\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8355",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Infrastructure Management and Construction",title:"Infrastructure Management and Construction",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers topics relevant to the concept of infrastructure construction, including key requirements of development such as measuring productivity and maintenance. It presents different categories of sustainability maintenance of critical infrastructures. In addition, it presents a complex simulation model, the reconfiguration simulator, which enables evaluation of the effectiveness of resilience enhancement strategies for electric distribution networks and the required resources to implement them. Then, it discusses health services as a critical sector in this field, which should be able to perform its function, even in times of crisis. The last chapter presents a brief review of different bridges, including the processes of design, material selection, construction, and maintenance.",isbn:"978-1-78984-549-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-548-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-316-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78484",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"infrastructure-management-and-construction",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"65dbf9dbd943d058488488e73b6c592a",bookSignature:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar, Faham Tahmasebinia and Sara Shirowzhan",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8355.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6525,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 30th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 12th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 10th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 1st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 30th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",middleName:null,surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221172/images/system/221172.png",biography:"Dr. Samad M.E. Sepasgzoar is a senior lecturer and the co-convenor for the smart city and infrastructure cluster. He is also an associate editor, editorial board member, guest editor, or reviewer for more than thirty-five peer-reviewed journals. He has published 137 research articles. His research is cross-interdisciplinary, using mixed statistical, experimentation, and computational methods to analyse complex issues of digital technology development and implementation processes. Due to the quality of his research projects, Dr. Sepasgzoar has been recognised internationally by different industrial bodies with awards such as ‘Best Paper’. He was also a finalist for the ‘Australian Construction Awards’.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"211659",title:"Dr.",name:"Faham",middleName:null,surname:"Tahmasebinia",slug:"faham-tahmasebinia",fullName:"Faham Tahmasebinia",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211659/images/system/211659.jpg",biography:"Faham Tahmasebinia holds ME and ME-Research degrees in Civil/Structural Engineering from the University of Wollongong, Australia. He has also completed two Ph.D. degrees in the field of Structural Engineering at the University of Sydney, Australia and in the field of Rock Mechanics at the University of New South Wales, Australia. Currently, he is an academic at the University of Sydney. His research areas are numerical and analytical simulations in both ductile and brittle materials.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273838/images/system/273838.png",biography:"Dr. Sara Shirowzhan is a lecturer at the School of Built Environment (BE), University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, Australia, where she teaches the City Analytics and Construction programs. She also serves as the co-chair of BE\\'s Smart Cities and Infrastructure Cluster. Dr. Shirowzhan works as tomorrow\\'s leading champion for the Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB). Her research interests include sensing technologies, enhanced GIS, BIM, digital twins, and artificial intelligence in technologies pertinent to BE informatics. She teaches and supervises students at UNSW in the areas of GIS, BIM, digital twins, AI, machine learning, city analytics, urban informatics, smart cities, infrastructure, construction informatics, and other relevant topics. She now serves on the editorial boards of the journals MDPI and Advances in Civil Engineering. She is also a topic board member of the ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information as well as Buildings. Dr. Shirowzhan received her Ph.D. in Geomatics Engineering from the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW.",institutionString:"UNSW Sydney",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"712",title:"Structural Engineering",slug:"engineering-civil-engineering-structural-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"66991",title:"Introductory Chapter: Infrastructure Management, Construction, Structure and Industry 4.0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86142",slug:"introductory-chapter-infrastructure-management-construction-structure-and-industry-4-0",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar, Sara Shirowzhan and Faham Tahmasebinia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66991",authors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar"}],corrections:null},{id:"66727",title:"Maintaining the Sustainability of Critical Infrastructure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85915",slug:"maintaining-the-sustainability-of-critical-infrastructure",totalDownloads:1282,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Critical infrastructures operations significantly affect the triple bottom lines of sustainability. Considering the dynamic nature of infrastructure and its surrounding environment, the interaction between them can dramatically change over time. This results in a deviation from the predictions used in the design and construction of the infrastructure. Therefore, the negative impacts of critical