested in a stand-alone manner. The second type of test is the end-to-end scenario test. This runs the composite application—i.e., the executable business process—from start to finish, and ensures that the right things occur as the process is executed. Doing only scenario testing may not detect some component-level bugs if the scenarios do not exercise particular features of the component. Doing only component testing might appear to be sufficient—if all the parts work, shouldn’t the whole work as well?—but often mistakes are made in the wiring between components, mistakes that tests of individual components will not catch.
The execution environment was Oracle Application Server (OAS), an OFM component that was standard at the time but has been replaced by Oracle WebLogic application server as of the 11g release of products. As both OAS and Oracle JDeveloper are Oracle products, Oracle provided out-of-the-box integration for easy transferring of code from Oracle JDeveloper to OAS. A few simple menus and wizards let us easily move each module into OAS. The modules to be moved included the web services we created (not the USPS web service, which was already available on the internet), the human task, and the application definition. Note that the components are moved separately from the application definition; they exist apart from the application definition, such that any composite application (including the one we just built) can use them if the application is so defined. Figure 7 is a screenshot showing some of the components in the execution environment. (Note that there are also other components in the environment, presumably used by other composite applications, which our application does not use.)
Once the application definition and all application components are in the execution environment, we can run the application. Keep in mind that the application is a composite application—that is, we leverage pre-existing features of other applications rather than building our own from scratch—and that its purpose is to execute the particular business process that we defined in the scenario description.
Components moved to the Execution Environment
Figure 8 shows the first GUI in our application, leveraging from SAP Business One, in which an order is created. When that is completed, the database poll observes the new order and triggers downstream the process. Web service calls are made behind-the-scenes to the Address Validation web service and the WMS web service to validate the delivery address and reserve inventory, respectively. Figure 9 shows the human task that is generated when the Address Validation web service reported the delivery address as being invalid. A company employee uses the human task GUI to correct the delivery address. Finally, the order arrives in OTM, as shown in Figure 10, for shipment planning and execution.
Executing the process by placing an order in SAP Business One
Using a Human Task GUI to fix an incorrect ZIP code
Order moved into OTM, ready for shipment planning and execution
In the case study, we did the following:
Identified problems in the current business process
Specified changes required to address the problems
Developed a custom application supporting the changed process
An important point is that the business analyst, not the technical staff and not a one-size-fits-all commercial software package, defined how the business process would work. This let the business focus on its specific problems and do business the way it felt would be best. However, unlike many other custom applications, this application was built not from scratch but by leveraging as much functionality as possible from the existing system landscape. This reduces the time and resources required to complete the project. Finally, the composite application was built with minimal customization of commercial software, avoiding the often great expense incurred in modifying and maintaining a custom solution.
Was this a truly differentiating business process? It was probably not, making shopping for a commercial software solution an acceptable alternative to building the composite application. However, assuming that no commercial solution is found to be a solid or economical fit, developing a composite application using the M2E approach described here is a viable alternative to living with the status quo.
We believe that Model-to-Execution offers the following benefits:
A custom, business-oriented solution; the process executed in the composite application is defined by the business managers, not by the commercial software vendor.
A feasible means of implementing a “best-of-breed” solution, often argued against because of the high integration costs.
An agile solution. IT can quickly make changes because any component system or sub-process can be “swapped out” for another comparable system or sub-process with relatively little additional coding. The business can change direction more quickly because IT can change more quickly.
The Model-to-Execution approach makes the heterogeneous system landscape a workable reality rather than a situation to be avoided.
Having now completed several Model-to-Execution projects, the authors offer the following observations as “lessons learned.”
The ideal M2E (or for that matter, SOA) world has a myriad of plug-and-play web services and sub-processes already existing and available for discovery by composite applications. Many of us do not live in such a world. Rather, the functionality we need is often in legacy systems that are not service-enabled, or are perhaps partially service-enabled, but not in the parts that we want to leverage or at the correct granularity to be useful. Thus, we must first “wrap” legacy systems to expose needed functionality in a service-oriented manner.
One should go into an M2E project prepared to do at least some such wrapping. Consider each such wrapping a one-time investment that will be leveraged by any future M2E or SOA projects needing the same functionality. Initially, most of the functionality you want to use will be unwrapped; however, over time an organization’s library of services will grow and less time will be spent wrapping because another project has already done the wrapping work. The natural retirement of legacy systems and activation of more modern, SOA-enabled solutions will also result in more available services and less time spent wrapping.
In one recent M2E project, the customer asked us to duplicate the existing business process currently carried out entirely in an ERP system as a proof-of-concept for M2E. The project was focused on the technical feasibility of M2E but specified with no reuse in mind, eliminating a key factor in how SOA and M2E reduce development cost. The project also did not allow for any changes in the business process, eliminating the possibility that revenues would increase or operating costs decrease as a result of our work.
Manes (2008) in fact cautions that there will be “big challenges measuring ROI [Return On Investment]” on a SOA initiative. As a result of the experience with this customer, we now know how important it is that organizations pursuing an M2E or SOA solution understand how they should and should not expect to see value. Value comes from increased revenues or decreased costs.
If no improvements are made to the business process, there is no reason to expect that revenues will increase, regardless of whether you implement a composite application or continue to use your existing systems.
Costs decrease sharply if you retire a system. However, a system cannot be retired if a composite application is going to leverage its functionality, so “replacing” a system with a composite application is often a misnomer and not a way to decrease costs. (However, if the composite application is designed to leverage the same functionality from a different system instead, then perhaps it is an avenue to facilitate the retirement of a particular system.)
M2E and SOA solutions cost less to develop because some amount of functionality is reused rather than rebuilt from scratch. The less your solution reuses, the more you should expect its development to cost.
A solution or component that can be built in a service-oriented way can also be built in a non-service-oriented way. If there is no reuse involved (as is often the case with an organization’s first SOA implementation), then it would be incorrect to assume that the service-oriented implementation will show reduced cost over the non-service-oriented solution. It may even cost a little more, considering that any component services being built for the SOA solution should probably be built with both present and future uses in mind (whereas non-SOA solutions need not take other uses into account).
It is easy to assert that there is some value in the future flexibility and reusability offered by an M2E or SOA solution. Quantifying that value is a more difficult exercise, but one that you will probably have to undertake if pursuing funding for a SOA or M2E solution.
There is some value—perhaps even synergy—when one thing is “made for” the other. Romantic interests and custom-made suits are two prominent examples. An M2E or SOA solution gives up this value in most places where components are reused. The “made for” value can be retained in things that are not reused—for example, a customized user interface designed to facilitate a particular business task—but in general there is a trade-off of quality for cost because of the generic-building-block approach to SOA solution design.
When it comes to creating a new business application, many organizations have a divide—formal or informal—between the business staff who will use the application and the technical staff who will build the application. Often, the business staff will create requirements documents with no input from the technical staff, then hand off to the technical staff who will build the application without any further interaction with the business staff. This situation is often referred to, disparagingly, as “throwing it over the wall.” In other situations, the technical staff has responsibility for gathering requirements from the business staff, with the result being that a lot of business input is missed.
