Flood history in Malaysia.
\r\n\tCongenital hearing loss means hearing loss that is present at birth. I have managed children with hearing loss for many years, and the most touching thing is the light that blooms on the face while the hearing-impaired child heard his mother's voice at first time. The scene of "happy tears" impressed me so much. To hear the voice that has not been heard is so pleasant, as if this ordinary listening experience is a supreme listening enjoyment.
\r\n\r\n\tAge-related hearing loss means a progressive loss of ability to hear high frequencies with aging, also known as presbycusis. Among them are the influence of internal and external factors such as genes, drugs and noise exposure. The studies pointed out that the brain stimulation of the hearing-impaired person is greatly reduced compared with subjects with normal hearing. The connection of auditory cortex and other brain areas has declined a lot, which is probably one of the important causes of dementia or even depression in the elderly.
\r\n\r\n\tNoise-induced hearing loss is hearing impairment resulting from exposure to loud sound. There is actually continuous and endless noise in many workplaces, which may cause chronic and cumulative damage. Some young people often work hard but easily neglect to protect themselves. In addition, in recent years, entertainment noise (such as nightclubs, concerts, and personal listening devices) has caused hearing impairment in young people. These should be avoidable and preventable.
\r\n\r\n\tHearing Science is the study of impaired auditory perception, the technologies and other rehabilitation strategies for persons with hearing loss. Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease", improving quality of life through organized efforts. To avoid the “epidemic” of hearing loss, it is necessary to promote early screening, use hearing protection, and change public attitudes toward noise.
\r\n\r\n\tBased on these concepts, the book incorporates updated developments as well as future perspectives in the ever-expanding field of hearing loss. Besides, it is also a great reference for audiologists, otolaryngologists, neurologists, specialists in public health, basic and clinical researchers.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-678-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-677-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-679-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4b7dbb02ba00e7412422cd5dbffa029",bookSignature:"Dr. Tang-Chuan Wang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10529.jpg",keywords:"Hidden Hearing Loss, Plasticity, Electrophysiology, Otoacoustic Emission, Newborn Hearing Screening, Genetics, Aging, Hearing Aids, Noise Exposure, Occupational Hearing Loss, Epidemiology, Prevention",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Tang-Chuan Wang is an excellent otolaryngologist-head and neck surgeon in Taiwan; a research scholar of Harvard Medical School and University of Iowa Hospitals. He worked in the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Boston Children's Hospital, and Massachusetts Eye and Ear. Due to his contribution to biomedical engineering, he was invited into the executive committee of HIWIN-CMU Joint R & D Center in Taiwan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"201262",title:"Dr.",name:"Tang-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"tang-chuan-wang",fullName:"Tang-Chuan Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201262/images/system/201262.gif",biography:'Dr. Tang-Chuan Wang is an excellent otolaryngologist – head and neck surgeon in Taiwan. He is also a research scholar of Harvard Medical School and University of Iowa Hospitals. During his substantial experience, he worked in Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Boston Children\'s Hospital and Massachusetts Eye and Ear. Besides, he is not only working hard on clinical & basic medicine but also launching out into public health in Taiwan. In recent years, he devotes himself to innovation. He always says that "in theoretical or practical aspects, no innovation is a step backward". 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"60348",title:"Engagement of Local Heroes in Managing Flood Disaster: Lessons Learnt from the 2014 Flood of Kemaman, Terengganu, Malaysia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74262",slug:"engagement-of-local-heroes-in-managing-flood-disaster-lessons-learnt-from-the-2014-flood-of-kemaman-",body:'\nClimate change has brought extreme and uncertain global weather conditions. For Malaysia, this means worsening and hard-to-predict flood disasters. When flood disaster strikes, one can only hope that rescue and relief aid arrive quickly, therefore reducing the impact of the situation. In the 2014 flood incident, impacts were seen to be comparatively less serious for areas where preparation was heightened before, during and after the flood event.
\nThis chapter investigates flood preparation and management of the major flood event that struck the country in December 2014. Interest lies in gaining an understanding of why and how the district of Kemaman was able to report a less serious impact despite undergoing weather conditions similar to other flood-plagued districts. Findings point to the use of technology, procedures and processes, and the engagement of locals during the response and relief phases. The management of flooding in Malaysia typically goes through the following phases: prediction – warning – emergency relief – rehabilitation – reconstruction. The study shows how the local community was involved in making significant contributions in providing prompt responses during a flood, which in this study is based on the case of Kemaman, Malaysia.
\nSection 2 of the chapter explains the formulation that led to the “worst” flood – the supermoon, monsoon, shoreline and rivers. This is important to establish that the flood districts within the states of Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang have indeed shared similar flood factors. Then, comparisons of impacts experienced by selected districts are highlighted. Recounts of the events are collected from site visits, reports by the Malaysian National Security Council, news media and social media.
\nIn Section 3, the success story emerging from the flood management (FM) practice in Kemaman is presented. Central to the story is the active and positive roles of local leaders and people from the district. A post-disaster investigation to probe into the engagement of the local community found that early engagement, which started with FM awareness and training, helped empower the locals, who have the advantage of speaking the dialect and understanding the topographies, making them ideal flood emergency responders and volunteers.
\nThe Peninsular of Malaysia has a long shoreline with its east coast facing the South China Sea, and most of its major cities located near the coast. In addition, there are at least 26 major rivers from 3 states in Malaysia, namely Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang, flowing from the east coast into the South China Sea, as seen in Figure 1.
