Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\r\n\tZeolites are microporous crystalline materials characterized by a framework of linked TO4 tetrahedra (where T=Si, Al, or others), each consisting of four O atoms surrounding a cation. They are natural phases or synthetic materials. \r\n\tSynthetic zeolites can be formed from different raw materials and among these many wastes represent some interesting sources due to their chemical and mineralogical composition. Today, a large number of different types of waste resulting from many human activities are produced in the world (e.g. industrial, municipal, agricultural waste) and most of them are deposed of in landfills thus determining a great environmental problem.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art on the possibility to transform the different types of waste materials into useful products, zeolites, through conventional processes and innovative methods. The aim is to demonstrate that waste can be a problem or a resource depending on how it is managed.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-426-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-425-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-427-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",keywords:"Structure, Properties, Natural Material, Synthetic Product, Type, Composition, Production, Disposal, Hydrothermal Method, Pre-fusion Process, Sonication, Multiple Steps",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Since 2002, Dr. Claudia Belviso has been carrying out research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources which has allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61457/images/system/61457.jpg",biography:"Claudia Belviso is a researcher at the Institute of Methodologies of Environmental Analysis (IMAA) of CNR. After graduating in Geological Sciences and qualifying as a professional geologist, she earned a Ph.D. in Earth Sciences. Since 2002 has been carrying out her research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources as well as their application to solving environmental problems and as new raw material. These research activities have allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, participate in national and international conferences, take part in the organization of international congresses, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5306",title:"Zeolites",subtitle:"Useful Minerals",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eec7f864baf093058440c0f56072a7cf",slug:"zeolites-useful-minerals",bookSignature:"Claudia Belviso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5306.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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1. Introduction
Reliability, safety and durability represent important properties of modern aircraft, which is necessary for its effective in-service use.
The reason of the main hazard for aircraft are both random and determined negative influences rendering the controlled object during its use. Faults, failures, disturbances, noises, influences of environment and control errors represent the objectively existing stream of random negative influences on the object.
Statistically, in the recent years the majority of aircraft incidents are connected with the human factor and late fault detection in plane systems. In this regard, requirements to flight safety which demand development of new methods and algorithms of control-and-condition monitoring/ diagnostic for complex objects raise every year. The analysis of modern gas turbine engines has shown that most faults appears in the engine itself and its FADEC (40-75% for FADEC, Figure 1).
The percentage of faults for FADEC depends on the achieved values for no-failure operation indicators of the engine and FADEC.
During the development of FADEC, it is necessary to adhere to the principles and methods guaranteeing safety and reliability of aircraft in use to guarantee proper responses in all range of negative influences.
Full information on its work is necessary for complete control of a condition of the engine:
Reliable detection of a fault cause providing decision-making on a technical condition of gas turbines;
Reliable diagnosis and localization of faults and negative influences are necessary for definition of technical condition of gas turbines for the purpose of providing a reconfiguration and functioning of its subsystems [1, 2].
Figure 1.
Faults percentage for engines and FADEC
The hardware for condition monitoring of measurement channels in many cases allows to detect only catastrophic (breakage or short circuit) faults, i.e. their stochastic properties on time of the process observed in one object and on a set of objects are not distinguishable [3]. The criteria of warning messages on faults appearance are based mainly on determined logic operations and distinguish between only two conditions: "operational" (fully operational) or "fault". In this chapter, hierarchical fuzzy Markov models for quantitative estimation of system safety of gas turbines taking into account the monitoring of cause-effect relations are considered. Transition from two-valued to fuzzy logic for estimation of degradation indexes and the analysis of fault developments for the gas turbine and its FADEC is considered for this purpose.
2. Hierarchical model of faults development processes in gas turbines
Complex diagnostics of the power plant is proposed to be carried out on elements and units, using the hierarchy analysis method [4, 5]. First, decomposition into independent subsystems of various hierarchy levels is carried out on structural features. Similarly, the power plant and its systems are represented in the form of hierarchy of elements and blocks.