infrastructures on the environment, society, and economy can exacerbate throughout their service life. It is crucial to maintain these impacts within the desired limits. The measures that attempt to perpetuate a facility’s adverse effects on the triple bottom lines of sustainability can be called sustainability maintenance. Regular maintenance operations of infrastructure create an opportunity to integrate sustainability maintenance into preventive, corrective, and periodic maintenances. This chapter discusses four categories of sustainability maintenance of critical infrastructures: (1) minimizing adverse impacts of the infrastructure on people through maintenance, (2) keeping the maintenance operations sustainable, (3) sustainable material allocation throughout the maintenance process, and (4) environmental protection and restoration in maintenance operations. In each category, some of the best practices and methods are discussed.",signatures:"Mohammadsoroush Tafazzoli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66727",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66727",authors:[{id:"283849",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mohammadsoroush",surname:"Tafazzoli",slug:"mohammadsoroush-tafazzoli",fullName:"Mohammadsoroush Tafazzoli"}],corrections:null},{id:"66820",title:"Modeling Resilience in Electrical Distribution Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85917",slug:"modeling-resilience-in-electrical-distribution-networks",totalDownloads:746,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Electrical distribution networks deliver a fundamental service to citizens. However, they are still highly vulnerable to natural hazards as well as to cyberattacks; therefore, additional commitment and investments are needed to foster their resilience. Toward that, this paper presents and proposes the use of a complex simulation model, called reconfiguration simulator (RecSIM), enabling to evaluate the effectiveness of resilience enhancement strategies for electric distribution networks and the required resources to implement them. The focus is, in particular, on one specific attribute of resilience, namely, the readiness, i.e., the promptness and efficiency to recover the service functionality after a crisis event by managing and deploying the available resources rapidly and effectively. RecSIM allows estimating how and to what extent technological, topological, and management issues might improve electrical distribution networks’ functionality after the occurrence of accidental faults, accounting for interdependency issues and reconfiguration possibilities. The viability of implementing RecSIM on a real and large urban network is showcased in the paper with reference to the study case of the electrical distribution network (EDN) of Rome city.",signatures:"Alberto Tofani, Gregorio D’Agostino, Antonio Di Pietro, Sonia Giovinazzi, Luigi La Porta, Giacomo Parmendola, Maurizio Pollino and Vittorio Rosato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66820",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66820",authors:[{id:"27002",title:"Dr.",name:"Vittorio",surname:"Rosato",slug:"vittorio-rosato",fullName:"Vittorio Rosato"},{id:"29775",title:"Mr.",name:"Gregorio",surname:"D'Agostino",slug:"gregorio-d'agostino",fullName:"Gregorio D'Agostino"},{id:"127746",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Tofani",slug:"alberto-tofani",fullName:"Alberto Tofani"},{id:"228674",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Giovinazzi",slug:"sonia-giovinazzi",fullName:"Sonia Giovinazzi"},{id:"284589",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Di Pietro",slug:"antonio-di-pietro",fullName:"Antonio Di Pietro"},{id:"284590",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"Pollino",slug:"maurizio-pollino",fullName:"Maurizio Pollino"},{id:"292438",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",surname:"La Porta",slug:"luigi-la-porta",fullName:"Luigi La Porta"}],corrections:null},{id:"67400",title:"Measuring Infrastructure Skills Productivity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85953",slug:"measuring-infrastructure-skills-productivity",totalDownloads:855,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the concept and meaning of construction productivity and the techniques used in measuring workforce skills productivity in the construction industry. There are three major methods highlighted for monitoring and measuring productivity in the construction industry. The first relates to visual recording that requires taught watchers to be available on location to monitor and record work by specialists. The second is the physical recording technique which involves a direct surveillance technique that includes a qualified observer observing the site for the full duration of the working day operation using the work study method or work measurement. This method was typically illustrated with the application of regression model and learning curve theory to improve labour productivity. The third measuring technique discussed is the use of questionnaires and interview survey which involves information gathering through an interview with supervisors and workers working in the construction industry. Finally, the chapter discussed how infrastructure productivity can be improved through effective supervision, material management and supply chain management, project front-end planning (loading) and work face planning, training and certification of workforce and labour management and relations.",signatures:"Rex Asibuodu Ugulu, Stephen Allen and Andrew Arewa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67400",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67400",authors:[{id:"285544",title:"Dr.",name:"Rex",surname:"Ugulu",slug:"rex-ugulu",fullName:"Rex Ugulu"},{id:"290691",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Allen",slug:"stephen-allen",fullName:"Stephen Allen"},{id:"290732",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Arewa",slug:"andrew-arewa",fullName:"Andrew Arewa"}],corrections:null},{id:"67012",title:"Hospital Energy Resilience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86137",slug:"hospital-energy-resilience",totalDownloads:773,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many