The reported several organic polymers in LIBs.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current epidemiology, valuable information in relation to the management of specific poisoning agents, and important evidence-based developments in the toxicology field, with special focus on children, who are a more vulnerable population for severe poisonings. Its aim is to be a practical handbook to aid health care professionals involved in individual care of patients poisoning.
Electricity generation from renewable sources, such as solar and wind, has been increasing in the context of growing environmental concerns and constraints of the fossil fuels and hydrocarbon reserves [1, 2]. The renewable power is featured by the intermittent and fluctuating nature, which requires large-scale electrical energy storage devices to dispatch and integrate the renewable power. Among the current storage technologies (e.g., pumped hydro, flywheel, compressed air, superconducting magnet, electrochemical systems), electrochemical storage technologies or batteries that reversely convert electrical energy into chemical energy demonstrate extremely great potential in the stationary and transportation applications. Among the electrochemical storage technologies, redox flow battery is one of the promising technologies for large-scale energy storage application. Meanwhile, portable smart electronic devices promote the development of small-scale energy storage systems, such as Li-ion batteries and supercapacitors. Key elements, such as membranes and electrodes, are crucial for their application in different batteries. Polymer/carbon nanotubes (CNTs)-composited materials have been successfully used in above-mentioned energy storage batteries. In the following sections, we introduce the application of polymer/CNT for different electrochemical storages.
\nRedox flow batteries (RFBs) have widely received attention for both medium-and large-scale storage needs in the past decades. As schematically shown in Figure 1, a typical RFB system consists of two external reservoirs that store soluble charged/discharged electrolytes, two electrodes, and a membrane that effectively separates the anode and cathode electrolytes, while allowing the transport of non-active ions (e.g., H+, Cl−) to complete the reaction and a flow circulation system. In RFB, the chemical energy is converted to electrical energy (discharge) or vice versa (charge) when liquid electrolytes are pumped from storage tanks to flow-through electrodes [3, 4].
\nUnlike conventional batteries that store energy in electrode materials, RFB systems store energy in anolyte and catholyte solutions. As such, the most prominent advantage of RFB system is that the power and energy capacity of one RFB system can be designed separately. The power rating of the system is determined by the number of cells in the cell stack and the area of electrode, whereas the energy storage capacity is controlled by the concentration of the active redox couple species in electrolytes and the solution volume. As a result, it is possible to independently optimize the RFB’s storage capacity and the power output for different applications. Both energy and power capacity of RFB can be easily increased by simply adding the volume of electrolytes and the numbers of cells in the stack, respectively. Consequently, the incremental cost of each additional energy storage capacity unit is lower than other types of battery technologies. In addition, the process of manufacturing a modular production of RFB stacks can be simplified by omitting the cell-making process, and thus, the cost would be reduced compared with solid-state batteries (e.g., Li-ion and NiMH). Furthermore, unlike practical solid-state battery, the simple design of RFB system can minimize the energy density loss resulted from negative impact of inactive materials because the volume of energy-bearing reactive electrolyte can be independently scaled up [5–7].
\nWith the unique mechanism of the RFB system, there are some additional advantages of RFB systems over other battery systems: quick response, long cycle life, no high operational temperature, deep-discharge capacity, simple electrode reactions, low maintenance cost, safety.
\nThe modern RFB system (iron-chromium RFB) was proposed in the 1970s by Lawrence Thaller at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Since then a number of other redox flow batteries have been invented and developed. Based on different redox couples used, these RFBs can be divided into the following: polysulfide/bromine flow battery (PSB), all vanadium redox flow battery (VRB), vanadium-bromine flow battery (VBB), vanadium-cerium flow battery (VCB), vanadium/iron redox flow battery (VIB), vanadium/air flow battery, zinc/bromine flow battery (ZBB), zinc-cerium flow battery (ZCB), iron/chromium flow battery (ICB), iron-titanium redox flow battery (ITB), soluble lead-acid battery, etc. Among these various RFBs, ZBB, ICB, VRB, and PSB have been demonstrated at a few hundred kW and even multi-MW levels for different applications [8]. Until now among these flow batteries, VRB is the most widely studied and successfully demonstrated one due to its low crossover of vanadium ions and good performances, which will be discussed in details.
\nThe vanadium redox flow battery (VRB) proposed by Skyllas-Kazacos et al. shows great promise as a new, highly efficient, and reliable energy storage system for a wide range of applications such as solar cell and wind turbine generators, remote area power systems, emergency back-up applications, and uninterruptible power sources (UPS) [9]. The VRB employs V(II)/V(III) and V(IV)/V(V) redox couples in its anolyte and catholyte, respectively, and H2SO4 as the supporting electrolyte [10]. The ion-exchange membrane responsible for separation and proton transportation is crucial for a VRB. And the carbon felt usually used as the electrodes provides the electrochemically active surface for the redox reaction to take place. The electron exchange occurs at the electrodes in the aqueous phase according to the following reactions:
\nCathodic side:
\nAnodic side:
\nOverall reaction:
\nSince invention, the VRB has received extensive attention around the world, especially in Japan, Europe, the USA, and China. Though many systems have been installed in a variety of fields, the practical application of the VRB is still hindered by the high cost and low energy density. Accordingly, developing a chemically stable, low-cost, and high-quality membrane is one of the promising ways to overcome these two challenges of VRB.
\nSchematic of vanadium redox flow battery.
In VRB, an ion-exchange membrane plays a critical role on separating the anode and cathode electrolytes effectively, namely, no migration or a very low permeability of vanadium ions, while allowing the transport of ions to complete the circuit during passage of current. An ideal membrane should possess high proton conductivity, good chemical stability, high tensile strength, low permeability for vanadium ions, and low cost [11]. Among ion exchange membranes, perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) membranes, such as Nafion (DuPont), are most commonly used due to their high chemical stabilities and proton conductivities. However, PFSA membranes usually suffer from high cost and especially high permeability of vanadium ions. To reduce the migration of V ions, many approaches such as doping of inorganic materials, surface modification, and layering have been employed to modify the Nafion membranes. Although some important progress proceeds with lower vanadium species in modified Nafion than the pristine one, the cost is still far from afforded that limits the commercialization [12, 13]. It is therefore of equivalent significance to reduce the cost. Recently, non-perfluoronated polymers such as sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK) and sulfonated poly(ether sulfone) (SPES) have been received wide attention for VRB application due to their low vanadium ion permeability and low cost [14]. The ion selectivity and mechanical strength are highly dependent on the degree of sulfonation (DS). SPEEK membranes with high DS possess high ion selectivity and low areal resistance, but poor mechanical property, high vanadium ions permeability, and stability. On the other hand, SPEEK membranes with low DS exhibit good mechanical strength and stability but poor ion selectivity and high areal resistance [15]. Consequently, it is important to reduce the vanadium ions crossover and increase the mechanical strength of SPEEK membranes, while keeping their high ion selectivity for VRB. One effective approach to address this issue is to embed inorganic nanoparticles/carbon nanostructures into the SPEEK matrix such as, WO3, graphene, rGO, and GO [16–18], which can significantly increase the mechanical strength and stability of the composite membranes with high DS SPEEK matrix.
\nCNT is well known as its good conductivity, high surface area, well-directed 1D conductive path, low cost, and good mechanical stability. Integrating their merits, CNT/polymer nanocomposites become promising candidates in membranes for VRB application. General strategies include co-casting and post-synthesis. Casting of CNT/polymer may require further surface modification on CNT to possess desirable functional groups/charge. Polymeric materials can also be synthesized on CNT architectures/frameworks by CVD or vacuum filtration through chemical/electrochemical polymerization.