\nThe three states affected by the 2014 flood.
Frequent flooding over extended periods is considered to be the most natural hazard in Malaysia and affects a large number of the population over a wide area, causing socioeconomic damage. Based on the information published by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia, in June 2007, Malaysia has experienced major floods since 1920, especially in the years 1926, 1963, 1965, 1967, 1969, 1971, 1973, 1979, 1983, 1988, 1993, 1998, 2005, December 2006 and January 2007, 2010 and the most recent one in 2014 [1]. These flood events occurred in various states, including Terengganu and the capital city of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. This can be seen in Table 1, which lists the date of the major floods and the losses incurred by them.
\nDate/year | \nIncident | \nProperty, materials, crops or other losses (MYR) | \nNumber of deaths | \nSource | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1926 | \nFlood known as “The Storm Forest Flood” | \nThousands of hectares of forests destroyed | \nN/A | \nChan [2] | \n
December 1996 | \nFloods caused by Tropical Storm Greg in Keningau (Sabah) | \n300 million | \n241 | \n|
2000 | \nFloods caused by heavy rains in Kelantan and Terengganu | \nMillions | \n15 | \n|
December 2004 | \nAsian tsunami | \nMillions | \n68 | \n|
December 2006 and January 2007 | \nFloods in Johor | \n489 million | \n18 | \n|
2008 | \nFloods in Johor | \n21.19 million | \n28 | \n|
2010 | \nFloods in Kedah and Perlis | \n8.48 million | \n4 | \n|
2014 | \nFloods in Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang | \n2.9 billion | \n21 | \nThe Star [3] | \n
Flood history in Malaysia.
The 2014 flood affected most of the states on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia due to the northeast monsoon that occurs between October and March every year. These states receive heavy rainfall, which leads to severe flooding almost every year, including the months of November and December 2014. The flood that occurred at the Kemaman area of Terengganu was due to a combination of physical factors, including high tides and elevation. The flood factor of high tides in 2014 was also made worse by the supermoon phenomenon, which is known to change the level of sea tides. When the supermoon is combined with the topographic conditions of the east coast in Malaysia, which has several rivers along the shoreline of these states, it has the potential to aggravate the monsoon flood that occurs annually during the monsoon season. The supermoon effect that was compounded by the northeast monsoon impact in that year brought about a notably higher and prolonged tidal level. These three factors – (1) the supermoon phenomenon, (2) the topographic conditions of Malaysia and (3) the monsoon season – have formulated the worst flood Malaysia has seen in almost 100 years, which is referred to Table 1. The first flood was recorded in 1926, and the magnitude of losses can be seen to increase every year, especially the flood of 2014.
\nThe basic cause of river flooding is the incidence of heavy rainfall (monsoon or convective) and the resultant large concentration of runoff, which exceeds river channel capacity [1]. Floods have resulted in huge losses of millions of dollars in Malaysia. For example, the 2014 flood that hit Terengganu and many other states caused more than MYR 2.9 billion (about USD 0.74 billion) worth of damage and hence was deemed the most expensive flood event ever to occur in Malaysian history. This included the cost of damage to infrastructures, property damage, crop loss, disruption to day-to-day services and healthcare expenses. During this flood event, 21 deaths were reported and around 200,000 people were evacuated from their homes and sheltered in relief centres.
\nThe monsoon season of 2014 was marked by torrential rains that began on 17 December. It was followed by non-stop, heavy rain that lasted for three days, 21–23 December 2014, which charted a record-setting rainfall of 1295 mm, equivalent to the amount of rain usually collected in a span of 64 days. The three main rivers of Kelantan – Galas, Lebir and Kelantan – rose drastically above dangerous water levels, which can be seen in Table 2.
\nState | \nVictims | \nArea/location | \nLevel during flood | \nSafe level | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Kelantan | \n31,441 | \nTangga Krai, Sungai Kelantan Tambatan Diraja Sungai Golok, Rantau Panjang | \n34.11 m 6.88 m 10.41 m | \n25 m 5 m 9 m | \n
Terengganu | \n32,736 | \nSungai Kemaman | \n37.6 m | \n36 m | \n
Perak | \n7774 | \nTasik Temengor, Hulu Perak Sungai Selama, Selama | \n247.69 m 14.86 m | \nAlert level Alert level | \n
Johor | \n328 | \n\n | N/A | \n\n |
Pahang | \n29,423 | \n\n | N/A | \n\n |
Report for December 29, 2014.
The rising water levels from the 3 main rivers in Kelantan caused 16 roads in 6 districts to be closed. While in Terengganu, 15 roads in 5 districts were closed. The closing of major roads slowed down the rescue activities because rescue teams had difficulty in reaching the victims due to limited access and resources (boats and helicopters). The main utility provider of Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad, also suspended the electricity supply because the flood might cause damage to, and it was dangerous to operate, electricity substations in affected states. The majority of properties were submerged by the flood waters in the three states. The second option of transportation to deliver relief was also affected because several Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) intercity train services along the east coast route were interrupted due to the rising water levels on the train tracks. Based on the report by the National Security Council, Terengganu had the most evacuees estimated at 32,736 people, followed by the other states in Malaysia as shown in Table 2.
\nFlooding was the imminent impact for all the states that were situated in the northeast of Malaysia, along the shoreline of the South China Sea. Terengganu, however, reported a less serious impact despite being one of the states situated next to the shoreline.