emergencies and crises threaten the whole world. These affect not only the lives, health, and property of citizens but also the subjects and elements of the critical infrastructure itself. Breaking the critical infrastructure system would have a severe impact on the state’s security, securing the basic living needs of the population, the health of the people, or the economy of the country. One of the significant sectors of the critical infrastructure is undoubtedly healthcare. It is vital for the health service to be able to perform its function, even in times of crisis. The crisis of naturogenic character ordinarily has the so-called cascade effect, which causes other extraordinary events and crises. An example of this may be windstorm, resulting in a power outage. A significant impact of the power supply outage in healthcare is observed in hospitals. There is currently no assessment tool to set the hospital’s readiness for a power outage. The aim of the chapter is to analyze the current state of the crisis preparedness of the hospital.",signatures:"Katerina Vichova and Martin Hromada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67012",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67012",authors:[{id:"240637",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",surname:"Hromada",slug:"martin-hromada",fullName:"Martin Hromada"},{id:"303533",title:"Dr.",name:"Kateřina",surname:"Víchová",slug:"katerina-vichova",fullName:"Kateřina Víchová"}],corrections:null},{id:"70758",title:"Bridges: Structures and Materials, Ancient and Modern",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90718",slug:"bridges-structures-and-materials-ancient-and-modern",totalDownloads:1799,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Every nation needs the infrastructure to perform all kind of activities related to the improvement and service of the society. Transportation system became part of the infrastructure due its connection between two destinations, using maritime, land, or aerial methods, creating a link for social and economic activity. Bridges are widely used to cross rivers, valleys, and roads, providing a passage with other parts of the land since ancient times to modernity. Each structure has different requirements to cover, such span clearage, traffic flow, geometry and characteristics of the place to build; therefore, a great variety of bridges can be developed. Common materials used on construction are structural steel, reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete, or post-tensioned concrete; depending on the structural behavior of each type of bridge, there will be a maximum clear span to cover, which depends directly on the project’s budget. There are a variety of loads and environmental conditions that the new and existing structure needs to support effectively, including dead load, traffic, rain, wind, flood, and seismic events, using effective structural design process and techniques; on the other hand, there are long-term deterioration process, such as corrosion, wear, and fatigue, which should be considered on the maintenance process, avoiding additional costs, several damages, and catastrophic failures. Prevention and control of degradation process is achieved by effective maintenance methods applying protection technology such as paints, coating and cathodic protection. The purpose of this chapter is to show a brief review of ancient and modern bridges, including the process of design, material selection, construction, and maintenance.",signatures:"Arturo Gonzalez, Michael Schorr, Benjamin Valdez and Alejandro Mungaray",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70758",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70758",authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr"},{id:"65522",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",surname:"Valdez",slug:"benjamin-valdez",fullName:"Benjamin Valdez"},{id:"311533",title:"MSc.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"arturo-gonzalez",fullName:"Arturo Gonzalez"},{id:"311534",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Mungaray",slug:"alejandro-mungaray",fullName:"Alejandro Mungaray"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9838",title:"Design of Cities and Buildings",subtitle:"Sustainability and Resilience in the Built Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39e7e64a7a19b139448107f1cea4e1d0",slug:"design-of-cities-and-buildings-sustainability-and-resilience-in-the-built-environment",bookSignature:"Samad Sepasgozar, Sara Shirowzhan, Sharifeh Sargolzae and José David Bienvenido-Huertas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9838.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. 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\r\n\tThe continuous growth in the development of electronic devices, cellular wireless communication systems, and medical electronic devices over the last twenty years resulted in most of the world’s population owning smartphones, smartwatches, tablets, and other similar devices. As a result, the number of unwanted electronic devices is growing at a rapid rate. With this huge number of devices being produced and discarded, a new environmental disaster strikes our planet. Electronic waste and discarded old electronics are filling up landfills at an alarming rate. These electric devices contain hazardous and toxic materials that endanger the environment and the health of local communities, increasing environmental pollution. Furthermore, the consumption of electrical energy is in rapid growth. Traditional energy sources such as fuel and coal significantly increase environmental pollution. Green technologies, as well as recycling electronic waste, old batteries, plastic waste, and bottles, are employed to decrease environmental pollution. Renewable energy is also a major factor in decreasing environmental pollution. This book's main objective is to present innovation in green electronic technologies and devices, enabling engineers, students, and scientists from all areas to follow and understand the topics presented in the book.