\nCNT/polymer-composited membranes, such as CNT/Nafion and CNT/SPEEK, have been successfully used in fuel cell and shown not only good physical properties (e.g., mechanical strength, chemical stability, and ion selectively) but also good cell performances [19]. However, there are no reports about CNT/polymer membrane for VRB before 2015. In order to combine the good properties of CNT and SPEEK matrix and eliminate their individual disadvantages, Jia et al. firstly reported a novel SPEEK/short-carboxylic multiwalled CNT membrane for VRB application [20]. They introduced only 0.7 wt% CNT into SPEEK matrix using solution casting method. With the combination of functionalized CNTs with excellent electrocatalytic activity and the low cost of SPEEK membrane, this novel nanotube-polymer-composited membrane consequently exhibits good chemical strength, high ion selectively, and low vanadium permeability. Detailed study showed that the short-carboxylic multiwalled CNTs are well dispersed in the traditional SPEEK membrane due to the good interaction between short-carboxylic multiwalled CNTs and SPEEK matrix. In addition, the well dispersion of carbon nanotubes and good π-π interactions, electrostatic interactions, and van der Waals interactions between the aromatic groups of SPEEK polymer and the sidewall of CNTs increased the mechanical strength significantly (61.8 MPa) compared to a pure SPEEK membrane (39 MPa). Moreover, as shown in Figure 2, the carbon nanotubes used as an inner filler can dead or decrease the size of ion transport pathway significantly and thus restrain the vanadium permeability. Furthermore, the hydrophilic cluster formed by different −COOH, −OH groups on the side wall of CNTs will not only further decrease the ion transport pathway but also provide enriched proton transport pathways. Therefore, the permeability of vanadium ions through this composited membrane (3.22 × 10−7 cm2 min−1) is lower than that through the pure SPEEK (4.03 × 10−7 cm2 min−1) membrane and Nafion 212 membrane (8.23 × 10−7 cm2 min−1), which leads to a low self-discharge of the VRB cell and thus high Columbic efficiency. On the other hand, the inner proton transport pathway formed by various functional groups on the CNTs could enhance the proton selectivity and ion conductivity and thus enhance the voltage efficiency and energy efficiency of the VRB cell.
\nMechanism of proton transport in polymer/CNT-composited membranes.
Although the cell performance of the VRB cell with SPEEK/CNT is better than those only with Nafion membranes or SPEEK membrane individually, the chemical properties of the SPEEK membrane should be further optimized. The chemical stability of the composited membranes could be optimized using stable matrixes such as Nafion, SPES, PBI, and SPEEK with low DS. In addition, the properties of polymer/CNT-composited membranes could be further controlled and optimized in different polymer matrixes via different designed R group-functionalized CNTs (e.g., CNT-OH, CNT-COOH, CNT-SO3H, and CNT-NH2). The advancing composited CNT/polymer membranes are always designed to pursuit the desirable performance of VRB. In addition, these polymer/CNT-composited membranes provide us suitable approaches to synthesize membranes and shine new light on novel membrane-electrode assembly for VRB.
\nNon-aqueous redox flow batteries based on non-aqueous electrolytes have received widely studied recently. Although being far less developed than aqueous redox flow batteries, of the non-aqueous redox flow batteries seem more attractive due to their wider electrochemical window (>2 V) and greater energy density. However, the lithium-conducting membranes and low power density are still the main challenges for their commercialization. Therefore, the lithium-conducting polymer (Nafion, Polyvinylidene difluoride, PEEK, Polybenzimidazole, PES, SPES, and SPEEK)/functionalized CNT-composited membranes such as CNT-SO3Li/polymer, CNT-COOLi/polymer, and CNT-OLi/polymer are expected to be promising candidates for applications in the non-aqueous redox flow lithium batteries, redox flow lithium air batteries, and redox flow lithium sulfur batteries [21–23].
\nBecause of the environmental contamination and energy crisis, energy storage systems have attracted much attention from research institutes and industries. Lithium ion batteries (LIBs) due to their high energy densities and long lifetime are the main commercial batteries, especially for portable devices [24, 25]. Among the possible candidates of lithium storage, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have emerged as the promising ones. Their peculiar structure and unique properties, such as high electrical conductivity and tensile strength, make them well suited as a critical component in novel anode materials for enhanced lithium storage [26]. For example, it is possible to design free-standing and flexible electrodes using CNTs, which are important parts for the flexible batteries [27]. In addition, some organic active materials could work as electrodes in lithium ion batteries, which could realize much high capacity [28]. These materials have the minimal environmental footprint, lightweight, flexibility, and chemical tenability, which could guarantee its promising potentials in flexible LIBs.
\nThe working mechanism of lithium ion batteries is demonstrated in Figure 3.
\n1. During the charging and discharging process, the lithium ions move between the anode and cathode via the electrolyte, which is typically a lithium salt such as LiPF6 dissolved in organic solvent such as ethylene carbonate. The electrochemical reactions are expressed as reactions 1 and 2. The most common anode is graphite with a theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g, and the cathode is LiCoO2 with a theoretical capacity of 272 mAh/g [29]. The electrochemical properties of cathode and anode dramatically draw influence on the lithium storage properties. For example, lithium ions can only combine on every 2nd carbon hexagon in the graphite sheet which limits the amount of lithium ions to one for every six carbon atoms [30]. Thus, its theoretical capacity of graphite is 372 mAh/g.
\nThe basic structure of lithium ion batteries.
Flexible electronics will play more and more significant role in the future electronic markets, for example, flexible displays, sensors, batteries, etc. [31, 32]. Due to the characters of flexible devices, the corresponding energy storage systems should be flexible as well. Due to their high operation voltage, high energy density, and long life span, LIBs have been chosen as the most promising candidates for flexible electronics. Some concept and prototype flexible electronics have been demonstrated. However, there are lots of challenges to realize good flexible LIBs, for example, the package of the electrolytes and electrodes. As one key part in flexible LIBs, electrode with intrinsically flexible should be the best candidate [33].
\nOrganic materials became more and more important in the LIBs due to their merits, such as renewable, designable, and flexible. various organic materials are used in LIBs, such as organic radical polymers [34–36], conducting polymers [37, 38], organosulfur compounds [39, 40], bipolar porous polymeric frameworks [41], layered compounds [42], trioxotriangulene derivates [43], tetracyano quinodimethane (TCNQ) [44], pyrene-tetraone (PYT) [45], polyimide [46], and organic carbonyl compounds. Several reported organic compounds and their basic information in energy storage systems are shown in Table 1. Despite the rapid development of organic-based electrode materials, some critical obstacles still exist. For example, most organic electrodes suffer from the rapid capacity fading upon cycling due to the dissolution of active organic chemicals into organic electrolytes. And the power densities of these organic electrodes are relative low due to their poor electronic conductivity [47, 48]. In order to utilize these organic materials in flexible LIBs, CNTs were employed as free-standing conductive networks and current collectors [46, 49]. Current collector is the necessary component to support electrode materials and conduct electrons in the LIBs. The common current collectors are Cu and Al with high densities and smooth surface, which leads to low energy density and poor adhesion. However, light and rough CNT-based current collectors could address these issues.
\nThe reported several organic polymers in LIBs.
Free-standing electrodes by combining CNTs and organic polymers have been widely developed towards multifunctional electrodes.
\nCNTs can be used as active anode materials, which are combined with conducting polymers to form as flexible electrodes. Chen et al. used aligned carbon nanotubes (ACNTs) and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) to produce flexible electrodes. In this composition, the ACNTs are the active anode materials and the PEDOT is used for enhancement of electrochemical activity and electronic conductivity of the electrode. PEDOT film was deposited onto the ACNT array using chemical vapor-phase polymerization. Cui et al. used PEDOT as conductive polymer for enhancement of electrochemical performance of Si nanowires. Electropolymerization is applied for generation of cation radicals and coupling of the radicals for chain growth. Although the previous methods achieved high electrochemical performance, the processes seem relatively complicated. Using vacuum or pressure filtration, free-standing CNT papers could also be produced [50]. This method is much facile, and the produced CNT papers also exhibit good mechanical properties.