\nThe impact of the flood in Terengganu was much less notable compared to Kelantan and Pahang. The success of the milder impact in Terengganu can be attributed to two factors: the unique FM system that was implemented specifically in Kemaman and the standard operating procedure (SOP) that was used throughout the disaster. Both of these factors are the main difference between how Kemaman and the other states managed the 2014 flood.
\nThe unique FM system in Kemaman relied on both technology and process to ensure an effective and efficient FM system that could be used by all disaster agencies as well as the public directly impacted by the flood. Kemaman also critically depended on its own SOP, which is annually refined and improved after every flood.
\nKemaman flood’s workforce starts as early as the first quarter of each year, and includes the establishment of a flood management committee and evacuation centres. Both the committees and the evacuation centres are being championed and joined by local people. The participation of these committees involves the district officer, the local head of the village, and the evacuation centres’ chairperson. The creation of the SOP pertaining specifically to the flood, which includes roles and responsibilities of the members of the committee, is the collaborative effort of the local government and local people.
\nThe establishment of the FM system and SOP has helped Kemaman to successfully manage its flood effectively compared with the other states.
\nKemaman is successful in FM plan implementation as compared to Kelantan. This is due to the engagement of local leaders in FM plan implementation. The FM plan is one of the outcomes from the established FM system in Malaysia that outlines the participation of multiple agencies with shared objectives, while performing different activities in managing floods. The FM plan consists of tasks, roles and responsibilities of each agency as well as types of information that should be shared across agencies. Local leaders are considered as one of the entities in the FM plan that has been given its own set of tasks, roles and responsibilities and information, which is sent to the agencies to reduce the effects of floods in their areas or villages.
\nSection 3.1 provides an overview of the implementation of the FM plan in the state of Kelantan and the district of Kemaman, Terengganu.
\nThe 2014 flood, which affected 70% of the villages or nearly half of the state population [4], was claimed to be the worst flood recorded in the history of Kelantan [5]. This flood was known as bah kuning (yellow flood) due its high mud content [6, 7]. As reported by [8], Kelantan was the worst affected state, which recorded 14 deaths and more than 158,000 victims displaced. Sixteen roads in six districts were closed due to the uncontrolled water flowing from the rivers: Sungai Lebir, Sungai Kelantan and Sungai Golok. The torrential rain, which started on 17 December 2014, caused flash floods and affected 3390 people in Kuala Krai [6]. The continuous rain from 21 December to 23 December in Gua Musang resulted in a rise of water in three major rivers in Kelantan, Sungai galas, Sungai Lebir and Sungai Kelantan, to dangerous levels [8]
\nThe aggravated flood was attributed to the change in climate pattern, adverse weather effects, uncontrolled land management and deforestation and exploitation of land resources [4]. Additionally, a government minister added that unsuccessful implementation of the SOP was the major contributing factor to the crisis in Kelantan [4]. Figure 2 Shows one of the views of the Kelantan flood in 2014
\nView of Kelantan flood in 2014.
Terengganu, a south neighbouring state of Kelantan, despite suffering the same elements of nature, experienced a milder impact. Kemaman, a district in the state of Terengganu, due to its geographical location and landscape, has considered flooding as a common phenomenon. More than 34,000 victims in the district were evacuated during the flood of 2014. The milder impacts were partly attributed to having a good operating procedure and the involvement of the local community. Figure 3 shows one of the views of the Kemaman flood in 2014.
\nView of Kemaman flood in 2014 (source: Astro Awani, 2014).
The SOP in FM, which was implemented by the district, was awarded a gold standard for acknowledging its success in organising and implementing FM plans during the 2014 flood [9]. The objectives of the SOP are to act as a main reference for FM in Kemaman, as a basis to improve the FM-related process and to create a system involving the public (including students) to play a role in assisting the victims and to identify resources and risks in FM. The SOP has outlined the organisational structures (membership) in FM from district officer level to committee level, workflow for each of the FM phases (before flood, during flood, after flood), clear roles and responsibilities for each of the committees, cross-agency coordination through well-defined relationships with other responding agencies, information sharing processes, resource management and risk management. The SOP elaborates the mechanism to respond to flood, which includes:
Identification of places for the stranded community such as mosques.
Information sharing with the affected community through pamphlets, announcement at the mosque before prayer and displaying information on the community hall notice board.
Sharing of resources across agencies such as telecommunication devices (Government Integrated Radio Network (GIRN) and walkie-talkies).
Partnership with private telecommunication companies to elevate the communication equipment cabinet at the communication signal transmitter site.
Information sharing across agencies using applications such as WhatsApp and Telegram.
Well-planned measures to minimise the identified FM risk, for example, walkie-talkies and GIRN are used in case of disruption to the telecommunication signal.
Emphasis of community involvement in the document. The flood simulation activity includes the roles and responsibilities of the village development and security committee in FM.
According to Dr. Sharifah Zarah Syed Ahmad [10], Secretary at the Ministry of Communications and Multimedia, there were several contributing factors for the successful implementation of the FM plan in Kemaman. The success story of Kemaman was due to collaboration with the public such as local leaders. During the preflood preparation phase, a flood central committee, which comprises representatives from each of the constituencies in Kemaman, was deployed. The constituencies decided on the location of the main relief centre and have involved the public in the flood awareness campaign.