This approach enables cause-effect relationships to be identified on the hierarchy structure of a system.
In Figure 2, the hierarchical structure of states of the power-plant is shown. The power plant is represented in the form of a hierarchical structure as the complex system consisting of subsystems and elements (units) with built-in test/monitoring functions, according to the distributed architecture. For this purpose, the power plant decomposition might be performed into independent subsystems with various levels of hierarchy on structural and functional features in the following way:
Control and monitoring system (FADEC);
Hydro mechanical system (actuators);
Fuel system;
Start-up system;
Lubricant oil system;
Drainage system, etc.
The hierarchy analysis allows to utilize the state model on the basis of faults development which enables the system state to be estimated at each level of the hierarchy.
The mathematical model of states is represented as
S=<G,F,L,R>,
where S is state vector,
G is hierarchy of system faults,
F is quantitative estimate of faults,
L is set of fault influence indexes,
R is mutual influence system of faults.
The depth of hierarchy G is referred to as h, and h = 0 for the root element of G.
For G the following conditions are satisfied:
There is splitting of G into subsets of hk, k = 1 … n.
From x∈Lk follows that x−⊂hk+1,k=1,…,n−1.
From x∈Lk follows that x+⊂hk−1,k=2,…,n.
For every x∈G there is a weight function such as:
ωx:x−→[0,1];where∑y∈x−ωx(y)=1.
The sets of hi are the hierarchy levels, and function ωx is a function of fault priority of one level concerning the state of the power-plant x. Notice that if x−⊄hk+1 (for some level of hw), then ωx can be defined for all hk, if it equals to zero for all faults in hk+1 which do not belong to x−.
The hierarchical FADEC model integrates:
functional structure (block diagram);
physical structure;
Figure 2.
Hierarchical state structure of power plant
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\n\t\t\t\tFault levels\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tFaults\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tState\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tFault handling priority\n\t\t\t
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Level 1
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FADEC fault
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Fault
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Immediate
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Fault of lane B
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Levels 2-4
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Fault of control function (B)
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Degradation
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Fault of control loop (B)
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Levels 5-6
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Integrated fault of measurement for alternative control law
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Fault of actuator control circuit (B)
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Level 7
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Fault of lane A
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Short-term
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Level 8
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Fault of control function (А)
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Fault of control loop
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Fault of control loop (А)
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Level 9
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Integrated fault of measurement (fault of same measured parameters in channels A)
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Fault of actuator control circuit (А) (fault of communication lines of sensors or fault of FADEC hardware)
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Level 10
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Fault of measurement in channel (break or short circuit)
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Long-term
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Sensors
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Actuators
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\n\t
Table 1.
Fragment of hierarchical classification of faults for FADEC
tree states (state structure) of elements and units;
tree of failures influence indexes.
On the hierarchical model, the system of faults interference R with logical operations of a disjunction and a conjunction is applied. Such a system of faults interference allows to analyze the state of all power-plant, both from the bottom up to the top, and from the top down to the bottom and to carry out deeper analysis on various levels of decomposition of the control system using an intermediate state: degradation.
The degradation is understood as "package/complex of degradationary changes of the system" and the degradationary change is "a separately considered irreversible change of a structure of the system, worsening its properties, changing the parameters and characteristics".
Define the main faults of FADEC, the priorities of their elimination and the state they belong to. In Table 1, an exemplary of a fragment of the hierarchical classification of faults for sensors and actuators of FADEC is presented.
Fault levels 1 through 6 demand immediate handlings and correspond to the "catastrophic" and "critical" states by FAA classification (Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation), given in [6]. The emerging of such states requires immediate landing of the aircraft. Fault levels 7 through 9 are classified as a "marginal" state and demand operative handling after landing. In this case, it is possible to continue the flight, but postflight repair on the ground is required. Faults at the 10th level demand their handling in long-term prospect.