\nOn the other hand, CNTs can be mainly applied as the effective current collectors with organic polymers being employed as active material as either high-capacitance anode or cathode for the flexible electrodes. Lee et al. prepared a free-standing lumiflavine (LF)-single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) nanohybrids for fast and sustainable energy storage. The hybrid electrode was formed via interaction without disruption of their redox-active properties. The hybrid electrode could possess high conductivity and Li-ion accessibility. In addition, the structure could also prevent the dissolution of polymer into the electrolyte. During the preparation, the reassembly of bulk LF particles into molecular layers is significant for the improvement of stability and kinetics of Li storage in LF.
\nLi et al. developed one fabrication technique for SWNT/Nafion composite, which can be used as anode in Li-ion battery [51]. The battery exhibited reversible capacity of ∼850 mAh/g after 15 cycles. Using this composite anode, they demonstrated the integration of electrode and separator to simplify device architecture and decrease overall weight.
\nWang et al. prepared multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) functionalized with a hyperbranched aliphatic polyester and two different poly(ethylene glycol)s by the reactions of carbonyl chloride groups on the surface of MWNTs and hydroxyl groups of polymers [52]. Due to the different electrode-electrolyte interfaces, the hyperbranched polymer-functionalized MWNT showed a significant improvement over linear polymer-functionalized MWNTs in lithium insertion/deinsertion capacity and cycle stability.
\nWu et al. used the composite of polyimide derivative and SWNTs as electrodes for flexible LIBs. Before preparation of hybrid electrodes, they firstly synthesized an active polymer using a condensation polymerization of pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) and 2,6-diaminoanthraquinone (AQ). Then, the polymer was combined with SWNTs to form a binder-free flexible organic cathode film, which exhibited high capacity and good rate performance.
\nCNTs, with high conductivity and good mechanical properties, are promising materials for flexible LIBs. On the other hand, some polymers with high conductivity can further enhance the performance of flexible LIBs by combining with CNTs. In addition, some polymers can work as active electrode materials with high specific capacities, which can also be used in flexible LIBs. The composites of CNT/polymer own the flexibility, high conductivity, high energy densities, which are suitable for flexible LIBs.
\nAmong energy storage devices, supercapacitor possesses its unique merits of high power intensity and long lifetime. It can be categorized into electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC), pseudocapacitor, and newly evolving lithiumion capacitor [53]. With advantages on synergetic effects on electrochemical performance, CNT-polymer nanocomposites play significant roles on supercapacitors that integrate interfacial adsorption and redox reaction, hierarchical microstructure, conductivity, mechanical strength, and flexibility [54–57]. The following section focuses on current design and material synthesis of CNT-polymer nanocomposites in the pursuit of true performance matrices, that is, volumetric/areal performance.
\nComparing to lithium ion battery (LIB), supercapacitor enables fast/ultrasfast fully charging/discharging (in seconds) and much higher power delivery (>10 kW/kg) for shorter times [54]. It becomes an indispensable entity towards the development of sustainable and clean energy.
\nIn supercapacitors, EDLCs represent the majority of commercially manufactured products. The electrode materials of EDLC are carbon allotropes (carbon onions, CNT, reduced graphene oxide (rGO), graphene (G), activated carbon, etc.) [58, 59]. The energy is stored at the electrolyte/carbon interface by charging the double-layer capacitance via reversible ion adsorption on the surface of carbon. In order to enhance the capacitance of carbon electrode, good electrical conductivity, high specific surface area (SSA), and electrochemical stability are the dominant factors attract great research interest.
\nNumerous endeavors have been devoted to increase energy density of supercapacitor. Organic electrolyte is applied to enlarge the voltage window (typically 0.8–1 V for aqueous electrolyte). On the other hand, pseudocapacitors chemically store charge via redox reaction at the surface/interface region. The electrode materials for pseudocapacitors include transition metal oxides/hydroxides and conducting polymers [e.g., polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole (Ppy), and poly(3,4-ethlenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), etc.]. To utilize their high capacitance and address the relative low conductivity, nanocomposites with conducing framework endowed with pseudocapacitive nanostructure are under intense study.
\nMost importantly, recent research focuses primarily on improving areal/volumetric energy densities of supercapacitor with mounting demand for compact and portable energy storage systems [60–62]. Though Ragone Plot provides a representative summary, the concern on the true performance matrices stems from the mass loading/packing density of active materials where the areal/volumetric properties turn to be realistic in device aspect (Ca = Cg × m, Cv = Cg × ρ, where m and ρ are the mass loading and packing density for the electrode respectively). Promising volumetric performances can be achieved in micro-/ultrathin configuration; however, they do not scale up linearly with thickness. The great challenge hence lies in the storage of large amount of energy with simultaneous promising areal/volumetric performances.
\nSeveral merits of CNT deserve re-emphasis: its high conductivity, highly accessible outer surface, and its outstanding mechanical strength. The unique characteristics of CNT facilitate its role in supercapacitor as electrode, conducting additive, template/scaffold for nanocomposite electrode, platform for flexible/stretchable device [54–57]. However, the shortcomings are worthy of noting. The SSA of CNT is only in moderate level and is lower than activated carbon, mesoporous carbon, rGO, and G [63]. Also, its packing density needs to be improved considering areal/volumetric performances.
\nRecent research has explored numerous approaches to improve the performance of CNT-based electrodes from the angles of packing density, pores to enhance SSA, incorporation of redox nanostructures via surface functionalization [64–66]. The design of hierarchical CNT-based nanocomposites is now a general strategy to pursuit high performance. An integration of 1D (CNT) and 2D (GO, rGO, and G) carbon nanostructure becomes a greatly promising representative that serves further as scaffold for carbon-redox nanostructure hybrid electrodes [67–69]. Nevertheless, the central focus on areal/volumetric energy densities should not be override by the arts of material synthesis.
\nBefore focusing on CNT-conducting polymer nanocomposites, CNT-cellulose deserves certain lines. Victor et al. firstly demonstrated the fabrication of vertically aligned CNT-unmodified plant cellulose paper supercapacitor [70]. With however relatively low capacitance, this design started the concept of paper device with rationalization of active materials and triggered the development of ultrathin, flexible, and paper-like devices.
\nConducting polymers generally possess high charge densities and relatively low costs. The redox reactions allow for high energy storage and reduced self-discharge; however, the power density may suffer from slow diffusion [71]. Conducting polymer-based composites with desirable pores and better conductivities hence seek better opportunities. PANI is one of the most promising candidates because of its multiple redox states, relatively high conductivity, environmental stability, and flexibility in terms of the synthetic methods and consequently the so-formed nanostructures.