\nThe people of Kemaman are well equipped with knowledge of how to respond to disaster. Information pertaining to the relief centre location, flood kits and actions in responding to disaster (before, during and after) was imparted to the people either verbally or via pamphlets. The address of the GPS coordinate to assist helicopters to land was identified based on the advice from local leaders. The helipad location is crucial to ensure the army can send and pick up supplies for victims. The rapid dissemination of information was aided by the utilisation of information and communication technology. The people are aware of the flood early warning routine and react quickly according to the plan. Text messages were sent to the people estimating the time that the flood would arrive at the identified locations. As such, the local community could respond to the effects of flooding by saving important documents and evacuating to the identified relief centre.
\nFrom the case of Kelantan and Kemaman, it can be noted that local leaders’ enrolment is crucial for the successful implementation of the FM plan. The local leaders help to inculcate awareness among their community for timely response during flooding. The dissemination of information between local leaders and the community is essential for speedy action in the event of a flood.
\nThe 2014 flood event was an unpredicted disaster. The fast rising water level claimed many acres in a matter of minutes. Orders soon came from officials regarding the evacuation of thousands of residents and the opening and closing of shelters as flood water inundated and ravaged towns, roads, villages and homes. In issuing directions to the mainly local people (villagers), someone who understands the local language and area would be the ideal choice. Apparently, in the rescue and relief of people in Kemaman, a number of heroes emerged: the assemblyman, the district authorities, the headman and the village community committee were all identified as local heroes.
\nLocal heroes in the context of Kemaman would be persons with knowledge of the local areas and those who clearly understood the disaster situation as well as directly responding to the unpredictable conditions based on their experience. In the opinion of others, local heroes possess special achievements, abilities or personal qualities and are regarded as role models or ideal leaders to take charge during a flood. The involvement of local people along with the local authorities has established the Kemaman SOP as an outstanding procedure to be followed compared with other districts. Figure 4 illustrates the information exchange and collaboration among local heroes, together with an explanation of the preparation and implementation of the flood event, that were championed by those at Kemaman, Terengganu, during the 2014 flood.
\nInformation exchange and coordination between the local heroes in the case of the 2014 flood at Kemaman.
As mentioned earlier, a local hero is someone who has extensive local knowledge of the flood operating procedures. Evidence of this can be seen from the well-drawn map that was produced by the assemblyman, which was used to estimate the arrival of the flood. This map was produced based on his knowledge of and familiarity with the river basin, all of which has contributed to easier flood management in the Kemaman district. An assemblyman in Malaysia is an elected representative from single-member constituencies during state elections, voted by local people from their constituencies.
\nFigure 5 shows the assemblyman’s personal sketch estimating the speed and arrival of the flood to the main road. The assemblyman drew the map as a guide in planning for the evacuation, rather than relying on technology because of inaccurate information provided by the system (inaccuracy may be caused by rapid changes in sedimentation or rate of rise of the flood water). The purpose of the sketch is to monitor the villages as well as the speed of the river water, which helps the FM agencies provide instructions to evacuate victims from flood areas.
\nAssemblyman’s personal sketch.
FM also had problems in delivering food and supplies to the affected flood victims. The assemblyman believed that food and supplies should be ready in advance of the flood because it can be chaotic to deliver and distribute them during a flood. Thus, Kemaman District Office had reviewed the Kemaman District Disaster Management Committee by involving the headman in their process of managing the flood. In the engagement of local heroes during the flood in Kemaman, the headman of every village is considered to be the second most important leader after the assemblyman. The headman is responsible for monitoring the process in evacuation centres and food and supply depots.
\nFigures 6 and 7 show the depot with the food and supplies prepared by the Kemaman District Office. The supplies collected were kept at the Air Putih depot and these must be ready before the flood so that the management can focus more on the search and rescue activities once the flood hits. The headman was considered as the leader in the evacuation centre since he understood and knew the residents, and this helped to ensure that the information was delivered faster and easier.
\nAir Putih food and supply depot.
Food and supplies were prepared at the Air Putih depot for seven days.
Figure 8 shows the involvement of headmen and the members from the village community committee in the Kemaman District Disaster Management Committee that was established by Kemaman District and Land Office in managing the 2014 flood. Disaster awareness and simulation programmes were provided to the headmen and members of the village community committee. The aim of this activity was to familiarise and prepare the headmen to manage the disaster and provide relief to the victims and others on how to respond to a disaster.
\nKemaman District Disaster Management Committee. Note: National Security Council (NSC).
Involvement of headmen and members of the village community committee.
\nFigure 9 shows the boat operation course and water survival simulation conducted by Kemaman District and Land Office that involved the headmen, local people and government agencies. The simulation exercise aimed to provide exposure to the person responsible for the search and rescue of flood victims, which was the preliminary planning of the Kemaman authorities, in ensuring that pilot actions have been taken and prepared with any possible occurrence.
\nBoat operation course and water survival simulation.
Kemaman also practises the concept of transformational leadership known as on-scene leadership, which allows the responsible person to spontaneously act as leader and give instructions regarding unexpected changes during the disaster due to rapid environmental changes. This strategy was aimed at reducing the impact of the flood, where any local leaders involved can become a leader for the district when the flood hits.