Table 1, recreated from Ellis (2008) shows the results of requirements ownership by either the technical organization (row 1) or the business organization (row 2). Note that both cases result in budget and time overruns—less so for an IT-led requirements process, but in part because the IT-led initiative underdelivered on the desired functionality whereas the business-led initiative delivered far more than was needed (not necessarily a good thing). However, note that a jointly-owned requirements process results in less overrun and more accurate delivery of the desired functionality.
Budget% of Target | Time% of Target | Functionality % of Target | Stakeholdertime% of Target | |||||
IT Organization | 162.9 | 172.0 | 91.4 | 172.9 | ||||
Non-IT Business | 196.5 | 245.3 | 110.1 | 201.3 | ||||
Jointly Owned | 143.4 | 159.3 | 103.7 | 163.4 | ||||
N=109 |
Diagnosing Requirements Failure (Ellis, 2008)
This finding agrees nicely with our experience on M2E projects that we get better results when our business and technical staff work side-by-side to define and implement the solution. This arrangement helps to ensure that requirements are technically feasible and that the nuances of the business are accurately implemented. While the business staff should drive the requirements gathering, involving technical staff allows for better level-of-effort estimates and occasionally ideas about how new technologies can aid the business. However, good requirements do not automatically result in successful solutions. It is ultimately not the requirements document that gets executed in production but rather the code produced during the implementation. Having the M2E skeleton is helpful for keeping the code close to the business requirements, but perhaps more useful is a business person sitting next to the programmer, able to provide clarification and point out where the implementation can be improved.
M2E is not inherently a situation in which requirements responsibility is jointly owned. In fact, the intent of M2E is specifically to make “throwing it over the wall” more accurate. One can see evidence of this in the fact that the menu option in Oracle BPA Suite for skeleton creation is labeled “Share Blueprint with IT,” suggesting that IT was not involved prior to skeleton creation. Nevertheless, despite the improvements made by M2E to the “throwing it over the wall” process, we strongly advocate joint requirements gathering and joint development.
In conclusion, Model-to-Execution is a viable means of integrating a heterogeneous system landscape. The solution described in this case study is one example, and we expect that in the future other organizations will follow our lead and use a Model-to-Execution approach to develop their own supply chain composite applications. The approach that we present addresses the problem as it actually occurs in industry. That is, our logistics business process is automated using multiple system components, which is the most realistic scenario.
To test our primary hypothesis, we developed an actual composite solution, proving that such an approach is possible. This type of hypothesis test is definitive.
We have explained at a useful level of detail our solution and how we used Model-to-Execution to develop it. We also discussed some of the benefits of Model-to-Execution and some of our lessons learned over various M2E projects.
The authors wish to acknowledge our customers, business partners, colleagues, and former colleagues that have shaped the way we think about this Model-to-Execution paradigm. We learn something new on every project, and our approach is more sophisticated for it.
Oxidoreductases, which includes oxidase, oxygenase, peroxidase, dehydrogenase, and others, are enzymes that catalyze redox reaction in living organisms and in the laboratory [1]. Interestingly, oxidoreductases catalyze reaction involving oxygen insertion, hydride transfer, proton extraction, and other essential steps. The substrate that is oxidized is considered as hydrogen or electron donor, whereas the substrate that is reduced during reaction as hydrogen/electrons acceptor. Most commonly, oxidoreductase enzymes use NAD, FAD, or NADP as a cofactor [2]. Organisms use this group of enzymes for synthesis of biomolecules, degradation and removal of molecules, metabolism of exogenous molecules like drugs, and so on [3, 4, 5]. Their biochemical property such as efficiency, specificity, good biodegradability, and being studied well make it fit well for industrial purposes. As a result, oxidoreductases are being utilized in nutrition, food processing, medicine, and other chemical synthesis. In the near future, oxidoreductase may be utilized as the best biocatalyst in pharmaceutical, food processing, and other industries [6, 7].
Enzymes like oxidoreductase play great and significant function in the field of disease diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment [8]. By analyzing the activities of enzymes and changes of certain substances in the body fluids, a number of disease conditions can be diagnosed [9, 10]. The determination of the activity of the oxidoreductases is helpful in understanding the metabolic activity of different organs [8, 11]. For example, the activity of oxidoreductase enzymes in Krebs cycle is significantly increased during skin infection [12].
There are different disease conditions resulting from deficiency (quantitative and qualitative) and excess of oxidoreductase, which may contribute to the metabolic abnormalities and decreased normal performance of life [13, 14]. For example, relative decreases in the activities of NADH dehydrogenase and ubiquinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase are highly associated with the developments of peripheral arterial disease. Another best example is mutation of p450 oxidoreductase (POR) gene, which leads to insufficiency of P450 enzymes characterized by defective steroidogenesis. Similarly, deficiency of mitochondrial acetaldehyde dehydrogenase disturbs normal metabolism of alcohol and leads to accumulation of acetaldehyde [8, 15, 16]. These conditions in turn affect the normal development and reproduction.
Oxidoreductases are a family of enzymes that catalyze redox reactions. Oxidoreductases catalyze the transfer of electrons from oxidant to reductant [4]. Generally, oxidoreductases catalyze reactions which are similar to A– + B → A + B– where A is the oxidant and B is the reductant [17]. Oxidoreductases can be oxidases where a molecular oxygen acts as an acceptor of hydrogen or electrons and dehydrogenases which are enzymes that oxidize a substrate by transferring hydrogen to an acceptor that is either NAD+/NADP+ or a flavin enzyme. Other classes are oxidoreductases enzymes, peroxidases which are localized in peroxisomes and catalyze the reduction of hydrogen peroxide. Hydroxylases are involved in the addition of hydroxyl groups to their substrates, and oxygenases are key in the incorporation of oxygen from molecular oxygen into organic substrates. And reductase enzymes are involved in the catalysis of reduction reaction [2, 3, 18]. In general, oxidoreductase enzymes play an important role in both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. They are involved in glycolysis, TCA cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, fatty acid, and amino acid metabolism [5, 19, 20].
In glycolysis, the enzyme glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyzes the reduction of NAD + to NADH. In order to maintain the redox state of the cell, this NADH must be re-oxidized to NAD+, which occurs in the oxidative phosphorylation pathway [21].
A high number of NADH molecules are produced in the TCA cycle. The product of glycolysis, pyruvate, enters the TCA cycle in the form of acetyl-CoA. Except leucine and lysine, all twenty of the amino acids can be degraded to TCA cycle intermediates. And most of the fatty acids are oxidized into acetyl coA through beta oxidation that enter TCA cycle [19, 22].
The precursor for the TCA cycle comes from lipids and carbohydrates, both of which produce the molecule acetyl-CoA. This acetyl-CoA enters the eight-step sequence of reactions that comprise the Krebs cycle, all of which occur inside mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. TCA or Krebs cycle produces NADH and FADH, and the reactions are catalyzed by classes of oxidoreductase enzymes [23].