\nFrom the device perspective, a binder-free structure is ideal to eliminate dead cell components, which benefits the areal/volumetric performance. Free-standing CNT-based frameworks via simple and facile ways therefore call for the demand. Meng et al. have prepared a CNT-PANI network starting from forming a free-standing CNT network [72]. Applying the in situ chemical polymerization of aniline monomer, a wholly uniform coating of ∼50 to 90 nm of PANI was formed. A flexible all solid state symmetric device with ∼23 wt% of PANI was further formed with H2SO4/PVA gel, giving a Cv of ∼37 F cm−3 and correspondingly an Ev of ∼2.4 × 10−3 Wh L−3. To construct the flexible supercapacitor, cellulose, the most abundant renewable organic materials in nature, is one attractive substrate material. Li et al. utilized ecofriendly bacterial cellulose (BC) paper by vacuum filtration that consists of ribbon-shaped ultrafine nanofibers as substrate for the BC-CNT-PANI paper electrode [73]. BC paper endows the device with porosity, high tensile strength, high water retention, and good contact between electrodes and aqueous electrolyte due to its hydrophilicity. CNT ink was then deposited on the BC paper with strong binding via hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interaction, followed by electrodeposition of PANI. The binder-free electrode showed an appreciable Cg of 656 F g−1 in 1 M H2SO4. An optimal deposition time for the PANI coating indicates the critical value of thickness beyond which the pores in the paper are filled by PANI that blocks ion diffusion towards interior. This lightweight and cost-effective supercapacitor paper is a promising candidate for stretchable/flexible device. Hyder et al. utilized an electrostatic layer-by-layer (LBL) system to synthesize CNT-PANI films [74]. PANI nanofibers (∼30 to 70 nm × 0.4–3 μm) were chemically polymerized, where the nanoscale concerns the redox reactions localizing in the thin surface layer, and meanwhile, the amine or imine surface groups were present. On the other hand, CNT surface was modified with carboxylic acid groups. The pH-dependence on surface charges for both entities facilitates the behavior like weak polyelectrolytes with controllable LBL film thickness and morphology, where high PANI content (58 wt%) can be achieved. The resulted film (e.g., 1.3 μm, 0.64 g cm−3) consisted of an interpenetrating nanoporous network yielding excellent electrochemical performance: a Cv of ∼238 F cm−3 in 1 M LiPF6 (comparing to ∼180 F cm−3 for LBL CNT film) and a Cv of ∼248 F cm−3 in 1 M H2SO4, and an Ev of ∼220 Wh L−1 at 100 kW L−1. Note that the mass loading of 0.15–0.23 mg cm−2 was relatively low that was a direct consequence of LBL process, which lead to a Ca less than 0.1 F cm−2.
\nBesides above, multifunctional design, for example, integrating advantageous mechanical strength, is making strides. Benson et al. reported a CNT-PANI fabric by electrodeposition of PANI on the CVD-formed CNT fabric (15 μm) [75]. The strong π-π interaction between CNT (benzenoid rings) and PANI (quinoid rings) resulted in strong chemical bonding and high interfacial shear strength. The electrode with ∼31 wt% PANI provided a Ca of ∼0.7 F cm−2 and a Cv of 308 F cm−3, which showed a 10-fold increase comparing to the initial CNT fabric. The synthesized nanocomposites demonstrated remarkable mechanical properties: a maximum tensile strength of 484 MPa and an elastic modulus of 19 GPa, which were comparable to CNT-epoxy composites, strong natural fibers and tissues, aerospace-grade metal alloys. This ultratough design may offer a solution to a system requires both structural and energy storage functions. Also, stretchable fiber-shaped supercapacitors find their applications in wearable device. Zhang et al. developed a superelastic (stretched by over 400% strain) symmetric supercapacitor by CNT-PANI nanocomposite sheets [24]. A prestrain method was employed to form the CNT sheet, followed by a layer of PANI coated via electropolymerization. At 50 wt% of PANI, the electrode provided a length specific capacitance of 0.9 mF cm−1 and a Ca of ∼3 mF cm−2. Most importantly, the device exhibited superior performance under dynamical test: ∼71% retention after stretching at a strain of 300% for 5000 cycles, ∼90% retention after bending for 5000 cycles, and ∼96% retention at a high stretching speed of 30 mm s−1. Very recently, a highly compressible all-solid-state supercapacitor was integrated by Niu et al., based on sponge-CNT-PANI electrodes [77]. The compression tolerance of the sponge is utilized, followed by a repeated “dipping and drying” strategy for CNT coating. Chemical polymerization of PANI was performed to form the porous hierarchical skeleton/skin architecture. The total mass loading of active materials was 6.3 mg cm−2, with a contribution of 4.1 mg cm−2 from PANI. A layer of gel electrolyte PVA/H2SO4 was selected to overcome the contact between neighboring electrode materials at large compression strain. At the relaxed state, the supercapacitor showed a high Ca of 2.7 F cm−2 and a Cv of 3.4 F cm−3, with 3% loss under 60% strain. It delivered an Ea of 0.01 Wh L−2 and an Ev of 0.12 Wh L−1. The highly compressible supercapacitor will pave the way for advanced applications in the area of the compressible energy storage/compression-tolerant electronics.
\nPpy is another popular conducting polymer included in the work awarded 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. A natural cellulose-Ppy all-polymer paper has been synthesized to achieve superior areal/volumetric performance of ∼5.7 F cm−2/236 F cm−3 at 20 mg cm−2/290 μm, where the scaling up facilities the practical applications [78]. Besides hierarchical structure, Ppy plays a role of nitrogen source for N-doped carbon materials, as demonstrated in Chen et al.’ work [79]. The carbonization at 500–1100°C of the Ppy-coated macroscopic-scale carbonaceous nanofibers leads to the N-doped carbon nanofibers, where the incorporated heteroatoms favored the performance.
\nNafion is a state-of-art polymer electrolyte membrane as discussed in Section 2.4. Due to its ionic conductivity, it is a promising candidate for solid electrolytes in supercapacitor. Huang et al. sprayed CNT in diluted H2SO4 solution on both side of a Nafion membrane to construct a flexible solid state supercapacitor, where high H+ mobility of protonated Nafion is fully utilized [80]. In a recent work by Daniel et al., Nafion 115 solution was dip-coated on the aligned CNT forest and covered its top to form a separating layer [81]. The symmetric EDLC without additional separator was then soaked in 1 M H2SO4 for much improved electrochemical performance comparing to its dehydrated state. In this design, Nafion acts as both separator and ionic conductor, brings promising mechanical strength, and favors operation at high temperature up to 60°C (∼2.6 times enhancement on Cg).
\nThere is no doubt that the 3D hierarchical CNT-polymer architectures have made striking progress. Based on such scaffolds, more emerging advancing materials/device designs will be expected. One primary concern lies in the synthesis of newly discovered conducting polymers. Towards green chemistry and renewable resources, integration of CNT with other natural polymers than cellulose, like lignin currently under intense study, may be further explored [82]. Also, the control of macropores/mesopores/micropores will still be one of the focuses. In the ultrathin configuration, commonly obtained relatively low Ca with highly appreciated Cv urges the enhancement of the areal mass loading, where combination of multiple redox nanostructures with synergic effects may play significant roles. In the flexible/stretchable configuration, scaling up of the high Cv nanocomposites is still a challenge, which is also valid for ultrathick configuration. Furthermore, the stability of CNT-conducting polymer that puts influence on cycling stability warrants in-depth research. Above all, the understanding on fundamental interface chemistry and ionic transportation governs the development of energy storage [83].
\nMiddle Eastern and North African (MENA) countries consist of a group of Middle Eastern and North African countries that are characterized as economically diverse regions. Among MENA countries, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita differs significantly from Qatar (46,598 US$) with the highest per capita income to Sudan, which has the lowest per capita income (719 US$). Egypt, Iran, and Turkey are the countries with the largest populations among MENA countries in terms of population size. However, GDP rate of Turkey is the largest, whereas Bahrain has the smallest GDP in terms of economic size. On the contrary, Jordan, Bahrain, Sudan, and Lebanon have the highest net of foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows, while Yemen, Syria, and Iran have the lowest net of FDI inflows in terms of GDP percentage [1]. A major challenge for resource-poor countries is represented from high inflation, importing meaningful accounts of fuel and food, while major resources of rich countries in the region are lacking. In addition, Turkey, Sudan, and Iran comprise the highest consumer price, whereas Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Morocco accounted the lowest consumer price in terms of the rate of inflation [2].
Financial sector development is important for the expansion and development of real estate and hotel sectors to improve inward FDI in developing and emerging markets. The most important determinants of FDI are the real estate market, market liquidity, market maturity and transparency, and institutional real estate market size [3]. Other drivers to FDI include economic and demographic factors, institutional factors, infrastructure quality, and sociocultural factors in real estate. In contrast, data availability, trading, currency, liquidity, portfolio construction, tax, and fund structuring and trading are the barriers experienced by real estate and hotel sectors [4]. However, major motivation behind the selection of real estate and hotel sectors of MENA was the paucity of empirical evidence in this region. In addition, there is very scarce academic literature in the body of context which is entirely associated with average FDI determinants. Exploratory evidence has shown interest regarding investment in specific MENA countries [5]. The availability of data in the selected countries is another influential factor.