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Hydrogen as an ideal energy source came up to the stage due to its high energy density and environmental benignity [1, 2]. Electrochemical water splitting is not only regarded as the cleanest technique for hydrogen generation but also suitable to perform on a large scale. The appropriate electrocatalysts are developed to boost the cathodic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and anodic oxygen evolution reaction (OER) because of the sluggish kinetics of these two core reactions [overpotential (η), Figure 1a]. Although platinum-based and iridium/ruthenium-based catalysts, respectively, have shown very promising performance in HER and OER, the industrial application is restricted due to their high cost and limited availability [3, 4]. Thus, developing alternative electrocatalysts based on non-noble metals or earth-abundant elements is still highly demanded.
(a) Polarization curves for HER and OER [
The realization of HER and OER mechanisms plays a crucial role to design the efficient electrocatalysts, so the brief discussions on their mechanisms were introduced.
Two kinds of HER mechanisms have been completely studied and widely accepted [5, 6]. The first step, a proton from the solution adsorbs onto the catalytic sites of the electrode with a reduction process, is called as Volmer step:
Then, either the recombination of two adsorbed hydrogen atoms on the electrode surface is called as Tafel step:
or the reaction of an adsorbed hydrogen atom with the hydrated proton, which proceeds with an electron transfer from the electrode surface, is called as Heyrovsky step:
Nørskov et al. proposed a Volcano curve showing that experimental exchange currents of materials are as a function of the Gibbs free energy of the adsorbed hydrogen (ΔGH) (Figure 1b) [7, 8]. Ideally, the interaction of hydrogen with the electrode surface should be thermoneutral (ΔGH ≅ 0), otherwise either Heyrovsky or Tafel step (strong bonding) or Volmer step would become the rate-determining step. In the case of the OER, many researchers have proposed possible mechanisms at the anode in acidic electrolyte (Eqs. (4)–(8)). However, there are some differences around the reaction of forming oxygen. One route of forming oxygen is through the direct recombination of two MO (M represents Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni metals) (Eq. (6)), while the other route of forming oxygen is through the decomposition of the MOOH intermediate (Eq. (8)).
The preparation methods of TMCs layers can be categorized into two main approaches: top-down and bottom-up methods (Figure 2). The TMC layers prepared from their bulk material by mechanical exfoliation are called the top-down method, while the TMC layers were produced from the elemental precursors on the target substrate in the bottom-up method, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) approach. The CVD method for TMC synthesis has been widely used due to its unique advantages such as scalable size, high crystallinity, and controllable thickness of TMCs [10, 11, 12, 13]. One of the most classic TMCs, molybdenum sulfide (MoS2), has been developed via CVD synthesis to replace the zero bandgap graphene. [14] There are two routes to synthesize MoS2 layer by CVD (Figure 3a). One is a two-step growth route, where the Mo-based precursors are first deposited and then conducted the sulfurization or decomposition process to form MoS2 (route 1, Figure 3a). The other growth way of MoS2 layer is an one-step growth, where the gaseous Mo- and S-based precursors are simultaneously introduced and react to form MoS2 on a substrate (route 2, Figure 3a). Recent reports have also demonstrated to grow MoS2 on other kinds of insulating substrates such as quartz, mica, and sapphire (Figure 3b) [15, 16]. Figure 3c shows a typical experimental setup for the low-pressure CVD synthesis of MoS2. The formation of entire MoS2 would be prevented according to the ternary Mo▬O▬S phase diagram (Figure 3d) if the reducing atmosphere is too weak [17]. Figure 3e displays two possible mechanisms for the growth of MoS2. The well-established CVD synthesis of MoS2 is regarded as a prototype for the synthesis of other TMCs such as MoSe2 and WS2 [18, 19]. Except from the VI B group metals such as molybdenum and tungsten, the research works of TMCs based on VIII B group metals such as cobalt [20] and nickel [21] are also widely studied in recent years.