The degradation process for FADEC starts at the 10th level of hierarchy. From the 4th level of hierarchy, the system starts to approach the system crash that can be regarded as «a critical situation».
Note that development of such faults in certain cases can be detected in advance by estimating the states of elements not only at the level of "0-1" (fully operational, operational/working, fault), but also by considering their gradual degradation.
The state of an element or a system is proposed to be represented in the form of three parameters { operational, degradation, fault }, see Tab. 2.
In the operational state S = 0, while during fault S = 1. The degradation degree range from "0" to "1". Thus, the extreme values "0" and "1" are defined according to the determined logic, which is realized in the conventional FADEC (according to the design specifications for the system). The introduction of this intermediate state of "degradation" expands the informativity of the conventional condition monitoring algorithms.
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\n\t\t\t\tOperational\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tDegradation\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tFault\n\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\tS = 0
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0 < S < 1
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\n\t\t\t\tS = 1
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Table 2.
Fuzzy representation of state
Based on the faults analysis and the hierarchy of states of the system at each level, the degree of degradation of each item or sub-unit is determined (Figure 3). Fault states are classified via degradation degree as "Negligible", "Marginal", "Critical" and "Catastrophic" [6]. The estimation of the degradation degree is defined on the membership function S which takes values in the range ofS∈[0,1].If the degradation degree is closer to "1", the distance to a critical situation will be closer. If the analysis of a system showed that the state vector is { 0,1 0,6 0,3 }, it is possible to ensure that there is a "distance" before complete fault (a critical situation). As soon as the system state will worsen with the appearance of new faults and will give the following state vector { 0 0,3 0,7 }, then there will be a distance of 0,3 to a system crash. Thus the most informative indicator will be a tendency of faults appearance (trend), not the existence of degradation itself. Visual trend analysis provides an estimate of time before the critical situations develop and, thus, for early planning of the crew actions [7, 8].
Figure 3.
Estimation of "degradation" state
Consider an example of correspondence of degradation degree and the operational state. At the degradation degree of 0,25, the system is capable to carry out 75% of demanded functions (50% at 0,5 degradation, 25% at 0,75 and 0% at 1, which is the unavailable state). Such scale allows to define a “threshold” state, below which further operation is not allowed for safety reasons. Using the degradation degree, it is also possible to estimate the distance to a critical situation and the speed of approximation to it (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Trend of state dynamics during flight
Thus, the hierarchical model of fault developments allows to decompose the power-plant on hierarchy levels for obtaining quantitative estimates of the degradation state and gradual faults. The hierarchy analysis allows to utilize the state model and to estimate the system state at each level of hierarchy. The state is represented in the form of a vector with parameters { operational, degradation, fault }. Depending on the degradation degree it is possible to make an estimation of operability of object and system safety.
3. Fuzzy technique of determination of state parameters of gas turbine and its systems
The built-in monitoring system (BMS) is a subsystem of monitoring, diagnosis and classification of faults of the gas turbine and its systems. The fault existence corresponds to a logic state of "1", the absence does to a logic state of "0". Such state classification doesn\'t allow to establish a "prefault" state, to trace faults’ development, and to define degradation of the system and its elements. For more detailed analysis, the estimation of the intermediate state of degradation is proposed. For this purpose, the use of fuzzy logic is considered. Signals from sensors, and also logic state parameters from BMS will transform to linguistic variables during fuzzification to a determined value arrives to the input of the fuzzifier. Let x is the state parameter of an element (for example, the sensor). It is necessary to define fuzzy spaces of input and output variables, and also terms for FADEC sensors. All signals from sensors and actuators will transform into linguistic variables by fuzzification.