Initially, the real estate sector is segregated into four asset classes, which include residential, industrial, retail, and office. In contrast, hotels have not been considered as a commercial real estate asset class for assorted reasons including complexity for a quick exit strategy; lack of understanding of the industry by investors, resulting from unstable cash flows; and volatility when compared to other property assets [6]. Hotel investors have different motives and barriers when venturing into these sectors. For example, hotel investors are more anxious toward the progression of the tourism industry. Government sectors are also seeking to attract capital so that they can design policies to improve and stimulate the entire investment environment and FDI, to enlarge their economies.
Previously, FDI flows were comparatively scarce in the MENA region, as compared to the European Union (EU) and other emerging and developing countries [7]. An important challenge can be experienced from several features of the MENA countries for the inward FDI performance. It is a fact that this region is highly fastened on oil, which deteriorates the economic foundation, has a high unemployment rate, has a high population growth, and portrays a deteriorated regional integration and the financial and capital markets persevere undeveloped [8]. In addition, the weight of the state in the country is still high, where the literature stresses the low rates of return on human and physical capital, the underdevelopment of physical infrastructure, and the lack of transparency in spite of the privatizations in the last years [9].
The examination of MENA institutional systems emerges to be specifically influential since a substantial number of these economies have been experiencing intense economic and institutional reforms [10]. In addition, trade relations are encouraged by the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership agreement along with the developed reduction of trade barriers. Some economies have created special regimes and liberalized investment regulatory framework for FDI. Tax and custom duty breaks, capital market reform programs, and lowering ownership limitations are included in reforms [11]. It is essential to study this subject considering the facts and the comparatively sparse empirical research on FDI in MENA countries. Therefore, this study aims to examine the location drivers and barriers influencing the FDI in real estate and hotel sectors in MENA countries.
This study has presented its novelty in different ways. Firstly, it has selected eight real estate and hotel markets in MENA countries and collected time series data during 2003–2009. The rationale behind the selection of this time period is that it provides the adequate analysis of financial development factors. These traditional factors are no longer sufficient to explain the FDI alteration; however, the quality of economic freedom is increasingly integrated into the direction of investors’ choices with increasing wave of globalization. In addition, suitable techniques are applied in this study to estimate the models based on a pooled tobit model. Secondly, this study has provided multidimensional evidence on the impact of location drivers and barriers on FDI in hotel sectors practically. Moreover, Dunning’s ownership, location, and internalization (OLI) paradigm is selected as a theoretical background to demonstrate the behavior of hotel foreign investors toward the selected MENA markets. Lastly, the application of economic models takes place in the emerging market. The key themes from the models are comprehensively used to cover political, sociocultural, and economic variables. This study has tried to aid governments of MENA countries to understand the drivers and barriers to sectoral-associated FDI in these markets and assist governments for reconsidering their policies by endowing specific recommendations to foreign investment policymakers.
This paper is organized as follows. The empirical literature associated with FDI and institutions, highlighting the research on the MENA countries, is reviewed in Section 2. The data utilized in the empirical study is presented in Section 3 along with some descriptive statistics on the institutional and economic variables in the MENA region. The econometric approach is presented in Section 4 along with the discussion of results. Section 5 presents the overall summary of this paper.
The internationalization and traditional trade theories are embraced by the eclectic or OLI paradigm and systematized the advantages for firms that operate internationally [12, 13]. There are several benefits in selecting FDI when there are correspondingly ownership benefits such as location advantages, ownership advantages, and internationalization advantages. The significance of a firm owning assets is concerned in the ownership advantage such as exclusive productive procedures, patents, management skills, and pioneering technologies that can generate advantages in the future [14].
Location is considerable when a firm acquires from its presence in a predefined market by promoting from circumstances such as lower production, transport costs, access to protected markets, special tax regimes, and lower risks [14]. Internationalized operations, which allow a reduction in transaction costs related with risks of managing technology, can reduce market imperfections such as the imbalance of international resources allocation [12]. Therefore, the selection of a specific location is based on particular conditions that are in its preference [15]. The core objective of eclectic paradigm of Dunning to the literature was to bring forward the several complementary theories, which help in identifying a series of variables that reflect the activities of multinational enterprises [14]. The emphasis of this approach is to implement these variables for trading, for the international organization of production, and for international production. It shows that three modes of internationalization can be covered within the same analytical framework [15].
The OLI framework of Dunning was extended by Holsapple et al. [16] into the subject of international real estate investments. They claim that international real estate investments were hybrids of portfolio investments and direct FDI. The portfolio P subparadigm in the framework was included in the extended OLI framework for allowing the disadvantage of being international in an international environment to be comprehensively implemented. The modified framework divides ownership advantage dimension of Dunning into two subparadigms so that ownership is equivalent to ownership and portfolio in the ownership portfolio location framework.
Holsapple et al. [16] asserted that investors must assess both ownership and portfolio benefits when selecting on an investment in an international country. Further, it was demonstrated that the ownership advantages as the advantages possessed by enterprises in their host countries are transferable into international countries. It has been asserted that ownership must be taken into consideration where ownership is the advantage possessed by local enterprises to operate in the host country and claim that global investors must take into account the fixed costs of operating in a foreign environment.
Location considerations are apparently at the core of FDI in real estate. It has been explained that real estate actors are interested in specific countries and majorly relied on a greater extent on the type of direct and indirect barriers, experienced by market actors in host countries [17, 18]. D’Arcy [18] has claimed that the business culture, institutional environment, and regulatory barriers are essential aspects when developing strategies for internationalization. Location advantages need investors for asking the where question in the OPLI extended framework in order to explore the factors such as monetary policies, host country political risks, and laws and fiscal policies. Holsapple et al. [16] claimed that location benefits must be estimated alongside the recurring costs of being international such as differential treatment in the host country or operating a long distance from the investment. Holsapple et al. [16] argued that enterprises can simply obtain passive interests in current real estate assets in the host country if they depend on portfolio advantages and the location selection is less essential.
The internationalization advantage can be considered as an approach to exploit ownership by not contracting the related development activity but by objectively following it and maintaining control over it. It will be more advantageous for enterprises possessing ownership advantages to own the investment itself as compared to sell, franchise, or lease the advantage for foreign firms situated in the host country [16]. Internationalization of real estate activities is the process for determining the organizational mode by which stakeholders select to transfer capital across boundaries and intangible assets. Those intangible assets may entail human and management expertise, the reputation and knowledge of the internationalizing firm [18]. The capital transfer can be initiated and offered either from equity or debt positions, along with the financial structure related to the predefined transfer [18].
The location served as the central point for several researches, where it is generally highlighted as a motive for FDI. The significance of the location in FDI has been substantially supplemented by a number of studies [19, 20, 21]. Despite the immense work on the phenomena, the determination of the core location drivers for the FDI remained unknown. The study by O’brien and Williams [22] stated that the globalization and the liberalization of the national economic relations impact the significance of location which works as an important determinant for FDI. This aligns with the study of Mao and Yang [23], claiming the significance of one determinant may vary with time, as its importance declines with increase in significance of another determinant.
Theoretically, the selection of the location for the FDI has been promoted by various studies. For example, Mao and Yang [23] highlighted that FDI emerges as a consequence of the broad strategy formulated by the corporation in relation to the investment. It is based on maximizing profit while simultaneously perpetuating its global outreach. This is evident from the success of the United Kingdom, India, and Mexico for drawing hotel FDI in the periods 2005–2011 with respect to their size of the markets, taxes, and wages and degree of business regulations [24].