Living cells use electron transport chain to transfer electrons stepwise from substrates (NADH & FADH2) to a molecular oxygen. The proton gradient which is generated through electron transport chain runs downhill to drive the synthesis of ATP. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation take place in the matrix of mitochondria, and there are oxidoreductase enzymes impregnated in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which catalyze these reactions and are engaged in energy production. NADH:quinone oxidoreductase, also called NADH dehydrogenase (complex I), is responsible for the transfer of electrons from NADH to quinones, coupled with proton translocation across the membrane. Succinate:quinone oxidoreductase, or succinate dehydrogenase (complex II), is an enzyme of the Krebs cycle, which oxidizes succinate and reduces quinones, in the absence of proton translocation. Quilon:cytochrome c oxidoreductase (complex III), which transfers electrons from quinols to cytochrome c and cytochrome c:oxygen oxidoreductase, an aa3-type enzyme (complex IV), which receives these electrons and transfers it to oxygen are both oxidoreductase enzymes involved in electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation [19, 24, 25] (Figure 1).
Oxidoreductase enzymes involved in electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation [
Liver is the principal organ for drug metabolism. The body uses different strategies to metabolize drugs like oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, hydration, conjugation, condensation, or isomerization. The main goal of drug metabolism is to make the drug more hydrophilic and excrete easily. Enzymes involved in drug metabolism are found in many tissues and organs but are more concentrated in the liver. Rates of drug metabolism may vary among individuals. Some individuals metabolize a drug so rapidly; in others, metabolism may be so slow and have different effects. Genetic factors, coexisting disorders (particularly chronic liver disorders and advanced heart failure), and drug interactions are responsible factors for variation of rate of drug metabolism among individuals [26].
Generally, drug metabolism can be in three phases. In phase I drug metabolism, oxidoreductase enzymes such as cytochrome P450 oxidases add polar or reactive groups into drugs (xenobiotics). In phase I reaction, drugs are introduced into new or modified functional group through oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis. In Phase II reactions, modified compounds are in conjugation with an endogenous substance, e.g., glucuronic acid, sulfate, and glycine. Phase II reactions are synthetic, and compounds become more polar and thus, more readily excreted by the kidneys (in urine) and the liver (in bile) than those formed in nonsynthetic reactions. At the end, in phase III reaction, the conjugated drugs (xenobiotics) may be further processed, before being recognized by efflux transporters and pumped out of cells. The metabolism of drug often converts hydrophobic compounds into hydrophilic products that are more readily excreted [27].
In normal cases, human body wants to remove or detoxify any compounds that cannot be metabolized otherwise utilized to serve the needs of the body. This removal process is carried out mainly by the liver. The liver has classes of oxidoreductase enzymes that are extremely effective at detoxification and removal of drugs from the body [5, 18].
Oxidation and metabolism of a high number of drugs and endogenous molecules are catalyzed by a class of oxidoreductase enzymes called cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. Even though they are distributed throughout the body, cytochrome P450 enzymes are primarily concentrated in liver cells. The CYP2D6 isozymes play a great role in metabolizing certain opioids, neuroleptics, antidepressants, and cardiac medications. Currently it is going to be understood that difference in the genes for CYP450 enzymes play to inter-individual differences in the serum concentrations of drug metabolites, resulting in interpatient variability in drug efficacy and safety [28].
Flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs) (EC 1.14.13.8) are a family of microsomal NADPH-dependent oxidoreductase, responsible for oxygenation of nucleophilic nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, other drugs, and endogenous molecules. Different variants of mammalian FMOs play a significant role in the oxygenation of nucleophilic xenobiotics. FMO utilizes NADPH as a cofactor and contains one FAD as a prosthetic group. FMOs have a broad substrate specificity and their activity is maximal at or above pH 8.4. FMO is a highly abundant enzyme in the liver endoplasmic reticulum and participates in drug metabolism (activation and detoxification) [29].
Before FMOs bind to a substrate, they activate molecular oxygen. First, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), the prosthetic group of FMO, is reduced by NADPH to form FADH, then oxygen is added into the FAD, and hydro-peroxide FADH-4α-OOH is produced. And then, one oxygen atom is transferred to the substrate [30, 31].
Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) are another family of oxidoreductase responsible for metabolizing ethanol. These enzymes are highly expressed in the liver but at lower levels in many tissues and play a great role in detoxification and easy removal of alcohols. Liver is the main organ for ethanol metabolism. Oxidation of ethanol with these enzymes can become a major energy source especially in the liver, and it can interfere metabolism of other nutrients [32].
The first step in ethanol metabolism is its oxidation to acetaldehyde, and this reaction is catalyzed by enzymes called alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs). The second reaction in ethanol metabolism is oxidation of acetaldehyde into acetate catalyzed by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) enzymes. There are different ADH and ALDH enzymes encoded by different genes occurring in several alleles and enzymes that have different alcohol metabolizing capacity; thereby, they influence individuals’ alcoholism risk. These are either through rapid oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde where there is more active ADH or slower oxidation of acetaldehyde into acetate where there are less active ALDH enzymes. Excess accumulation of acetaldehyde is toxic, which results in different adverse reactions and produces nausea, skin rash, rapid heartbeat, etc. Most commonly, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are responsible for ADH and ALDH gene variants, and these may occur on both coding and non-coding regions of the gene [33, 34].
Monoamine oxidase is a very important oxidoreductase enzyme mainly responsible for degradation of amine neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine. Oxidation of different endogenous and exogenous biogenic amines may produce other active or inactive metabolites. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) is found in two isozyme forms: monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) preferentially deaminates serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dietary vasopressors such as tyramine, and MAO-B preferentially deaminates dopamine and phenethylamine. They are integral flavoproteins components of outer mitochondrial membranes in neurons and glia cell. The two isozymes of MAO differ based on substrate specificity and sensitivity to different inhibitors [35].
Monoamine oxidase enzymes catalyze the primary catabolic pathway for 5-HT oxidative deamination. Serotonin is converted into 5-hydroxy-indoleacetaldehyde, and this product is further oxidized by a NAD-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase to form 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA). Immunohistochemical techniques and in situ hybridization histochemistry techniques are used to study the neuroanatomical localization and biochemical nature of the two forms of MAO [36].
Different antidepressant drugs like phenelzine and tranylcypromine inhibit the activity of monoamine oxidase. These are a result of MAO metabolizes biogenic amines such as 5-HT, DA, and NE. In addition, different dopaminergic neurotoxins such as 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) are metabolized by MAO [37].
Another essential class of oxidoreductase enzyme is NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR). It is a membrane-bound protein localized in the ER membrane. PR involves in the detoxification and activation of a number of xenobiotics. CPR uses FAD and FMN as cofactors, and it transfers the hydride ion of NADPH to FAD, and then FAD transfers electrons to FMN and other oxidases. Finally, it reduces the P450 enzyme heme center to activate molecular oxygen. Thus, electrons transfer from NADPH to the P450 heme center by CPR, which is central for P450-catalyzed metabolism. Flow of electron can be expressed as follows:
Human cytochrome P450 reductase is encoded by the POR gene. It is a 78-kDa multi domain diflavin reductase that binds both FMN and FAD and is attached to the cytoplasmic side of the endoplasmic reticulum via a transmembrane segment at its N-terminus [5, 15, 38].
Several industries such as pharmaceutical, foods, biofuel production, natural gas conversion, and others have used enzyme catalysis at commercial scale [39]. Classes of oxidoreductase enzymes are becoming a target by a number of industries. The family of oxidoreductase like heme-containing peroxidases and peroxygenases, flavin-containing oxidases and dehydrogenases, and different copper-containing oxidoreductases is involved in synthesis and degradation of interested products by the above industries and they are biocatalysts of interest for establishing a bio-based economy. Oxidoreductase enzymes have the highest potential in the production of polymer building blocks, sustainable chemicals, and materials from plant biomass within lignocellulose biorefineries [6, 7, 40].