Two routes of the TMC layer preparation: (top) a schematic representation of the top-down method – mechanical exfoliation and (bottom) a schematic illustration of the bottom-up method – CVD [
The general introduction to the CVD synthesis, CVD setup, and growth mechanism of MoS2 layer [
Wet chemical synthesis, a bottom-up process, is broadly used to synthesize TMC nanosheets with tunable thickness and size [24, 25, 26]. The desired nanosheets form directly in solution or onto substrate in high yield. The synthesis of TMCs via wet chemical method usually relies on the chemical reaction of metal salts and sulfur/selenide-based materials as precursors. The solvothermal method is one of the most typical routes of wet chemical method, in which the reaction is conducted in a sealed autoclave at suitable temperature (Figure 4) [27]. As a representative example, Xie et al. [28] synthesized oxygen incorporated MoS2 nanosheets from the precursors of (NH4)6Mo7O24·4H2O and thiourea through a solvothermal method. By tuning the synthetic temperatures, the disordered structure and intrinsic conductivity of MoS2 could be controlled to a moderate degree. Thus, the optimal catalyst for electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction exhibits onset overpotential as low as 120 mV. It is well known that the materials with different crystal orientations have the anisotropic properties. This phenomenon appears in TMCs depending on stacking sequence of the chalcogen and transition-metal coordination. The commonly found polymorphs in TMC materials are the so-defined 1 T, 2H, and 3R, where the number and letter, respectively, indicate the layer number in the unit cell and the type of symmetry with T, H, and R representing for tetragonal, hexagonal, and rhombohedral, respectively (Figure 5). For example, Zhang et al. synthesized metallic CoS2 nanopyramid array on carbon fiber paper by an one-step solvothermal synthesis [29]. In brief, the carbon fiber papers were transferred to the precursor solution containing CoCl2·6H2O and CS(NH2)2, which was maintained at 180°C for 12 hours. The unique 3D nanostructure and intrinsic metallic properties of the CoS2 by this method contribute to the ultrahigh activity toward hydrogen evolution reaction.
The synthesis process of MoS2 nanosheets via a simple hydrothermal method [
Different metal coordination and stacking sequence in TMC unit cells [
In order to improve HER performance, three main factors including the number of active sites, intrinsic catalytic activity, and the conductivity of TMCs play crucial roles. In 2005, Hinnemann et al. suggested the active sites for HER only exist in the edges of TMCs by density functional theory (DFT) calculation [30]. Thus, many research works are dedicated to enrich the defect sites and/or active sites by nanostructural engineering [31, 32, 33]. Zhang et al. synthesized the edge-rich 3D MoS2 coupling with conductive polymer polyaniline (PANI) as catalyst (Figure 6) [34]. The MoS2 grown on 3D PANI substrate tends to grow vertically and expose abundant edge sites for HER. Consequently, excellent HER performance can be achieved with a low onset potential of 100 mV and a small Tafel slop of 45 mV dec−1. Additionally, MoS2/PANI achieved superior stability for HER electrocatalysis. Although the promising catalytic activity of MoS2 for HER was achieved by creating abundant edge sites and/or active sites, the performance was still limited by its intrinsic properties such as poor electrical transport and inefficient electrical contact to the catalyst [35]. Lukowski et al. reported that the metallic nanosheets of 1T-MoS2, which were chemically exfoliated by lithium intercalation of semiconducting 2H-MoS2 nanostructures, dramatically enhanced HER performance (Figure 7) [36]. The current density of 10 mA cm−1 can be reached at a low overpotential of −187 mV with a Tafel slope of 43 mV dec−1. The excellent performance can be attributed to the favorable kinetics, metallic conductivity, and increasing number of active sites in the metallic 1T-MoS2 nanosheets, which was proven by the dramatically decrease of charge-transfer resistance from 232 Ω of 2H-MoS2 nanostructures to 4 Ω of metallic 1T-MoS2 nanosheets. This finding proves that the metallic 1T polymorph of TMCs is competitive to earth-abundant catalysts in heterogeneous catalysis.