Consider an example of fuzzy representation of a state of the two-channel sensor of rotational speed of a high pressure turbocompressor rotor. For monitoring of operational condition of communication lines of the FADEC sensor, a linguistic variable is introduced in the following way:
Ω=<xn,B=(xn),U,G,M>,
where Ωn is the sensor state,
xn is the number of events when n is beyond the allowed limit band;
B is { operational, fault };
U is [0,4]
G is the syntactic rule generating terms of set B,
M is the semantic rule, which to each linguistic value x associate with its sense of M(xn), and M(xn) designates a fuzzy subset of the carrier U.
Say that the sensor is considered failed after the fourth appearance of the shaft speed measurement beyond the allowed boundary, therefore the membership function is formed as shown in Figure 5.
At a single appearance out of limit (xn = 1), membership function B1 takes the value 0,7, and B2 = 0,3. The degradation degree takes the value of membership function B2. If the repeated breaking the limit doesn\'t prove to be true during the set period of time, the monitoring algorithm cancels the measurement: B1 = 1, B2 = 0.
Figure 5.
Membership functions of "sensor state"
In Figure 5 two membership functions are shown: state B1 corresponds to the function μB1 (xn), B2 is described by the function μB2 (xn).
The way of creating fuzzy rules is presented in Figure 6. This rule base is represented by the table, which is filled in with fuzzy rules as follows [9]:
R(1):IF(xn=A1ANDxn=B1)THENy=T1
Figure 6.
Example of fuzzy rule base
The values μT1, μT2, μT3 are set in the cell at the row “Operational" (A1) and the column "Fault" (B2).
Consider a fragment of the rule base for estimates of the sensor state of the low pressure shaft speed. Formulate the first rule: if the 1st coil (n11) of the sensor is operational (A1) and the 2nd coil (n12) of the sensor is operational (A1), then the sensor is in the operational condition with the following membership functions:
Given a greater number of possible conditions (for example, greater number of the duplicated coils of the sensor), one can develop a discrete-ordered scale of state parameters (Figure 7).
For further analysis of the system, enter the faults influence indexes at each level of hierarchy, using a method of pairwise comparison as it is carried out in the hierarchy analysis method.
Quantitative judgements on the importance of faults are performed for each pair of faults (Fi, Fj) and these are represented by matrix A of the n×n size.
A=(aij),(i,j=1,2,3).
where aij is the relative importance of fault Fi in regard to Fj. The value Aij defines the importance (respective values) Fi of faults in comparison with Fj.
Elements aij are defined by the following rules:
If aij =α, aji = 1/α, α≠ 0.
If fault Fi has identical relative importance with Fj, then aij =1, aji=1, in particular aii=1 for all i.
Thus, a back-symmetric matrix A is obtained:
A=[1a12⋯a1n1/a121⋯a2n⋯⋯⋯⋯1/a1n1/a2n⋯1].HID2
Figure 7.
Continuous (a) and discrete (b) scale of degradation
After the representation of quantitative judgements about the fault pairs (Fi, Fj) in a numerical expression with the numbers aij, the problem is reduced to that n possible faults F1, F2, …, Fn will receive a corresponding set of numerical weights ω1, ω2, …, ωn, which would reflect the fixed judgements about the condition of the gas turbine subsystem.
If the expert judgement is absolute at all comparisons for all i, j, k, then matrix A is called consistent.
If the diagonal of matrix A consists of units (aij = 1) and A is the consistent matrix, then at small changes in aij the greatest eigenvalue λmax is close to n, and the other eigenvalue are close to zero.
Based on the matrix of pair comparison values of faults A, the vector of priorities for fault classification is obtained, along with vector ω satisfying the criterion:
Aω=λmaxω,
where ω is the eigenvector of matrix A and λmax is the maximum eigenvalue, which is close to the matrix order n.
As it is desirable to have the normalized solution, let’s slightly change ω, considering α=∑i=1nωi and replacing ω with (1/α) ω. This provides uniqueness, and also that∑i=1nωi=1.