Enzymes are biological catalysts and have great specificity, efficiency, and selectivity in the reaction they catalyze [39]. Oxidoreductase enzymes have different redox-active centers for doing their functions. These unique features of oxidoreductase enzymes make it valuable targets of pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Advancement in recombinant DNA technology, protein engineering, and bioinformatics is a critical event in the application of enzymes in different industries. A number of dug synthesis processes require the involvement of oxidoreductase enzymes [6].
An oxidoreductase is involved in the synthesis of 3,4-dihydroxylphenyl alanine (DOPA), and 3,4-dihydroxylphenyl alanine is a drug used for treatment of Parkinson’s disease [41]. Similarly, a class of oxidoreductase called monoamine oxidase (MAO) catalyzes enantiomeric desymmetrization of bicyclic proline intermediate, which is an important precursor in the synthesis of boceprevir. Boceprevir is a NS3 protease inhibitor that is used for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infections. Using MAO in this reaction reduces time and waste product generation and is economically cost-competitive and profitable [42]. Its coenzyme specificity makes oxidoreductase an effective biocatalyst in protein engineering [43]. In vitro different oxidoreductase enzymes are involved in regeneration of coenzymes, pyridine nucleotides, NAD(H) and NADP(H). Alcohol dehydrogenase and format dehydrogenase are frequently used enzymes for recycling of coenzymes, and the intermediate products are useful in the synthesis of pharmaceutical drugs such as mevinic acid [44, 45].
Enzymes are biological catalysts and have a number of applications in agricultural fields. Using enzymes has great efficacy and efficiency over chemical catalysts with respect to their productivity, time, cost, quality, and quantity products. There are different classes of oxidoreductase enzymes nowadays involved in fertilizer production, dairy processing, and other food processing in agricultural sector, and their cost-effectiveness and quality product were confirmed by a number of researches [3].
Manipulation of gene cod for different oxidoreductase in plants can also change the characters of plants in a way that it increases productivity and resists adverse effects of herbicide and environmental changes. For example, modification of DNA for glyphosate oxidoreductase (GOX) enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative cleavage of the C▬N bond on the carboxyl side of glyphosate, resulting in the formation of aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) and glyoxylate thereby augmented expression of GOX plants, results in glyphosate herbicide side effect tolerance [46, 47]. Some families of oxidoreductase like xanthine dehydrogenase in plants are used to metabolize reactive oxygen species associated with plant-pathogen and protect plants from stress-induced oxidative damage. Upregulation of xanthine dehydrogenase expression in plants is helpful to increase productivity [48, 49].
Classes of oxidoreductase are also involved in dairy processing. Glucose oxidase produced by fungal species acts as preservatives in dairy products and other foods. The intermediate and end product of glucose oxidase have antimicrobial effect [50]. Isozyme of xanthine oxidoreductase in bovine milk, which catalyzes reduction of oxygen to generate reactive metabolite is used as an anti-microbial agent in the neonatal gastrointestinal tract [51]. Similarly, peroxidases which are a family of oxidoreductase found in higher plants catalyze the oxidation of many compounds including phenolics, in the presence of hydrogen peroxide responsible in browning or darkening of noodles and pasta and associated with a grain quality defect [52]. Protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (POR), which exists in two isozymes POR A and POR B, plays a vital role in plant chlorophyll synthesis, and manipulation on these genes can induce plant development [53]. In general, there are a number of oxidoreductase enzymes found in plants, and their normal activity is crucial for qualitative and quantitative productivity of crops, and these were confirmed by a number of active researches. Different interventions are also going on at gene level to control the expression of oxidoreductase enzymes in plant as needed [3].
Oxidoreductase enzymes are involved in a number of valuable biochemical reactions in the living organism, and their qualitative and quantitative normality is essential. For example, one important class of oxidoreductase is xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) that catalyzes oxidative hydroxylation of hypoxanthine to xanthine then to uric acid and over activity XOR leads to hyperuricemia and concomitant production of reactive oxygen species. In turn, hyperuricemia is confirmed as an independent risk factor for a number of clinical conditions such as gout, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and others. Different urate-lowering drugs or XOR inhibitors are nowadays implemented to prevent and manage hyperuricemia disorder [9].
Another important class of oxidoreductase enzyme is cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) that is essential for multiple metabolic processes. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are involved in metabolism of steroid hormones, drugs, and xenobiotics. Nowadays, more than 200 different mutations and polymorphisms in POR gene have been identified and cause a complex set of disorders. Deficiency of cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase affects normal production of hormone; specifically, it affects steroid hormones, which are needed for normal development and reproduction. This is highly linked with the reproductive system, skeletal system, and other functions. Signs and symptoms can be seen from birth to adult age with different severities. Individuals with moderate cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase deficiency may have ambiguous external genitalia and have a high chance of infertility but a normal skeletal structure [5, 16, 18].
Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) deficiency known as Asian glow or alcohol flushing syndrome is a common genetic health problem that interferes with alcohol metabolism, and ALDH2 is a classical family of oxidoreductase enzymes. It was confirmed that ALDH2 deficiency results in the accumulation acetaldehyde, which is a toxic metabolite of alcohol metabolism and responsible for a number of health challenges like esophageal, head, and neck cancer. A number of researches conclude that acetaldehyde is a group 1 carcinogenic metabolite [33, 54]. Similarly, monoamine oxidase deficiency, which is a family oxidoreductase enzyme, affects the normal metabolism of serotonin and catecholamines. It is a rare X-linked disorder characterized by mild intellectual disability, and behavioral challenges appear at earlier age. Monoamine oxidase-A deficiency that occurs almost exclusively in males has episodes of skin flushing, excessive sweating, headaches, and diarrhea. Monoamine oxidase-A deficiency can be diagnosed by finding an elevated urinary concentration of the monoamine oxidase-A substrates in combination with reduced amounts of the monoamine oxidase products [36, 55].
Mitochondria generate huge amounts of energy (ATP) to eukaryotic cells through oxidation of fats and sugars; and fatty acid β-oxidation and oxidative phosphorylation are two metabolic pathways that are central to this process. Qualitative and quantitative normality of oxidoreductase enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidations are essential to get sufficient energy (ATP) form metabolism. Deficiency of a complex I (NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase) is common, and a well-characterized mitochondrial problem causes reduced ATP production [56]. Complex I (NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase) is responsible for recycling of NADH to NAD+, and in turn, this is essential to sustain Krebs cycle and glycolysis. Mutations in both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA for Complex I gene are responsible for mitochondrial disease. Individuals with mitochondrial diseases suffer from an energy insufficiency characterized by myopathies, neuropathy, delayed development, cardiomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and others. Furthermore, since mitochondria are a hub of metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunctions are highly associated with metabolic diseases like hypertension, obesity, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and even aging. Deficiency of complex I leads to elevation of NADH levels in the mitochondria that inhibit pyruvate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. This condition completely inhibits Krebs cycle, and it is measured by CO2 evolution from [14C] labeled precursors. Similarly, complex II (succinate:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) deficiency affects both fatty acid oxidation and electron transport chain, and it induces retinopathies and encephalopathies [57, 58].