The defect-rich 3D MoS2/PANI catalyst for HER (a) the morphologies of synthesized 3D MoS2/PANI and (b) the electrochemical performance of 3D MoS2/PANI catalyst [
(a) Electron microscopy characterization of as-grown 2H-MoS2 nanostructures. (b) Comparison of as-grown and exfoliated MoS2 nanosheets. (c) Electrocatalytic performance of chemically exfoliated and as-grown MoS2 nanosheets [
Lee et al. developed earth-abundant nanostructuring beaded stream-like cobalt diselenide (CoSe2) nanoneedles (CoSe2-BSND) as electrocatalyst for HER [37]. The CoSe2 nanoneedles derived from the cobalt oxide (Co3O4) nanoneedle array directly formed on flexible titanium foils after selenization treatment (Figure 8). The CoSe2-BSND can drive the HER at a current density of 20 mA cm−2 with a small overpotential of 125 mV. Also, it possesses a small Tafel slope of 48.5 mV dec−1 suggesting that the HER follows the Volmer-Heyrovsky mechanism where a fast discharge of protons is followed by rate-determining electrochemical desorption. Moreover, the CoSe2-BSND electrode achieved great stability in an acidic electrolyte for 3000 cycles. The enhanced electrochemical activity is attributed to the highly accessible surface active sites, the improved charge transfer kinetics, and the super hydrophilic surface of CoSe2-BSND electrode.
(a) The schematic illustration for the synthesis of beaded stream-like CoSe2 nanoneedles, (b) the SEM images of beaded stream-like (CoSe2) nanoneedle array, and (c) the electrochemical measurements of Co-BSND, CoSe2-PA, and CoSe2-BSND electrodes [
The TMC materials have shown promising performance toward HER as we mentioned above. Researchers are searching for the possibility of bifunctional electrocatalysts for both HER and OER to perform the overall water-splitting reaction. Moreover, TMC electrocatalysts have attracted tremendous attentions since Alonso-vante and coworker discovered that Mo4Ru2Se8 had a ORR activity comparable to platinum [38]. As compared to ruthenium (Ru) and Rhenium (Rh), the low cost and earth abundant transition metals such as iron-, nickel- and cobalt-based TMCs have much attention for OER [39, 40, 41]. Liu and coworkers discovered that electrodeposited CoS nanosheet films on Ti mesh show high activity toward OER (Figure 9) [42]. The CoS nanosheets tend to drive a current density of 10 mA cm−2 with an overpotential of 361 mV. In addition, this electrode maintains highly catalytic activity for at least 20 hours. The superior catalytic activity along with excellent stability of CoS nanosheets offers the good opportunity to become a cost-effective and industry-feasible electrode toward OER. On the other hand, Swesi et al. first reported that the catalytic activity of OER was observed by the nickel selenide (Ni3Se2) in alkaline condition (Figure 10) [43]. The low overpotential required to reach 10 mA cm−2 was 290 mV, suggesting that this catalyst exhibits its competitivity among the oxide-based electrocatalysts. The catalytic ability of Ni3Se2 can be further improved through the modification of Se-deficient phase in Ni3Se2. Moreover, electrodeposited Ni3Se2 catalysts exhibited exceptional stability under OER for 42 hours. The effect of the underlying substrates such as glassy carbon, ITO-coated glass, and Ni foam on OER was also investigated. The results revealed that the glassy carbon substrate exhibited the lowest onset potential and the highest current density, suggesting that the interaction between the underlying substrate and the Ni3Se2 may play a role in O2 evolution reaction.
(a) The surface morphology and crystal structure of electrodeposited CoS nanosheets and (b) the electrochemical performance and stability toward OER on CoS nanosheets [
(a) The morphological characterization of Ni3Se2 grown by electrochemical deposition and (b) the crystal structure identification and OER performance of Ni3Se2 electrocatalyst [
Although the electrocatalytic performance of TMCs toward OER was significantly enhanced, the reaction mechanism and actual active sites responsible for the reaction were in dispute. Recently, operando or
(a) The structural and morphological characterizations of different P-doped CoSe2, (b) electrochemical OER activities of the different P-doped CoSe2 and standard RuO2 electrodes, (c)
Electrocatalysts for HER and OER play an important role for sustainable energy, which require converting renewable energy to storable chemical fuels or employing clean energy. In this article, we have partially reviewed the promising candidates, transition metal (di)chalcogenides (TMCs), from preparation methods to electrochemical measurements toward HER and OER. It can be concluded that a good electrocatalyst should possess good conductivity and moderate adsorption energy to reactive species and/or intermediates. In addition, the large number of active/defect sites would be favorable for catalytic ability. The future challenges for TMCs toward HER and OER are summarized as follows. The realization of the mechanisms toward the HER and OER plays a key role to design a perfect electrocatalyst. The development of
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of Taiwan, under grant numbers 107-2113-M-845-001-MY3.