For Bayraktar [25], location serves as the main determinant for the FDI in terms of its investment decisions. The location drivers include land area, per capita income of the state, labor conditions, its production capacity, transportation, taxes, expenditures, as well as its agglomeration [26]. The review of the study by Yin et al. [27] illuminated that the conventional location theory, new location theory, and institutional environment regarding the labor cost, infrastructure, and market size as well as policy incentive serve as the major drivers of location for FDI.
Omoniyi and Omobitan [28] stated that the flow of FDI points toward the activities adopt with an intent to expand their profitability and competitive prospects. The activities carried out by these foreign firms are reflected as the strategies which overcome the economic gap and prevail in the domestic capital of the developing countries, simulating their economic growth. Lien and Filatotchev [29] argued that the FDI investment in terms of location is conditioned to the state capital, operations involved for its regulation, as well as parameters laid out for its repatriation of the profit and capital. Ma and Raimondos [30] further asserted that since the foreign firms are profit-oriented, therefore, the first priority is to assess return capacity of the state regardless of its host country social conditions. Location, where the possibility of capital loss prevails, is usually neglected by the firms irrespective of the industry. Falk [24] supplemented that the FDI decision is significantly related to the advantage, which the location offers to the firm. This is further corroborated by the research of Al-Shammari, Al-Halaq, and Al-Shammari [31], which adds that the advantage which the location offers serves as a catalyst for the FDI.
Snyman and Saayman [32] highlighted the characteristics of 42 host countries which influence the FDI in hotel and tourism industries. The study highlighted that political stability, health, safety, and infrastructure, i.e., airports and roads, along with factors related to cost and skills, as well as market sizes such as international tourism demand and GDP, are the main indicators of FDI location. Similarly, Brida et al. [33] highlighted the size and the past internationalization experience act as key drivers for the internationalization of Spanish hotel chains.
Phung [34] highlighted the locations’ market size, trade openness, and macroeconomic stability as the prime variables for FDI. These three variables have been supported by various empirical studies, which focused on the concept of FDI [30, 34]. The explanation behind was provided by Crescenzi and Petrakos [35] stating that the investor is concerned with the return, which is in direct relation with the host country customer base size, the availability of the resources, and the implementation of trade policy.
The labor market size and its low acquisition are also regarded as the location advantages for various developing countries. Phung [34] stressed upon these factors particularly for the developing countries since it is immobile as well as region-specific. The labor incentivizes the resources for investors as they are able to locate their function in the host country lowering their cost of production. In the hospitality sector, the estimation of labor force has found to be momentous in terms of the participation made by labor, its growth, and population stock [36, 37]. Wild and Wild [38] highlighted that due to the availability of the cheap labor in Mexico, various technology- and capital-rich investors in the United States shifted to Mexico for maximizing their profitability.
Another possible driver of location was highlighted by Bénassy-Quéré et al. [39]. According to them, the variation in terms of charged tax with regard to the offered good or service significantly impacts the flow of FDI in a state. The benefits in terms of agglomeration are further supplemented by Lien and Filatotchev [29] to improve the FDI flow in the country. Another study stated that when the location is successful in attracting FDI, it paves the path and serves as a catalyst for improving future FDI. These are similar to the stated results of Phung [34] highlighting the positive link of Japanese’s manufacturing plants in the United States to agglomeration when the location is being chosen.
Dunning and Lundan [14] also laid out factors in relation to the policy framework incorporating the specific policies related to the country FDI. Considering the model for general policy, it is suggested that the host country business environment should be stable in terms of its economy and political settings as well as social conditions. Reflecting upon the literature further highlighted various barriers for FDI in correspondence to the hospitality industry. Paudel and Tiwari [40] stated that the delay of approval in terms of FDI hotel serves as a major hindering block for the country hospitality sector. Evaluating the hotel and tourism industries, Bissoon [41] reported that inadequate guidelines in terms of tourism policy also impact the FDI flow in a country, particularly for its hospitality sector. Inadequate support from the regulatory institutes is also reported as the barrier for FDI.
Hayakawa et al. (2011) researched 93 countries constituting 63 developing countries and showed that the instability of the politics hinders the capability of the country for FDI inflow. Another research of Topal [42] concerning the developing country further highlighted that the reduction of the economic and political risks in terms of capital loss improves the country hotel FDI flow.
The reduction and restriction in FDI are inclusive of various factors such as legislative and regulatory frameworks, bureaucracy, protection of the investors’ finances, and restrictions on the foreign ownership [43]. Another research of Azémar and Desbordes [44] proposed that regulation in the product market of the host country, which may induce additional costs for businesses, serves as an FDI barrier for their entry.
The study adopted a quantitative causal research design to identify and examine the location drivers and barriers influencing FDI in real estate and hotel sectors. The data was collected from eight MENA countries, which include Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) during 2003–2009 (i.e., prior the Arab spring). The selection of the host countries was indicated from the availability and accessibility of the data. Moreover, the econometric analysis was conducted for both time series and cross-sectional data using the pooled tobit model technique.
The core purpose of this study is to examine the location drivers and barriers affecting real estate and hotel sector FDI location in the MENA countries. The study has employed a panel data, which is an authentic modeling strategy including both cross-sectional and time series analyses over a short period as selected in this study. The important characteristic of panel data that differentiates it from a cross section is the same as cross-sectional units followed over a predefined time period and allowed a study of the significance of lags in behavior or the outcomes of decision-making [45]. This information can be substantial as the number of economic policies can be anticipated to have an effect merely after some time has passed. Each independent variable is lagged once a year, considering the likely form of a cause and effect relationship. Pooled tobit, fixed effect, and random effect models and pooled ordinary least squares (POLS) were anticipated to a balanced panel of appropriate data for testing the effect of the selected location drivers and barriers.
The nominal FDI flows measure the dependent variable real estate FDI as provided by the FDI market database. The level of real estate investment in each country is normalized by distributing real estate FDI by the nominal GDP of the country. This allows the author for adjusting the level of investment for the size of the economy of each country. This modification facilitates for more direct comparisons between MENA countries as the size of the GDP for each country is potentially appropriate for the extent of real estate FDI received by each country. Euromonitor International was used to derive the nominal GDP data.
Spurious results are produced by regressions performed on nonstationary time series variables. It is therefore essential for confirming that variables are stationary, which indicates that the mean and variance and probability distribution do not change over time and do not follow any patterns. An autoregressive model was used to estimate whether a time series variable is nonstationary based on a unit root test. The commonly used root tests such as Phillips-Perron and augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) tests lack coerciveness to differentiate the unit root from stationary alternatives. The conventional ADF-type tests of unit root further experience from the issue of low strength in order to reject the null hypothesis of stationarity of the series, particularly for short-span data.
The study variables which include real visitor export, tourist arrival, gross domestic product, overall quality of infrastructure, total tax rates, corruption, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, rule of law, voice and accountability, levels of investors protection, and levels of human development were also treated as independent variables. The data for these variables were selected from fDi Intelligence, Euromonitor International, World Economic Forum, and Datamonitor.
This section is divided into two major results: unit root test and panel estimation. Table 1 has summarized the results of the unit root test based on the propositions of Levin, Lin, and Chu (LLC) test. Findings have confirmed that the null hypothesis is rejected for all series investigated at their levels.
The unit root test results indicated that the model can be anticipated regardless of any differenced variables. All the variables are stationary at level I (1), so that they are included in their actual form.
The descriptive statistics and correlation matrix have been used to calculate the absolute values of the variables in the panel model estimation (Tables 2 and 3).
Variables | LLC test results | Conclusion |
---|---|---|
HFDIGDP | −16.5351*** | I (0) |
HUMANDEVELOPMENT | −1.29020* | I (0) |
INFRAQUAL | −4.32190*** | I (0) |
INVFREEDOM | −3.55790*** | I (0) |
REALVEXPOTGDP | −2.44533*** | I (0) |
RGDPGROWTH | −6.12141*** | I (0) |
TAGROWTH | −5.95415*** | I (0) |
TOTALTAXRATE | −3.04086*** | I (0) |
PROTECTINVESTOR | −3.55790*** | I (0) |
Unit root test results.