Deficiency of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC), another class of oxidoreductase enzymes, causes similar clinical and biochemical alteration in energy production with complex I (NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase) [59]. Both TCA cycle and respiratory chain can be affected by succinate dehydrogenase deficiency. Deficiency of oxidoreductase enzymes involved in Krebs cycle affects all carbohydrate, protein, fat, and nucleic acid metabolism as it is a common pathway for metabolism of the above macromolecules [60].
Oxidoreductase enzymes are also involved in bile acid synthesis. Classes of oxidoreductase enzymes called 3beta-hydroxy-Delta (5)-C (27)-steroid oxidoreductase catalyze an early step of bile acids synthesis from cholesterol and are encoded by HSD3B7 gene on chromosome 16p11.2-12. Mutations of HSD3B7 gene affect bile acids synthesis, cause development of progressive liver disease characterized by cholestatic jaundice, malabsorption of lipids, and lipid-soluble vitamins from the gastrointestinal tract, and finally progress to cirrhosis and liver failure [61].
One important biomolecule that acts as a precursor for other molecules and a component of cell membrane is cholesterol. Mammalian cells can get cholesterol from de novo biosynthesis or uptake of exogenously derived cholesterol associated with plasma low-density lipoprotein (LDL). 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, which is a class of oxidoreductase, catalyzes the rate-limiting steps of de novo cholesterol biosynthetic pathway and target for manipulation pharmacologically. Under or over activity of HMG-CoA reductase can disturb cholesterol homeostasis and lead to either hypercholesterolemia or hypocholesterolemia. And disturbed cholesterol level associated with number serious clinical problem like atherosclerosis [62, 63].
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Mezgeu Legesse Habte drafted the paper and write the literature review.
Etsegenet Assefa assisted in guidance, critical assessment and peer review of the writing. Both authors have given their final approval of this version to be published. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links.
",metaTitle:"List of Institutions by Country",metaDescription:"If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. However, if your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"open-access-funding-institutions-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Book Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Book Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5945},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17701}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133951},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",src:"ECM",topicId:"8,9,10,11,14,15,17,20,22,24"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11837",title:"Ecology and Geography of the Mediterranean",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bbb25987a982d61da4f47fb13614ba3c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11858",title:"Terahertz Radiation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f08ee0bf20cd8b5fa772b4752081f2fe",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11858.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11938",title:"Ballistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c64ef67aac55216f08c65a2a179835c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11938.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11942",title:"Updates on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4ac095defb765e0e9bfebc06dac719e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11942.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11915",title:"Ontology in Information Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b52397215f6b5e05a22368f629695704",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11915.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12071",title:"Massive Open Online Courses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4918898cbe91bb691a397bbde7138b1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12071.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12062",title:"Public Transportation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c045089da37d46be1ee7e5e74f93cc93",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12062.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12017",title:"Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1912acc4811b724cc0a15dba11f5af79",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12017.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12024",title:"UWB Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6158349f714de7cee2337adf57b2617d",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12024.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12025",title:"Cognitive Radio Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"75b14778d5efbcfe9c1f51d2e31f6aeb",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12025.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12022",title:"Statistical Sampling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d95646776d1cb0b10161dc68c9c07781",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12022.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12026",title:"Induction Motor",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0273a4ffd6bc66faed9db00380771240",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12026.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:30},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:83},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:77},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4422},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"86",title:"Physical Chemistry",slug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry",parent:{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"},numberOfBooks:53,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1225,numberOfWosCitations:2197,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1141,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2844,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"86",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10089",title:"Microwave Heating",subtitle:"Electromagnetic Fields Causing Thermal and Non-Thermal Effects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8f6a41e4f5ce0e9c48628516d7c92050",slug:"microwave-heating-electromagnetic-fields-causing-thermal-and-non-thermal-effects",bookSignature:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy I.",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-i.-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8085",title:"Photophysics, Photochemical and Substitution Reactions",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d12a01a39921705f78e98baf99705b4e",slug:"photophysics-photochemical-and-substitution-reactions-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Satyen Saha, Ravi Kumar Kanaparthi and Tanja V. Soldatovi?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226917",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyen",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"satyen-saha",fullName:"Satyen Saha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10054",title:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"853598dac262500c29850c27c5be6092",slug:"electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Marwa El-Azazy, Mart Min and Paul Annus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10054.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"El-Azazy",slug:"marwa-el-azazy",fullName:"Marwa El-Azazy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10026",title:"Electrodialysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffef55f8ffe48f096acaa5f6329ed76f",slug:"electrodialysis",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10026.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190012",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8111",title:"Foams",subtitle:"Emerging Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b0bd44cbe7220785e3fbbd1003364a82",slug:"foams-emerging-technologies",bookSignature:"Huijin Xu, Chen Yang and Dengwei Jing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213843",title:"Dr.",name:"Huijin",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"huijin-xu",fullName:"Huijin Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7743",title:"Redox",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f364cc129c1b9710ff56e0fad989bd9",slug:"redox",bookSignature:"Rozina Khattak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7743.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207213",title:"Prof.",name:"Rozina",middleName:null,surname:"Khattak",slug:"rozina-khattak",fullName:"Rozina Khattak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9199",title:"Sonochemical Reactions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72f3010437d022fd2a932421ff4a9200",slug:"sonochemical-reactions",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9199.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",middleName:null,surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8012",title:"Sorption in 2020s",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a89bf0c99155aa01dc2f2ba46cbdbb8b",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",bookSignature:"George Kyzas and Nikolaos Lazaridis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8012.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7735",title:"Surfactants and Detergents",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bca8bb6e94e26599889ff5e1190b0ed7",slug:"surfactants-and-detergents",bookSignature:"Ashim Kumar Dutta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7735.