Sputter deposition is a physical vapor deposition (PVD) method of thin film deposited by sputtering. The general sputtering method can be used to prepare a variety of materials such as metals, semiconductors, insulators, etc., and has the advantages of simple equipment, easy control, large coating area, and strong adhesion, and the magnetron sputtering method developed in the 1970s achieves high speed, low temperature, and low damage.
Adding a closed magnetic field parallel to the target surface in the bipolar sputtering, the secondary electron is bound to a specific area of the target surface to enhance the ionization efficiency by means of the orthogonal electromagnetic field formed on the surface of the target, increasing the ion density and energy, and finally realizing the high-rate sputtering. The above statement is the concept of magnetron sputtering.
Magnetron sputtering is a dominant technique to grow thin films because a large quantity of thin films can be prepared at relatively high purity and low cost. This involves ejecting material from a “target” that is a source onto a “substrate” such as a silicon wafer, as shown in Figure 1.
Schematic diagram of magnetron sputtering.
Magnetron sputtering is the collision process between incident particles and targets. Since high-speed sputtering is performed at a low pressure, it is necessary to effectively increase the ionization rate of the gas. The incident particle undergoes a complex scattering process in the target, collides with the target atom, and transmits part of the momentum to the target atom, which in turn collides with other target atoms to form a cascade process. During this cascade, certain target atoms near the surface gain sufficient momentum for outward motion and are sputtered out of the target. Magnetron sputtering increases the plasma density by introducing a magnetic field on the surface of the target cathode and utilizing the constraints of the magnetic field on the charged particles to increase the sputtering rate.
Magnetron sputtering includes many types, such as direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering and radio frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering, each has a different working principle and application objects. The main advantage of RF magnetron sputtering over DC magnetron sputtering is that it does not require the target as an electrode be electrically conductive. Therefore, any material can be sputter-deposited theoretically using RF magnetron sputtering.
But there is one thing in common for any type of magnetron sputtering: the interaction between the magnetic field and the electric field causes the electrons to spiral in the vicinity of the target surface, thereby increasing the probability that electrons will strike the argon gas to generate ions. The generated ions collide with the target surface under the action of an electric field to sputter the target. The target source is divided into balanced and unbalanced types; the balanced target source is uniformly coated, and the unbalanced target coating layer and the substrate have strong bonding force.
Balanced target sources are mostly used in semiconductor optical films, and unbalanced are mostly used in wear decorative films. Sputtering metals and alloys with a magnetron target is easy, and it is convenient for ignition and sputtering. Magnetron reactive sputtering insulators appear to be easy, but it is difficult for practical operations.
The magnetron cathodes are roughly classified into an equilibrium state and an unbalanced magnetron cathode according to the distribution of the magnetic field configuration. Cooling is necessary for all sources (magnetron, multiarc, ion) because a large part of the energy is converted to heat. If there is no cooling or insufficient cooling, this heat will cause the target temperature to reach more than 1000°C to dissolve the entire target.
Main uses of magnetron sputtering are the following:
Various functional films: such as films having absorption, transmission, reflection, refraction, polarization, and so on. For example, a silicon nitride antireflection film is deposited at a low temperature to improve the photoelectric conversion efficiency of the solar cell.
Applications in the field of decoration, such as various total reflection films and translucent films, such as cell phone cases, mice, etc.
As a nonthermal coating technology in the field of microelectronics, mainly used in chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or metal organics.
Chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) growth is difficult and unsuitable material film deposition, and a very uniform film of a large area can be obtained.
In the field of optics: if closed-field unbalanced magnetron sputtering technology has also been applied in optical films (such as antireflection film), low-emissivity glass, and transparent conductive glass. In particular, transparent conductive glass is widely used in flat panel display devices, solar cells, microwave and RF shielding devices, and devices, sensors, and the like.
In the machining industry, the surface deposition technology of surface functional film, super hard film, and self-lubricating film has been developed since its inception, which can effectively improve surface hardness, composite toughness, wear resistance, and high temperature chemical stability. Performance greatly increases the service life of coated products.
In addition to the abovementioned fields that have been widely used, magnetron sputtering plays an important role in the research of high-temperature superconducting thin films, ferroelectric thin films, giant magnetoresistive thin films, thin film luminescent materials, solar cells, and memory alloy thin films.
IntechOpen celebrates Open Access academic research of women scientists: Call Opens on February 11, 2018 and closes on March 8th, 2018.
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\n\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
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\n\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"