Note that small changes in aij cause small change in λmax, then the deviation of the latter from n is a coordination measure. It allows estimating proximity of the obtained scale to the basic scale of relations. Hence, the coordination index
(λmax−n)/(n−1)
is considered to be an indicator of "proximity to coordination". Generally, if this number is not greater than 0.1 then it is possible to be satisfied with the judgements about the faults importance.
At each level hi of the hierarchy for n elements of the gas turbine and its subsystems, the state vector {operational, degradation, fault} is determined, taking into account the influence coefficients of failures:
Shi(xn)=μhi(xn)⋅ωi,
whereμhi(xn) is the membership function value of the element xn (degradation degree). To determine the element/unit state of the hierarchy at a higher level Shi(xn) for the input states of low-level Shi−1(xn) one stage of defuzzification is performed.
The output value Shi(xn) is presented in the form of the determined vector of state with parameters { operational, degradation, fault }.
The state estimation begins with the bottom level of hierarchy. The description of a state set obtained by means of fuzzification and deffuzification with the use of the logic operations of disjunction ∨ (summing), and conjunction ∧ (multiplication), which are designated as follows:
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logic operation "AND"
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logic operation "OR"
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In performing operation "AND" in the inference system of fuzzy logic, the terminal tops are summed in order to determine the general state at one level of hierarchy that is presented as follows:
XΣ=x1∨x2∨…∨xn
In performing operation "OR", the "worst" state vector is chosen, with the maximum parameters of degradation μdegradation(x) or faults μfault(x). The selector of maximum chooses from the fault influence indexes the one that has the maximum value.
The use of the hierarchical representation allows a small amount of "short" fuzzy rules to adequately describe multidimensional dependencies between inputs and outputs.
4. Fuzzy hierarchical Markov state models
A promising approach to constructing intelligent systems of control, diagnosis and monitoring could be the stochastic modelling on the basis of Markov chains combined with the formalized hierarchy theory.
Within a fuzzy hierarchical model, consider fault development processes with the use of Markov chains. Such dynamic models allow to investigate the change of elements’ states in time. Fault development can include not only single faults and their combinations, but also sequences (chains) of so-called "consecutive" faults [10, 11].
During FADEC analysis, classification, formalization and representation of processes of condition monitoring and fault diagnosis for the main subsystems of gas turbines (control, monitoring, fuel supply etc.) is carried out. These processes are represented in the form of Markov chains which allow to analyze the state dynamics of the power-plant.
The transition probability matrix of a Markov chain for modeling faults and their consequences, has a universal structure for all levels of system decomposition (Figure 8):
system as a whole (power plant);
constructon units;
elements.
Figure 8.
Hierarchical structure of Markov model of fault
The hierarchical Markov model is built in the generalized state space where physical parameters and binary fault flags are used for the estimation of a state vector of the element, unit and power-plant. The state vector includes three parameters { operational, degradation, fault } which allow to track the fault development and degradation process of the system. During FADEC diagnosis, the area of single faults is mostly considered. The proposed Markov model enables to present the system with multiple faults and their sequences. The top state level of a system reflects in the aggregated form the information on faults at the lower state levels.
The elements’ state at the levels of the hierarchy depends on the previous values of state parameters of the elements, values of membership functions and fault influence indexes.
For the estimation of transition probabilities between the states of a Markov chain, it is required to calculate relative frequencies of events such as Si→Sj for a given interval of time. In particular, at the top level, the number of events during one flight (Figure 9) can be of interest.
Figure 9.
Transition probability matrix of power-plant during one flight
The most important events during flight are the emergency turning off of the engine stop (shutdown) and the possibility of its restart. For the probability estimation of such events, it is required to use statistics on all park of the same type engines. For realization of such estimation methods, it is required that flights information was available on each plane and power-plant. Such information should be gathered and stored in a uniform format and should be available for processing. Modern information technologies open possibilities for such research. To analyze fault development processes of one FADEC, it is possible to use results of the automated tests at the hardware-in-the-loop test bed with modeling of various faults and their combinations. In any case, to receive reliable statistical estimates one needs a representative sample of rather large amount of data.