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"277477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashim",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Dutta",slug:"ashim-dutta",fullName:"Ashim Dutta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6830",title:"Microemulsion",subtitle:"a Chemical Nanoreactor",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be035517764096e6f36178f12a16ab12",slug:"microemulsion-a-chemical-nanoreactor",bookSignature:"Juan C. Mejuto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192394",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",middleName:"C.",surname:"Mejuto",slug:"juan-mejuto",fullName:"Juan Mejuto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8440",title:"Nanoemulsions",subtitle:"Properties, Fabrications and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d753b932aeea0109c1ab04d6745d4941",slug:"nanoemulsions-properties-fabrications-and-applications",bookSignature:"Kai Seng Koh and Voon Loong Wong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8440.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"222878",title:"Dr.",name:"Kai Seng",middleName:null,surname:"Koh",slug:"kai-seng-koh",fullName:"Kai Seng Koh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7478",title:"Photocatalysts",subtitle:"Applications and Attributes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26559479998a0a8d83546de0a220c87f",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",bookSignature:"Sher Bahadar Khan and Kalsoom Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7478.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245468",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher Bahadar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-bahadar-khan",fullName:"Sher Bahadar Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:53,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"41885",doi:"10.5772/48176",title:"Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons a Constituent of Petroleum: Presence and Influence in the Aquatic Environment",slug:"polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbons-a-constituent-of-petroleum-presence-and-influence-in-the-aquatic-en",totalDownloads:9549,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:107,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"Daniela M. Pampanin and Magne O. Sydnes",authors:[{id:"139987",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sydnes",slug:"sydnes",fullName:"Sydnes"},{id:"143899",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Pampanin",slug:"daniela-pampanin",fullName:"Daniela Pampanin"}]},{id:"40697",doi:"10.5772/51040",title:"Selective Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Waters and Waste Waters Using Ion Exchange Methods",slug:"selective-removal-of-heavy-metal-ions-from-waters-and-waste-waters-using-ion-exchange-methods",totalDownloads:19314,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:93,abstract:null,book:{id:"2549",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki and Dorota Kołodyńska",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"}]},{id:"33450",doi:"10.5772/37583",title:"Measurement of the Nanoscale Roughness by Atomic Force Microscopy: Basic Principles and Applications",slug:"measurement-of-the-nanoscale-roughness-by-atomic-force-microscopy-basic-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:21254,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:89,abstract:null,book:{id:"2282",slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-imaging-measuring-and-manipulating-surfaces-at-the-atomic-scale",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy",fullTitle:"Atomic Force Microscopy - Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale"},signatures:"R.R.L. De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"63161",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80495",title:"Modelling of Adsorption Kinetic Processes—Errors, Theory and Application",slug:"modelling-of-adsorption-kinetic-processes-errors-theory-and-application",totalDownloads:3916,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:85,abstract:"Adsorption has become a competitive method in the field of wastewater and air treatment. Adsorption kinetics is one of the main factors that must be understood before the applicability of any adsorbent. In every adsorption process, linear or non-linear analysis of the kinetics is applied. The goodness of fit index (coefficient of correlation or sum of squares) is applied to access the best model. The usage of linear or non-linear from of the adsorption kinetics has an impact on the distribution of error function. Almost in every adsorption study, linear forms have been used to conclude the best kinetic model that influence the adsorption mechanism—which might be an error. Therefore, this review highlights the mistakes in the usage of linear and non-linear models. The applicability of the adsorption kinetics in wastewater treatment is also illuminated.",book:{id:"7486",slug:"advanced-sorption-process-applications",title:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications"},signatures:"George William Kajjumba, Serkan Emik, Atakan Öngen, H. Kurtulus Özcan\nand Serdar Aydın",authors:[{id:"26340",title:"Dr.",name:"Kurtulus",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"kurtulus-ozcan",fullName:"Kurtulus Ozcan"},{id:"250972",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"serdar-aydin",fullName:"Serdar Aydin"},{id:"251149",title:"Dr.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Emik",slug:"serkan-emik",fullName:"Serkan Emik"},{id:"251150",title:"Dr.",name:"Atakan",middleName:null,surname:"Öngen",slug:"atakan-ongen",fullName:"Atakan Öngen"},{id:"251152",title:"Mr.",name:"George William",middleName:null,surname:"Kajjumba",slug:"george-william-kajjumba",fullName:"George William Kajjumba"}]},{id:"62303",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79374",title:"Modified Titanium Dioxide for Photocatalytic Applications",slug:"modified-titanium-dioxide-for-photocatalytic-applications",totalDownloads:3975,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:73,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been widely used as a photocatalyst in many environmental and energy applications due to its efficient photoactivity, high stability, low cost, and safety to the environment and humans. However, its large band gap energy, ca. 3.2 eV limits its absorption of solar radiation to the UV light range which accounts for only about 5% of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is also limited by the rapid recombination of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs. When used in water treatment applications, TiO2 has a poor affinity toward organic pollutants, especially hydrophobic organic pollutants. Several strategies have been employed to reduce its band gap energy, its electron-hole recombination rates as well as enhance its absorption of organic pollutants. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent works that have employed the doping, decoration, and structural modification of TiO2 particles for applications in photocatalysis. Additionally, we discuss the effectiveness of these dopants and/or modifiers in enhancing TiO2 photoactivity as well as some perspective on the future of TiO2 photocatalysis.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"John Moma and Jeffrey Baloyi",authors:[{id:"250026",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"250963",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Baloyi",slug:"jeffrey-baloyi",fullName:"Jeffrey Baloyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68496",title:"Moisture Sorption Isotherms and Isotherm Model Performance Evaluation for Food and Agricultural Products",slug:"moisture-sorption-isotherms-and-isotherm-model-performance-evaluation-for-food-and-agricultural-prod",totalDownloads:1960,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Moisture sorption characteristics of agricultural and food products play important roles in such technological processes as drying, handling, packaging, storage, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life, glass transition and estimation of drying time and texture and prevention of deteriorative reactions. They are useful in the computation of thermodynamic energies of moisture in the products. An understanding of moisture sorption phenomena in products, moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) determination techniques and moisture sorption isotherm model evaluation procedures would be useful in the development or selection, modeling and controlling as well as optimization of appropriate processes to make for enhanced efficiency. The phenomena addressed in this chapter are equilibrium moisture content (EMC)-water activity (aw) relationships and MSI types, temperature influence on isotherms and occurrence of moisture sorption hysteresis. MSI measurement techniques highlighted are the gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric (VPM), hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic and the use of AquaLab equipment. Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models (BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Halsey, modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost and modified Oswin) were selected, and their evaluation procedures using moisture sorption data were outlined. Static gravimetric technique involving the use of saturated salt solution appears to be the most widely used and recommended method of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products. Most of the MSI models can be fitted to moisture sorption data thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation, while others can be solved using such expression as second-order polynomial. Model goodness of fit can be determined using standard (SE) error of estimate, coefficient of determination (R2), mean relative percentage deviation (P) and fraction explained variation (FEV). The acceptance of a model depends on the nature of its residual plots. A model is considered acceptable if the residual plots show uniform scatter around the horizontal value of zero showing no systemic tendency towards a clear pattern. A model is better than another model if it has lower SE, lower P, higher R2 and higher FEV. Although it appears as if a generalized MSI model is yet to exist, it is recommended that the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema (NBA) model should be given thorough going and extensive testing on the MSI of different categories of food as it could prove true to its generalized model posture due to the fundamental nature of its derivation.",book:{id:"8012",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",title:"Sorption in 2020s",fullTitle:"Sorption in 2020s"},signatures:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",authors:[{id:"303694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ndubisi",middleName:null,surname:"Aviara",slug:"ndubisi-aviara",fullName:"Ndubisi Aviara"}]},{id:"63788",title:"Disinfection Methods",slug:"disinfection-methods",totalDownloads:3200,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Water must be made safe to drink, and an important step in ensuring water safety is disinfection. Disinfectants are added to water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. Ground water sources can be disinfected by “The Water Treatment Rule,” which requires public water systems for disinfection. Chlorination, ozone, ultraviolet light, and chloramines are primary methods for disinfection. However, potassium permanganate, photocatalytic disinfection, nanofiltration, and chlorine dioxide can also be used. Organic material is naturally present in water. Certain forms of chlorine can react with these organic materials and result in the formation of harmful by-products; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has anticipated maximum levels for these contaminants.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq, Zobia Afsheen, Amjad Khan and Amjad\nKhan",authors:[{id:"228353",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-saqib-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq"},{id:"246559",title:"Dr.",name:"Zobia",middleName:null,surname:"Afsheen",slug:"zobia-afsheen",fullName:"Zobia Afsheen"},{id:"246561",title:"Mr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"},{id:"271289",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"}]},{id:"41887",title:"Microbial Techniques for Hydrocarbon Exploration",slug:"microbial-techniques-for-hydrocarbon-exploration",totalDownloads:6504,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"M.A. Rasheed, D.J. Patil and A.M. Dayal",authors:[{id:"143475",title:"Dr",name:"Mohammed Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Rasheed",slug:"mohammed-abdul-rasheed",fullName:"Mohammed Abdul Rasheed"},{id:"144630",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayal",middleName:null,surname:"Anurodh",slug:"dayal-anurodh",fullName:"Dayal Anurodh"}]},{id:"58999",title:"The DFT+U: Approaches, Accuracy, and Applications",slug:"the-dft-u-approaches-accuracy-and-applications",totalDownloads:4446,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter introduces the Hubbard model and its applicability as a corrective tool for accurate modeling of the electronic properties of various classes of systems. The attainment of a correct description of electronic structure is critical for predicting further electronic-related properties, including intermolecular interactions and formation energies. The chapter begins with an introduction to the formulation of density functional theory (DFT) functionals, while addressing the origin of bandgap problem with correlated materials. Then, the corrective approaches proposed to solve the DFT bandgap problem are reviewed, while comparing them in terms of accuracy and computational cost. The Hubbard model will then offer a simple approach to correctly describe the behavior of highly correlated materials, known as the Mott insulators. Based on Hubbard model, DFT+U scheme is built, which is computationally convenient for accurate calculations of electronic structures. Later in this chapter, the computational and semiempirical methods of optimizing the value of the Coulomb interaction potential (U) are discussed, while evaluating the conditions under which it can be most predictive. The chapter focuses on highlighting the use of U to correct the description of the physical properties, by reviewing the results of case studies presented in literature for various classes of materials.",book:{id:"6193",slug:"density-functional-calculations-recent-progresses-of-theory-and-application",title:"Density Functional Calculations",fullTitle:"Density Functional Calculations - Recent Progresses of Theory and Application"},signatures:"Sarah A. Tolba, Kareem M. Gameel, Basant A. Ali, Hossam A.\nAlmossalami and Nageh K. Allam",authors:[{id:"175824",title:"Dr.",name:"Nageh",middleName:"K.",surname:"Allam",slug:"nageh-allam",fullName:"Nageh Allam"},{id:"398157",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah A.",middleName:null,surname:"Tolba",slug:"sarah-a.-tolba",fullName:"Sarah A. Tolba"},{id:"398158",title:"Dr.",name:"Kareem M.",middleName:null,surname:"Gameel",slug:"kareem-m.-gameel",fullName:"Kareem M. Gameel"},{id:"398162",title:"Dr.",name:"Basant A.",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"basant-a.-ali",fullName:"Basant A. Ali"},{id:"398163",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossam A.",middleName:null,surname:"Almossalami",slug:"hossam-a.-almossalami",fullName:"Hossam A. Almossalami"}]},{id:"40233",title:"Ammonia as a Hydrogen Source for Fuel Cells: A Review",slug:"ammonia-as-a-hydrogen-source-for-fuel-cells-a-review",totalDownloads:9263,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"2795",slug:"hydrogen-energy-challenges-and-perspectives",title:"Hydrogen Energy",fullTitle:"Hydrogen Energy - Challenges and Perspectives"},signatures:"Denver Cheddie",authors:[{id:"141157",title:"Dr.",name:"Denver",middleName:null,surname:"Cheddie",slug:"denver-cheddie",fullName:"Denver Cheddie"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"86",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81502",title:"Investigation of Synthesis Methods for Improved Platinum-Ruthenium Nanoparticles Supported on Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Electrocatalysts for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells",slug:"investigation-of-synthesis-methods-for-improved-platinum-ruthenium-nanoparticles-supported-on-multi-",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104541",abstract:"This book chapter reports on various catalyst synthesis methods (impregnation, polyol, modified polyol, and microwave-assisted modified polyol methods) to determine which method would result in the most electrochemically active platinum-ruthenium (PtRu) electrocatalyst supported on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for methanol oxidation reaction in an acidic medium. Different techniques were used to characterize the synthesized catalysts, including the high-resolution transmission electron microscope used for morphology and calculating particle sizes, and X-ray diffraction for determining crystalline sizes. The electroactive catalyst surface area, ECSA of the electrocatalysts was determined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), while the electroactivity, electron kinetics, and stability of the electrocatalysts towards methanol oxidation were evaluated using CV, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and chronoamperometry, respectively. The microwave-assisted modified polyol method produced the PtRu/MWCNT electrocatalyst with the most enhanced electrocatalytic activity compared to other PtRu/MWCNT catalysts produced by the impregnation, polyol, and modified polyol methods.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Adebare Nurudeen Adewunmi, Sabejeje Akindeji Jerome, Su Huaneng and Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng"},{id:"79547",title:"Nickel Foam Electrode with Low Catalyst Loading and High Performance for Alkaline Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells",slug:"nickel-foam-electrode-with-low-catalyst-loading-and-high-performance-for-alkaline-direct-alcohol-fue",totalDownloads:149,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100287",abstract:"Nickel foam has a unique three-dimensional (3-D) network structure that helps to effectively utilize catalysts and is often used as an electrode support material for alkaline direct alcohol fuel cells. In this chapter, first, the effect of nickel foam thickness on cell performance is explored. The results show that the thickness affects both mass transfer and electron conduction, and there is an optimal thickness. The thinner the nickel foam is, the better the conductivity is. However, the corresponding three-dimensional space becomes narrower, which results in a partial agglomeration of the catalyst and the hindrance of mass transfer. The cell performance of 0.6 mm nickel foam electrode is better than that of 0.3 and 1.0 mm. Secondly, to fully exert the catalytic function of the catalyst even at a lower loading, a mixed acid-etched nickel foam electrode with lower Pd loading (0.35 mg cm−2) is prepared then by a spontaneous deposition method. The maximum power density of the single alkaline direct ethanol fuel cell (ADEFC) can reach 30 mW cm−2, which is twice the performance of the hydrochloric acid treated nickel foam electrode. The performance improvement is attributed to the micro-holes produced by mixed acids etching, which enhances the roughness of the skeleton and improves the catalyst electrochemical active surface area.