***Significant at 1%, *significant at 10%.
HFDIGDP (−1) | TOTAL TAX RATE (−1) | REALVEXPOTGDP (−1) | TAGROWTH (−1) | RGDPGROWTH_1 | HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (−1) | INFRAQUAL_1 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | 0.007495 | 40.54792 | 0.063554 | 9.871250 | 5.856083 | 0.766104 | 0.490380 | |
Median | 0.004323 | 44.85000 | 0.033075 | 7.600000 | 5.328500 | 0.758000 | 0.493200 | |
Maximum | 0.033068 | 76.90000 | 0.183237 | 35.95000 | 20.83500 | 0.910000 | 0.796320 | |
Minimum | 0.000000 | 11.30000 | 0.001485 | −18.00000 | 0.128000 | 0.583000 | 0.230400 | |
Std. Dev. | 0.008347 | 23.16453 | 0.063158 | 10.67751 | 3.467567 | 0.094394 | 0.112819 | |
Skewness | 1.315563 | −0.022776 | 0.705193 | 0.412802 | 2.029346 | −0.188557 | 0.135323 | |
Kurtosis | 3.817879 | 1.606463 | 1.860656 | 3.810357 | 9.235464 | 1.993324 | 3.214573 | |
Observations | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | |
CORRUP (−1) | GOVEFFECT (−1) | POLITIC (−1) | PROTECTINVESTOR (−1) | REGQUALT (−1) | RULELAW (−1) | VACCOUNT (−1) | INVFREEDOM (−1) | |
Mean | 0.348611 | 0.520833 | 0.508854 | 4.612500 | 0.731061 | 0.732639 | 0.304635 | 46.25000 |
Median | 0.333333 | 0.500000 | 0.462500 | 5.000000 | 0.727273 | 0.791667 | 0.323250 | 50.00000 |
Maximum | 0.500000 | 0.750000 | 0.775000 | 5.700000 | 0.954545 | 1.000000 | 0.472500 | 70.00000 |
Minimum | 0.250000 | 0.250000 | 0.250000 | 3.000000 | 0.500000 | 0.333333 | 0.062500 | 30.00000 |
Std. Dev. | 0.077095 | 0.086807 | 0.147541 | 0.935045 | 0.142151 | 0.139611 | 0.104689 | 13.62491 |
Skewness | 0.397863 | 1.312546 | 0.206238 | −0.699379 | 0.040110 | −1.120847 | −0.908529 | 0.243874 |
Kurtosis | 2.418904 | 7.339100 | 2.152811 | 1.983307 | 1.998622 | 4.047233 | 3.382113 | 2.134145 |
Observations | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 |
Descriptive statistics for variables employed in the hotel FDI panel.
Correlation | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HFDIGDP | 1 | ||||||||||||||
TOTALTAXRATE | −0.395*** | 1 | |||||||||||||
REALVEXPOTGDP | 0.323** | 0.064 | 1 | ||||||||||||
TAGROWTH | −0.0342 | −0.2168 | −0.0358 | 1 | |||||||||||
RGDPGROWTH | 0.238* | −0.304** | −0.0962 | −0.067 | 1 | ||||||||||
HUMANDEVELOPMENT | −0.1117 | 0.52*** | −0.0933 | −0.061 | −0.049 | 1 | |||||||||
INFRAQUAL | 0.321** | −0.241* | 0.2213 | −0.064 | 0.44*** | −0.0025 | 1 | ||||||||
CORRUP | 0.369*** | −0.35*** | 0.41*** | 0.0389 | 0.1669 | −0.267** | 0.244* | 1 | |||||||
GOVEFFECT | 0.281** | −0.296** | 0.122 | −0.024 | 0.07 | −0.44*** | 0.1852 | 0.0543 | 1 | ||||||
POLITIC | 0.427*** | −0.54*** | 0.0918 | −0.068 | 0.48*** | −0.38*** | 0.47*** | 0.2075 | 0.329** | 1 | |||||
PROTECTINVESTOR | −0.359*** | −0.1763 | −0.50*** | 0.1196 | −0.0285 | 0.0114 | −0.336** | −0.47*** | −0.0958 | −0.1573 | 1 | ||||
REGQUALT | 0.372*** | −0.71*** | 0.1007 | 0.016 | 0.1623 | −0.50*** | 0.1924 | 0.340** | 0.51*** | 0.52*** | 0.0136 | 1 | |||
RULELAW | 0.1862 | −0.49*** | 0.44*** | 0.1839 | 0.1495 | −0.311** | 0.253* | 0.65*** | −0.1255 | 0.2084 | −0.34*** | 0.328** | 1 | ||
VACCOUNT | −0.0169 | 0.47*** | 0.0386 | −0.092 | 0.1126 | 0.1773 | 0.1028 | 0.2106 | −0.1433 | −0.0341 | −0.294** | −0.48*** | −0.114 | 1 | |
INVFREEDOM | 0.0499 | 0.42*** | 0.242* | −0.014 | −0.222* | 0.37*** | −0.41*** | 0.1588 | −0.0778 | −0.39*** | −0.257* | −0.328** | −0.23* | 0.38*** | 1 |
Correlation matrix for dependent, independent, and control variables for hotel FDI panel.
***, **, and * denote significant at 1%, 5%, and 10%, respectively.
Hotel FDI inflows have zero values, making the POLS, RE, and FE biased and inconsistent with respect to the pooled tobit test ([46], p. 616). Table 4 shows the correlation matrix between dependent and independent variables for hotel FDI panel. Results indicate a significant correlation of investor, quality, rule and law, infrastructure quality, corruption, politics, government effect, GDP growth, total tax rate, and real export GDP with FDI.
Correlation | HFDIGDP |
---|---|
HFDIGDP (−1) | 0.391034 |
TOTALTAXRATE (−1) | −0.418039*** |
REALVEXPOTGDP (−1) | 0.345872*** |
TAGROWTH (−1) | 0.082825 |
RGDPGROWTH_1 | 0.270806** |
HUMANDEVELOPMENT (−1) | −0.056115 |
INFRAQUAL_1 | 0.355238*** |
CORRUP (−1) | 0.359171*** |
GOVEFFECT (−1) | 0.236522* |
POLITIC (−1) | 0.478399*** |
PROTECTINVESTOR (−1) | −0.381454*** |
REGQUALT (−1) | 0.335257*** |
RULELAW (−1) | 0.240289* |
VACCOUNT (−1) | 0.010185 |
INVFREEDOM (−1) | 0.080180 |
Correlation matrix (dependent vs. all independent variables) for hotel FDI panel.
***, **, and * denote significant at 1%, 5%, and 10%, respectively.
Table 5 summarizes the results of pooled tobit regression for investigating the hotel barriers and determinants. From the findings, it is emphasized that the hotel FDI inflows are not significantly determined by control of corruption, regulatory quality, voice and accountability levels, government effectiveness, and rule of law. However, FDI inflows are significantly determined by the level of investment freedom, investor protection, and political stability (Table 5).