\nBy having local heroes to oversee the flood management activities, Kemaman SOP managed to obtain a “gold standard” as announced by the Malaysia Prime Minister and published in Bernama, December 31, 2014. Local heroes are at an advantage since they understand the problems of residents, know them personally and have great knowledge of the local area. Local heroes have better understanding and greater knowledge with a clear picture of problems that may occur due to heavy rains and flooding. Floods are sometimes accompanied by a number of problems that need to be solved by the leaders. Because a local hero is the most knowledgeable person to identify the problems that arise and the extent to which they can occur, they need to find solutions to all the problems and ensure that the flood can be managed efficiently.
\nHaving knowledge of the culture of people and places was another advantage that Kemaman local heroes possessed in governing the 2014 flood. Kemaman District Disaster Management applied the concept of giving priorities to special people, which included any ailing person, disabled person orang kurang upaya (OKU), pregnant women and people living far away from the evacuation centre. These categories of people were prioritised during the evacuation process. Information regarding the victims that fit the categories to be prioritised was gathered from the information system used at the Kemaman District Office.
\nA high level of understanding of the dialects used by the locals was also an advantage in the management of the 2014 flood in Kemaman. The understanding of local dialects helps because information can be communicated easily, quickly and accurately to people who are exposed to floods. It also facilitates the population to act on the instructions issued by the authorities.
\nA warmer atmosphere brought by climate change will result in increased precipitation or water vapour. For Malaysia, which lies in a wet region, this means heavier rainfall rates. The growth in population (and development), which dictates changes in land use to support their needs, has also increased the severity of flood disaster. As such, improvement over methods for flood governance and management has become even more important. Lessons garnered from the big flood of 2014 must be quickly translated into actionable items for managing future floods, especially in the non-urban areas in Malaysia.
\nUse of information technology combined with mobile apps and social media for data collection and storage, information sharing and decision making by the Kemaman flood team have only become successful due to the commitment of everyone involved to diligently participate in the development, training and simulation of flood protection, and providing feedback for improvement. Likewise, in the development of the Kemaman SOP (dubbed the gold standard SOP), the SOP was successful partly due to the awareness programmes and training drills to ensure that it was understood and executable.
\nLast but not least, engagement of the local community was one of the key ingredients to success. Technological sophistication will not, at least in the near future, match the effectiveness of a familiar “local” hero – one who understands the local dialect, remembers the topography (landmarks and such) by heart when road signage becomes unreliable and knows the community members and neighbours.
\nConsidering the above, it is suggested that the flood governance and management platform be developed to engage the local community.
\nThe authors would like to convey our gratitude to Ministry of Education Malaysia for the funding of this project under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS).
\nWater availability is one of the most important environmental factors for plant growth and development. The water deficit caused by drought or salinity in soils is one of the most serious environmental problems that limit agricultural production in various regions of the world. According to [1], water deficit occurs when all water content in the cell is below the highest water content displayed in the state of greatest hydration.
Plants experience a water deficit when water supply to the roots becomes difficult or when the rate of evapotranspiration becomes very high. These two conditions generally coincide in regions with an arid and semiarid climate and affect plants to a greater or lesser extent according to the tolerance that species have [2].
Plant response to biotic and abiotic stresses is a complex network of reactions, which involves different physiological pathways of the primary and secondary metabolism. At the cellular level, membranes and proteins can be damaged by a reduction in hydration and an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) [3]. ROS derive from oxidative processes such as photosynthesis and respiration, and, in normal conditions, they are produced in low concentration without any negative consequences for the plants. In stressful conditions (biotic or abiotic), ROS levels increase as an index of the oxidative burst induced by the stress agent [4]. When ROS become toxic, they can result in a series of damages to plant metabolism, such as deterioration of photosynthetic components, inactivation of proteins and enzymes, and destruction of the structure and permeability of the cell membrane by lipid peroxidation [5, 6].
Antioxidants and their role in the plant defense system have received a lot of attention in scientific research. Many results suggest that the effects of environmental stresses, such as salinity, drought, low temperatures, and herbicide residues, damage plants directly or indirectly by increasing endogenous ROS [7].
Plant cells are protected against the damaging effects of ROS by a complex antioxidant system composed of enzymatic antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) [8]. The close relationship between antioxidant activity and stress tolerance has been identified in many crops such as maize (Zea mays L.) [7], tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) [9], and grasses [10].
Biostimulants are extracts obtained from organic raw materials containing bioactive compounds. The most common components of the biostimulants are mineral elements, humic substances (HSs), vitamins, and amino acids [6]. Seaweed extracts have been used in agriculture as soil conditioners or as plant stimulators. They are applied as foliar spray and enhance plant growth; freezing, drought, and salt tolerance; photosynthetic activity; and resistance to fungi, bacteria, and virus, improving the yield and productivity of many crops [11, 12]. Seaweeds used for biostimulant production contain cytokinins and auxins or other hormone-like substances [13]. From a legal point of view, the biostimulants can contain traces of natural plant hormones, but their biological action should not be ascribed to them; otherwise they should be registered as plant growth regulators [6].
Humic acids have been used in the composition of many commercial products because they have phytohormones [14] that favor protection against oxidative damage in plants caused by environmental stresses. Thus, the use of biostimulants in agriculture has been emphasized, which are products that contain active ingredient or organic agent free of pesticides, capable of acting, directly or indirectly, on all or part of the cultivated plants, increasing their productivity [15].
The components of biostimulants can change the hormonal status of the plant and have a great influence on its development and health. Seaweed, humic acids, and vitamins are commonly present in biostimulants and are important in improving plant development and hormonal activity [16]. In addition, these products increase the antioxidant activity in plants, especially when they are under water stress, severe temperatures, and herbicide action, among others [7].