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Qian Xu, Jiajia Zhang and Chunzhen Yang"},{id:"77862",title:"Characterization, Photoelectric Properties, Electrochemical Performances and Photocatalytic Activity of the Fe2O3/TiO2 Heteronanostructure",slug:"characterization-photoelectric-properties-electrochemical-performances-and-photocatalytic-activity-o",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98759",abstract:"The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite was synthesized on FTO subtract via hydrothermal method. The crystal structure, morphology, band structure of the heterojunction, behaviors of charge carriers and the redox ability were characterized by XRD, HR-TEM, absorption spectra, PL, cyclic voltammetry and transient photocurrent spectra. The as-prepared Fe2O3/TiO2 photocatalysts with distinctive structure and great stability was characterized and investigated for the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye in aqueous solution. The ability of the photocatalyst for generating reactive oxygen species, including O2− and.OH was investigated. It was revealed that the combination of the two oxides (Fe2O3 and TiO2) nano-heterojunction could enhance the visible response and separate photogenerated charge carriers effectively. Therefore, the remarkable photocatalytic activity of Fe2O3/TiO2 nanostructures for MB degradation was ascribed to the enhanced visible light absorption and efficient interfacial transfer of photogenerated electrons from to Fe2O3 to TiO2 due to the lower energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 hybrid heterojunctions as evidenced by the UV–Vis and photoluminescence studies. The decrease of the energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 resulted in the inhibition of electron–hole pair recombination for effective spatial charge separation, thus enhancing the photocatalytic reactions. Based on the obtained results, a possible mechanism for the improved photocatalytic performance associated with Fe2O3/TiO2 was proposed. The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite has a specific capacity of 82 F.g−1 and shows a higher capacitance than Fe2O3.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Salah Kouass, Hassouna Dhaouadi, Abdelhak Othmani and Fathi Touati"},{id:"76150",title:"Heterogeneous Electrocatalysts for CO2 Reduction to Value Added Products",slug:"heterogeneous-electrocatalysts-for-co-sub-2-sub-reduction-to-value-added-products",totalDownloads:221,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97274",abstract:"The CO2 that comes from the use of fossil fuels accounts for about 65% of the global greenhouse gas emission, and it plays a critical role in global climate changes. Among the different strategies that have been considered to address the storage and reutilization of CO2, the transformation of CO2 into chemicals and fuels with a high added-value has been considered a winning approach. This transformation is able to reduce the carbon emission and induce a “fuel switching” that exploits renewable energy sources. The aim of this chapter is to categorize different heterogeneous electrocatalysts which are being used for CO2 reduction, based on the desired products of the above mentioned reactions: from formic acid and carbon monoxide to methanol and ethanol and other possible by products. Moreover, a brief description of the kinetic and mechanism of the CO2 reduction reaction) and pathways toward different products have been discussed.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"M. Amin Farkhondehfal and Juqin Zeng"},{id:"74671",title:"C-H Activation/Functionalization via Metalla-Electrocatalysis",slug:"c-h-activation-functionalization-via-metalla-electrocatalysis",totalDownloads:220,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95517",abstract:"In conventional methods, C−H activations are largely involved in the use of stoichiometric amounts of toxic and expensive metal & chemical oxidants, conceding the overall sustainable nature. Meanwhile, undesired byproducts are generated, that is problematic in the scale up process. However, electrochemical C−H activation via catalyst control strategy using metals as mediators (instead electrochemical substrate control strategy) has been identified as a more efficient strategy toward selective functionalizations. Thus, indirect electrolysis makes the potential range more pleasant, and less side reactions can occur. Herein, we summarize the metalla-electrocatalysis process for activations of inert C−H bonds and functionalization. These Metalla-electrocatalyzed C−H bond functionalizations are presented in term of C−C and C−X (X = O, N, P and halogens) bonds formation. The electrooxidative C−H transformations in the presence of metal catalysts are described by better chemoselectivities with broad tolerance of sensitive functionalities. Moreover, in the future to enhance sustainability and green chemistry concerns, integration of metalla-electrocatalysis with flow and photochemistry will enable safe and efficient scale-up and may even improve reaction times, kinetics and yields.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Guilherme M. Martins, Najoua Sbei, Geórgia C. Zimmer and Nisar Ahmed"},{id:"74780",title:"Recent Trends in Development of Metal Nitride Nanocatalysts for Water Electrolysis Application",slug:"recent-trends-in-development-of-metal-nitride-nanocatalysts-for-water-electrolysis-application",totalDownloads:251,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95748",abstract:"Nanocatalysts for sustainable water electrolysis is strongly desirable to promote the commercialization of H2 as the alternate clean energy source for the future. The goal is cheaper hydrogen production from sea and low grade water by minimizing the energy consumption and using low cost cell components & non-noble metal catalysts. The conductivity of metal nitrides and their ability to carry out Hydrogen Evolution Reaction and Oxygen Evolution Reaction at relatively low overpotential render these one of the frontline candidates to be potentially utilized as the catalyst for low cost H2 production via electrolysis. In this chapter, the potential of metal nitride catalyst towards fulfilling the above objective is discussed. The synthesis of various metal nitride catalysts, their efficiency towards electrode half reactions and the effectiveness of these class of nanocatalyst for electrolysis of sea water is elaborated. A review of recent literature with special reference to the catalyst systems based on non-noble metals will be provided to assess the likelihood of these nanocatalyst to serve as a commercial grade electrode material for sea water electrolysis.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Akhoury Sudhir Kumar Sinha and Umaprasana Ojha"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{id:"82285",title:"Parvovirus Vectors: The Future of Gene Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105085",signatures:"Megha Gupta",slug:"parvovirus-vectors-the-future-of-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78543",title:"Pulmonary Vein: Embryology, Anatomy, Function and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100051",signatures:"Chan I-Ping and Hsueh Tung",slug:"pulmonary-vein-embryology-anatomy-function-and-disease",totalDownloads:182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78564",title:"Anatomy of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta): The Essentials for the Biomedical Researcher",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99067",signatures:"Christophe Casteleyn and Jaco Bakker",slug:"anatomy-of-the-rhesus-monkey-macaca-mulatta-the-essentials-for-the-biomedical-researcher",totalDownloads:345,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77999",title:"Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (BALT) Histology and Its Role in Various Pathologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99366",signatures:"Tuba Parlak Ak",slug:"bronchus-associated-lymphoid-tissue-balt-histology-and-its-role-in-various-pathologies",totalDownloads:210,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78242",title:"Genomic Instability and Cyto-Genotoxic Damage in Animal Species",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99685",signatures:"María Evarista Arellano-García, Olivia Torres-Bugarín, Maritza Roxana García-García, Daniel García-Flores, Yanis Toledano-Magaña, Cinthya Sofia Sanabria-Mora, Sandra Castro-Gamboa and Juan Carlos García-Ramos",slug:"genomic-instability-and-cyto-genotoxic-damage-in-animal-species",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78503",title:"Biomechanics of the Canine Elbow Joint",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99569",signatures:"Thomas Rohwedder",slug:"biomechanics-of-the-canine-elbow-joint",totalDownloads:179,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78018",title:"Application of Noble Metals in the Advances in Animal Disease Diagnostics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99162",signatures:"Gabriel Alexis S.P. Tubalinal, Leonard Paulo G. Lucero, Jim Andreus V. Mangahas, Marvin A. Villanueva and Claro N. Mingala",slug:"application-of-noble-metals-in-the-advances-in-animal-disease-diagnostics",totalDownloads:111,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77455",title:"Marek’s Disease Is a Threat for Large Scale Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98939",signatures:"Wojciech Kozdruń, Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk and Natalia Styś-Fijoł",slug:"marek-s-disease-is-a-threat-for-large-scale-poultry-production",totalDownloads:261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"74655",title:"Taxon-Specific Pair Bonding in Gibbons (Hylobatidae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95270",signatures:"Thomas Geissmann, Simone Rosenkranz-Weck, Judith J.G.M. Van Der Loo and Mathias Orgeldinger",slug:"taxon-specific-pair-bonding-in-gibbons-hylobatidae",totalDownloads:394,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"