HFDI/GDP | Pooled tobit | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | |
Constant | −0.015938 | −0.019560* | −0.026673* | −0.026624** | 0.038978 | −0.015241 | −0.005379 | −0.018302* | −0.025179** |
HFDIGDP (−1) | 0.036498 | 0.024437 | 0.002213 | −0.012777 | −0.049757 | 0.036856 | −0.024509 | −0.010593 | −0.069064 |
TOTALTAXRATE (−1) | −0.000181*** | −0.00017*** | −0.00018*** | −0.0001** | −0.00025*** | −0.00018** | −0.00023*** | −0.0002*** | −0.00021*** |
REALVEXPOTGDP (−1) | 0.055010*** | 0.05024*** | 0.05439*** | 0.05448*** | 0.046490*** | 0.055139*** | 0.071612*** | 0.05693*** | 0.037851** |
TAGROWTH (−1) | 3.71E-05 | 3.81E-05 | 3.10E-05 | 6.12E-05 | 5.61E-05 | 3.58E-05 | 3.62E-05 | 2.11E-05 | 1.31E-05 |
RGDPGROWTH_1 | 0.000621** | 0.000591** | 0.000605** | 0.000530* | 0.000483* | 0.000619** | 0.000607** | 0.000495* | 0.000596** |
HUMANDEVELOPMENT (−1) | 0.025201** | 0.025477** | 0.03073*** | 0.031677** | 0.023776** | 0.02503** | 0.026764** | 0.027620** | 0.017054** |
INFRAQUAL_1 | 0.006230 | 0.006678 | 0.005784 | −0.001205 | −0.006250 | 0.006244 | 0.007213 | 0.003966 | 0.022551* |
CORRUP (−1) | 0.009782 | ||||||||
GOVEFFECT (−1) | 0.013991 | ||||||||
POLITIC (−1) | 0.017354* | ||||||||
PROTECTINVESTOR (−1) | −0.00805** | ||||||||
REGQUALT (−1) | −0.000622 | ||||||||
RULELAW (−1) | −0.014402 | ||||||||
VACCOUNT (−1) | 0.016666 | ||||||||
INVFREEDOM (−1) | 0.000241** | ||||||||
No. of observation | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 | 48 |
Left censored obs | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
Uncensored obs | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 43 |
Log likelihood | 150.5809 | 150.7858 | 151.1739 | 152.1154 | 152.617 | 150.5825 | 151.5974 | 151.6004 | 153.1897 |
LR chi square | 26.86752 | 27.27717 | 28.05343 | 29.93649 | 30.93959 | 26.87071 | 28.9005 | 28.90633 | 32.08509 |
Prob>Chi square | 0.0004 | 0.0006 | 0.0005 | 0.0002 | 0.0001 | 0.0007 | 0.0003 | 0.0003 | 0.0001 |
Determinants of hotel FDI (pooled tobit).
*, **, and *** denote significance at 10%, 5%, and 1%, respectively.
The study shows an insignificant effect of control of corruption, regulatory quality, voice and accountability levels, government effectiveness, and rule of law but a significant effect of level of investment freedom, investor protection, and political stability on hotel FDI inflows. The findings indicate a positive but insignificant effect of corruption on the FDI inflows, which reveals that the role of corruption toward hotel FDI decisions is not critical.
Also, a negative and insignificant effect of regulatory quality on hotel FDI in MENA countries at 5% level of significance is identified, indicating it an unimportant determinant for hotel-related FDI decisions. Findings further indicated a negative and insignificant effect of rule of law on hotel FDI in MENA countries at 5% level of significance, indicating it an unimportant determinant for hotel-related FDI decisions. However, the findings have shown a positive but insignificant effect of voice and accountability on hotel FDI in MENA countries at 5% level of significance, indicating it an unimportant determinant for hotel-related FDI decisions. In contrast, findings provided a positive and significant effect of level of investment freedom on hotel FDI in MENA countries at 5% level of significance, referring it an ineffective determinant for hotel-related FDI decisions.
In this regard, Falk [24] indicated a positive but insignificant effect of corruption and tax rates on the hotel FDI projects in 104 host countries from 2005 to 2011. Nguyen et al. [47] have indicated a positive and significant impact of corruption on the FDI inflows in the service sector in Vietnam. The study has observed that the extent of corruption in Vietnam is lagging behind the country in terms of market institutions and the legal systems. In addition, Shah and Azam [48] also found the insignificant influence of corruption index on FDI inflows in MENA countries from 2003 to 2016.
Similarly, the present study showed a positive and insignificant effect of government effectiveness on hotel FDI, which indicates an unimportant determinant in hotel FDI decisions. In this regard, Shah and Afridi [49] have found a significant impact of government effectiveness on hotel FDI in SAARC countries from 2006 to 2014. Subramanian and Subramanian [50] showed a significant impact on government effectiveness in the service sector in India. It further indicated that the steps attempted by the government are effective in short run but can be successful in the long run if exporters concentrate on value addition, which offsets the rising domestic interest rates, and market development and calculated measures of restrictions are taken.
A positive and significant impact of political stability has been found on hotel FDI inflows, which shows that political stability acts as a core determinant in attracting hotel-associated investments in specific markets. Mao and Yang [23] found a significant and positive impact of political stability on FDI inflows in Chinese domestic hotels. It further provided significant spillovers in domestic hotels of Eastern and Western China. Findings provided in the study of Tekin [51] indicated the negative and indirect effect of political instability on FDI inflows of Russian and Turkish tourism industries. Maclean et al. [52] outlined that macro-political instability universalizes the growth of multinational hotel industry. The study provided that the postwar globalization and its associated discourses demonstrate the ideology of the hotel industry.
The panel model estimation showed a negative but significant effect of the strength of investor on the hotel FDI inflows at the 5% level of significance. There is empirical evidence in the hotel industry which shows a positive relationship between investors and FDI inflows. In addition, the study of Nam [53] indicated a significant effect of the strength of investors on the hotel FDI inflows by revealing a positive association between private and public hotels. The interest of investors toward the FDI inflows in Cambodian hotels is developed from the value-added benefits of each type of hotel investment. Kumar [54] on the other hand outlined a positive and significant impact of the strength of investors toward maintaining budget hotels and quality of hotel services.
The study presented several limitations based on the model and findings. Firstly, it used data on an aggregate level, which augments the possibility that some information is lost during the data collection and transformation process. Secondly, only annual time series data is used to compute the panel models. Thirdly, data has been extracted from 2003 to 2009, which indicates doubts whether a vigorous econometric analysis can be conducted. It was also not possible for expanding more on the qualitative data end since the study period was based on only 6 years. However, this is an opportunity for future researchers to collect more primary data from policymakers, hotel markets intermediaries, and foreign investors. Lastly, public and private agencies have been used as potential sources to measure the accuracy of the data and, therefore, challenge the accuracy of such data. However, findings obtained through such data have provided significant empirical evidence for hotel investors and markets.
The study was aimed to investigate the location drivers and barriers of FDI determinants in MENA countries within the hotel sectors. In this regard, findings obtained from the econometric analysis of hotel FDI inflows have shown that hotel sector-specific variables and country-specific factors are influencing the FDI inflows in MENA countries, though the findings of the study are somewhat unsupportive. For instance, hotel FDI values are insignificant for FDI flows for the selected MENA countries, whereas investment freedom, market size, and stability of the country revealed the anticipated signs. In addition, the study showed an opposite sign of the investor protection, indicating that hotel investors are reducing such risks significantly and accomplishing a high extent of control through specific contractual agreements.
It further indicated three common barriers, which include taxation, level of investment freedom, and political instability. These barriers have explained why MENA countries attract hotel FDI at the least extent than to other countries at a similar stage of development. The level of investment freedom is found to be a significant and important barrier in explaining hotel-related FDI. Terrorism, political instability, and violence are shown as important barriers in restricting MENA countries toward hotel FDI inflows. Lastly, taxation also restricts hotels in MENA countries to attract toward FDI inflows.
Several recommendations are proposed for future research in this context. Firstly, it is recommended that the current research should be extended to investigate the influence of FDI determinants on economic growth of MENA countries. It will be of beneficial interest to indicate the significance of hotel sector to explain the wider economy and whether governments are making significant efforts to acquire explicit advantage for hotel sector as part of their economic growth. Secondly, it is recommended to undertake different regions or countries such as South East Asia or Eastern Europe. This may include hotel-related FDIs. Data sources could vary though, especially for FDI-related variables. Concerning independent variables, the current study already tried pragmatically a number of variables for the first time and thus suggests that variables from this study as well as other variables will be interesting to be empirically tested.
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