Several studies have shown results in improving the resistance of plants to water stress when subjected to the application of biostimulants. The activity levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and catalase (CAT) have been determined. In general, increases in these antioxidant enzymes have been observed with the use of biostimulants [16]. Another parameter that has been improved in the plant with the application of biostimulants is the photochemical efficiency [17].
Thus, the objective of this chapter was to approach the role of biostimulants in plants submitted to water supply deficit, by affecting the activities of enzymatic antioxidants.
Biostimulants are components that produce responses in plant growth by improving tolerance to abiotic stresses. Many of the effects of these products are based on their ability to influence the hormonal activity of plants. Phytohormones are chemical messengers that regulate the normal development of plants by growing roots and shoots, in addition to regulating responses to the environment where they are located [18].
Many statements about biostimulants also refer to the improvements they provide in the tolerance of plants to water stress, a limiting factor in the management of the crops. Water stress affects many metabolic functions in plants, specifically photosynthesis. The application of biostimulants increases the defense system of the plant by increasing its level of antioxidant enzymes [15].
The components of biostimulants can alter the plant’s hormonal status and have a major influence on its growth and health. Seaweed, humic acids and vitamins are commonly present in biostimulants and are important in improving plant development and hormonal activity [19]. In addition, these products increase the antioxidant activity in plants, especially when they are under water stress, severe temperatures and herbicide action, among others [20].
However, the composition of biostimulants is partly unknown; the complexity of the extracts and the wide range of molecules contained in the solution make it very difficult to understand which the most active compounds are. Moreover, the isolation and study of a single component present in a biostimulant can produce unreliable results because the effects on plants are often due to the combination and synergistic action of different compounds. In addition, the mechanisms activated by biostimulants are difficult to identify and still under investigation [6].
Plants usually thrive when the environment is favorable. Under these conditions, the effects of biostimulants may not be easily identified. However, when plants are stressed and undergo treatment with biostimulants, they develop better, as their defense system becomes more efficient due to the increase in their levels of antioxidants [20]. Besides, many of the active substances of biostimulants can be present in very low concentrations, sometimes below the levels detectable with commonly available technologies, but can provide strong biological effects [6].
Biostimulants and humic substances have shown an influence on many metabolic processes in plants, such as respiration, photosynthesis, synthesis of nucleic acids, and ion absorption. Within the cell, humic substances can increase the chlorophyll content resulting in greener leaves and reduction of some problems in plants, such as leaf chlorosis, since humic substances improve the capacity of nutrient uptake by the roots [21]. Beyond humic substances, various raw materials have been used in biostimulant compositions, such as hormones, algae extracts, and plant growth-promoting bacteria [22].
Water availability is one of the most limiting environmental factors that affect crop productivity. In the semiarid tropics, the occurrence of drought or water deficit in the soil is quite common, despite the fact that crops in regions of tropical and temperate climate suffer seasonal periods of water deficit, especially during the summer [23].
Drought is a prevalent stress factor especially in arid and semiarid areas and can affect different aspects of plant growth, development, and metabolism. Drought is a multidimensional stress factor, and hence its effects on plants are complex. Its effects on plants can occur on a molecular level up to a whole-plant level. There are several reasons for drought in nature, including low rainfall, salinity, high temperature, and high intensity of light, among others [24].
Some of the plants’ first responses to stress appear to be mediated by biophysical events, rather than changes in chemical reactions resulting from dehydration. The closing of stomata, the reduction of photosynthesis, and osmotic adjustments are the responses of some plants to the first stage of water deficit [25]. As the water content of the plant decreases, the cells shrink, and the cell walls relax. With this, the solutes increase their concentration in the cells, and the plasma membrane becomes thicker and more compressed, as it covered a smaller area than before [1]. Cell expansion occurs when the turgor pressure is greater than the growth of the cell wall. Water stress greatly decreases cell expansion and plant growth due to low turgor pressure [26].
Stomata provide the main mechanism for controlling the rate of water loss. However, the site of water loss is also the site of carbon gain by the plant, so a reduction in water loss by stomatal control also results in a reduction in assimilation with consequent effects on productivity and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species [27]. These responses hinder the supply of CO2 for photosynthesis and expose chloroplasts to excess energy excitation, especially under high light intensity [25].
The low potentials in the soil and in the plant inhibit their growth, reduce the development activities of cells and tissues, decrease the uptake of nutrients, and cause morphological and biochemical changes [28]. To maintain water uptake, the roots have to grow deeper or increase their density. A characteristic of drought-resistant species is that they have a large proportion of their total mass consisting of roots and a deep-rooted habit. A high root/shoot ratio does not indicate in itself great ability to absorb water: water deficiency invariably increases the root/shoot ratio, but this is due to the loss of plant shoot weight without loss of root mass [1].
Photosynthesis is the driving force of plant productivity. The ability to maintain the rate of photosynthetic carbon dioxide and the assimilation of nitrate under environmental stresses is fundamental for the maintenance of plant growth and production. It is known that when water stress becomes extreme, non-stomatal factors can become even more limiting for photosynthesis [17].
The water deficit often decreases the number of photons captured by the leaves because withered leaves are at a more acute angle to the sun’s rays. Changes in the absorption characteristics of the leaves occur due to the shrinkage of the cells. However, changes in chloroplasts and thylakoid during light capture and energy transfer centers are relatively small under water deficit conditions [29].
The diatomic oxygen (O2) molecules in the Earth’s atmosphere are the major promoters of reactions in cells. Except for those organisms that are specially adapted to live under anaerobic conditions, all animals and plants require oxygen for efficient energy production [30].
Aerobic organisms use diatomic oxygen as a terminal electron receptor, providing a high-energy field compared to fermentation and anaerobic respiration. In this base stage, molecular oxygen is relatively nonreactive, but it is capable of giving rise to excited reactive and lethal states, such as free radicals and their derivatives [31].
Superoxide, produced by electron transport to oxygen, is not compatible with cellular metabolism; hence, all organisms that are involved in aerobic environments must have an efficient mechanism capable of removing or neutralizing free radicals from cellular components. The balance between oxidative and antioxidant capabilities determines the fate of the plant [32]. Without this defense mechanism, plants may not efficiently convert solar energy into chemical energy [33].
The formation of reactive oxygen species occurs primarily through the superoxide radical (O2●−), which can be dismutated into hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), or even through catalytic action, by the action of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme. Antioxidant systems in plants act as mechanisms of resistance to stress by protecting the membranes against damage caused by these oxygen species produced under conditions of environmental and xenobiotic stress [34].
The fate of cells under stressful environments is determined by the duration of the stress, as well as the plant’s protective capacity. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a crucial role in causing cellular damage to plants under stress. The sequence of events in plant tissues subjected to stress is increased production of ROS; increased levels of antioxidants; and increase in the capacity to “sweep” ROS, resulting in the plant’s tolerance against water stress [35].
The detoxification mechanisms of ROS exist in all plants and can be categorized into enzymatic (superoxide dismutase, SOD; catalase, CAT; ascorbate peroxidase, APX, among others) and nonenzymatic (carotenoids, ascorbic acid, among others). The degree to which the amount and activities of antioxidant enzymes increases under water stress is extremely variable between many plant species and even between two cultivars of the same species. The level of response depends on the species, the development of the plant, as well as the duration and intensity of the stress [35].
The superoxide produced by the thylakoid can spontaneously be dismutated into molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. In chloroplasts, this reaction is catalyzed enzymatically via superoxide dismutase (SOD). Chloroplasts also contain large amounts of ascorbic acid, which can efficiently reduce superoxide to hydrogen peroxide via ascorbate peroxidase [4].
Plants have the superoxide dismutase enzyme containing Cu and Zn, Fe, or Mn as prosthetic metals. Zn is found in superoxide dismutase present in chloroplasts and cytosol, while Mn is found in superoxide dismutase in mitochondria and Fe in superoxide dismutase is present in chloroplasts and mitochondria [36].
Reactive oxygen species can react with unsaturated fatty acids, causing the peroxidation of essential lipid membranes in plasmalemma or intracellular organelles [33]. The damage caused by the peroxidation of plasmalemma leads to extravasation of cellular content and rapid dissection and cell death. The damaged intracellular membrane affects the respiratory activity in the mitochondria, in addition to depigmentation and loss of the ability to fix carbon in chloroplasts [34].
Under normal conditions, antioxidant systems eliminate or slow the reaction of reactive oxygen, preventing its transformation into products more toxic to cells. Photosynthetic cells can tolerate high levels of oxygen because endogenous mechanisms sweep and remove toxic products before cell damage occurs [32]. However, oxidative damage is evident under conditions where the rate of production of ROS is high and the removal ability is low [37].
Water stress conditions can trigger an increase in the production of various forms of reactive oxygen, which can explain the damage to chloroplasts, lipids, and proteins and the alteration of the structural integrity of cell membranes. During the reduction of water inside the plant, the superoxide radical (O2●−) can also react nonenzymatically with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), giving rise to products such as hydroxyl radicals (OH−) and singlet oxygen (1O2), which are more reactive than the superoxide radical (O2●−) [32].
Although a number of regulatory mechanisms have been evolved within the plant cell to limit the production of these toxic molecules, oxidative damage remains a potential problem, as it causes disturbances in metabolism, such as loss of coordination between production processes (source) and energy use (drain) during photosynthesis on green leaves under stressful environments [38].
When plants are under stress, free radicals or ROS damage plant cells, and antioxidants decrease the toxicity of these radicals. Plants with high levels of antioxidants produce better root and shoot growth, maintaining a high water content in the leaves and low incidence of disease, both occurring when they are under ideal growing conditions and under environmental stress [18].
The use of biostimulants in plant breeding could change the activity of enzymes and antioxidant properties. Lycopene, ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, and others have antioxidant properties. Antioxidant compounds (e.g., phenols, ascorbic acid) and enzymes (e.g., catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase) detoxify reactive oxygen molecules [20].
Biostimulants stimulate root production and growth when applied to seeds or early plant development, especially in soils with low fertility and low water availability. Biostimulants act in accelerating the recovery of the seedlings in unfavorable conditions, such as water deficit. In addition, biostimulants reduce the need of fertilizers to the plants and increase their productivity and resistance to water stress, since they act as a hormonal and nutritional increment [15].
The application of humic acid extracts seems to be beneficial for field crop monocots. In a study conducted by [39], extracts from vermicompost applied to rice (Oryza sativa L.) played a role in activating antioxidative enzymatic function and increased ROS-scavenging enzymes. These enzymes are required to inactivate toxic-free oxygen radicals produced in plants under drought stress. Humic acid extracts may stimulate plant growth by improving nutrient uptake by exerting hormone-like effects as auxins, stimulating shoot elongation and increasing leaf nutrient accumulation and chlorophyll biosynthesis [40].
According to [41], humic acids improve root and shoot growth by increasing the concentrations of antioxidants in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and creeping bent grass (Agrostis palustris) grown under conditions of low water availability. The authors also claim that exogenous applications of seaweed extracts together with humic acids promote root and shoot growth through the action of antioxidants in plants under water stress conditions.
A study carried out using a biostimulant based on salicylic acid and chitosan nanoparticles had an effect on the enzyme and antioxidant activity in maize leaves under water shortage [42]. The enzyme activity in leaves treated with chitosan, salicylic acid, and a control was comparable, and the activity of superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activity in plants treated with a biostimulant was 7.7 (after 2 days) and 5.2 (after 3 days) times higher than for plants treated with only salicylic acid.
The activities of antioxidant enzymes in plants are normally favored when plants are subjected to some kind of improvement in the conditions in which they are grown. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) antioxidant enzyme is the first line of defense against ROS caused by environmental stresses. Increases in SOD values provide an increase in plant resistance when subjected to environmental stresses [43].
In an experiment with Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) subjected to water stress and humic acid applications, [44] observed an increase in superoxide dismutase activities related to the applied doses of humic acids. However, a decrease in the activity of superoxide dismutase related to soil moisture content was observed. The authors justify this decrease by the increase in nonenzymatic antioxidants favored by the action of humic acids, which caused a decrease in the reactive oxygen species present in the cells.
The activity of superoxide dismutase responds differently to water deficit in different experiments and species: it can be increased [45] or decreased [46], or it cannot be altered [45]. Due to the presence of multiple enzymatic forms of the superoxide dismutase enzyme [33], only the investigation of the responses of each of its enzymatic forms can provide more information about the behavior of this enzyme in plants subjected to water stress.
Some authors mention that catalase activity has little affinity for hydrogen peroxide, a reason why it is common not to have a significant increase in its activity when evaluated in plants under stress [7]. [47] examined the activity of catalase in rice seedlings (Oryza sativa) under water stress and found that the increase of this enzyme in plants was not significant. Likewise, [48] did not find a significant increase for catalase in tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Nikita) submitted to three different levels of water stress. However, the extract of Moringa oleifera used as a biostimulant in rocket plants (Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa) under water stress presented a decrease in the activity of the antioxidant enzymes (catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase) [49].
Several seaweed species influence ROS-scavenging systems in the plant tissue. Seaweed extracts controlled oxidative stress under drought conditions, by reducing lipid peroxidation, increasing total phenolic content, and enhancing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase activity in green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) [50]. Extracts from Sargassum and Ulva, applied as seed presoaking, activated antioxidant systems by enhancing catalase and peroxidase activities, increasing ascorbic acid content, and therefore alleviating stress symptoms in wheat grown under drought conditions [51]. Ascophyllum nodosum extract applied to roots increased the total phenolic and flavonoid content and total antioxidant activity in spinach (Spinacia oleracea) [52]. In tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), A. nodosum extract increased the activity of superoxide dismutase and in another study additionally enhanced glutathione reductase and ascorbate peroxidase activities [36]. Similarly applied seaweed extract increased the antioxidant capacity and enhanced flavonoid and tannin content in plant leaves of the ornamental hybrid Calibrachoa x hybrida under normal conditions [53].
Seaweed extracts have also been applied in combination with other compounds to enhance antioxidant activity in plants under water stress, such as a mixture of seaweed extracts from A. nodosum, Fucus spp., and Laminaria spp. with zinc and manganese and A. nodosum extract with free amino acids. These mixtures increased superoxide dismutase activity in shoots and roots of maize (Zea mays) and soybean (Glycine max). Collectively, these studies demonstrate that seaweed extracts enhance antioxidant activity, indicating their potential to scavenge damaging ROS molecules and improve plant stress tolerance [54].
Humic acids have also been shown to alleviate water deficit stress. Faba bean (Vicia faba) plants were protected from lead-induced oxidative damage by fulvic acids, which reduced lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide, and pigment content [55]. The foliar application of fulvic acid ameliorated drought stress symptoms of reduced chlorophyll content, gas exchange, and yield while enhancing activities of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase and increasing proline content in a study with maize [56]. Humic and fulvic acid based biostimulants, applied to the soil, enhanced superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and catalase activities in leaves of maize grown under well-watered and drought conditions. However, the effect of these biostimulants was less pronounced in soybeans [7].
Humic substances can also increase activity of antioxidant enzymes. Activity of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase was higher after foliar application of fulvic acid in maize grown under drought conditions. Biostimulant containing humic and fulvic acids and amino acids increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, specifically superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase in maize subjected to drought stress, but did not affect catalase activity [7].
The composition of biostimulants should present a variety of organic materials such as humic substances, seaweed extracts, organic matter, and amino acids in order to improve stress tolerance. The literature on biostimulants have been reporting an increase in enzyme activities involved in antioxidant functions, especially under stress conditions.
Investigations on the role of biostimulants in the physiological mode of action in plants subjected to drought stress should be continued, since considerable researches remain to be completed to gain a clearer understanding of how these products increase the physiological health of plants under water stress.
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