In the analysis of the Markov model, the relation of the transition probability matrix with state of elements and subsystems at each level of hierarchy is considered. Therefore it is necessary to have the model of the system behavior in various states with various flight condition to guarantee system safety, reliable localization and accommodation of faults.
As the basic mathematical model of the controlled plant, the description in the state space is considered in the form of stochastic difference equations:
X(t+1)=AX(t)+BU(t)+Fξ(t),E1
where X∈Rs is the s-dimensioned state vector; U∈Rs is the s-dimensioned control vector; A, B and F are (n×n), (n×s) and (n×r) matrices accordingly; ξ∈Rs is the vector of independent random variables. Thus, the dynamic object described by this finite-difference equation, with input coordinate (control variable) U and output coordinate (state variable) X, in the closed scheme of the automatic control system is the controlled Markov process [12, 13].
The level of quantisation allows the Markov process to be converted into the Markov chain. Provided ξ(t) is a stationary process, the Markov chain will be homogeneous. Such chain is described by the means of the stochastic transition probability matrix P with the dimensions (m×m), where m is the number of the chain states. Each element of the matrix Pij represents the probability of the system transition from the condition Хi into the condition Xj during the time interval ΔT:
Pij=Prob{X(t)=Xi,X(t+1)=Xj},∀n∈N,
Xi∈[xi−Δx2;xi+Δx2];∑j=1mPij=1,i=1,m_____.E2
Condition (2) means that the matrix P should be stochastic and define the full system of events. The sum of elements in each row of the stochastic matrix should equal 1.
The size of the matrix P is defined by the prior information on the order of the object model (1) and the number of the sampling intervals Δx and Δu. The transition probabilities are then estimated as relative frequencies of the corresponding discrete events.
The statistical estimation of the transition probabilities for the controlled Markov chain is performed as the calculation of the frequencies for the corresponding events during observation and the subsequent calculation of the elements of matrix P using the formula:
Pijk=Nijk∑j=1mNijkE3
where the numerator Nijk is the number of the following events: {X(tn)=Xi,X(tn+1)=Xj,U(tn)=Uk},and the denominator corresponds to the number of events such as{X(tn)=Xi,U(tn)=Uk}. Thus, for any combination of state Xi and control Uk, a full system of events will consist of the set of the state transitions Xj.
The normalisation of Equation (3) makes matrix P stochastic. As a result, the set of probabilities in each row Pij describes the full system of events for which the sum of probabilities is equal to unit:
∑j=1mPijk=1.
The estimation of a transition probability matrix of the Markov model consists of creation of multidimensional histograms which represent an estimate of joint distribution [14, 15].
The use of the hierarchical Markov model allows to "compress" information which has been recorded during one flight, and to present it in a more compact form. In this case, the possibility of analysis and forecast of dynamics of degradation degree (Figure 10) opens. It is possible to analyze the state dynamics of elements and functions at each level of hierarchy in time for decision-making support.
Figure 10.
Dynamics of state parameters during flight
The analysis of fault information and state change can be carried out over flight data for the whole duration of maintenance and the whole "fleet" of engines and their systems (Figure 11). Such analysis will assist to increase efficiency for processes of experimental maintenance development and monitoring system support.
Given statistics on all park of engines within several years, it is possible to build empirical estimates of probabilities of the first and second type errors.
Thus, possibilities of application of hierarchical Markov models for the gas turbine and its FADEC for compact representation of information on flight and for the assessment of "sensitivity" of the monitoring system according to actual data are considered. The levels of hierarchy differ with the ways of introducing redundancy and realization of system safety with use of intellectual algorithms of control and diagnosis. Each higher level of hierarchy has greater "intelligence" and is designed independently in the assumption of ideal system stability of the lower level.
Figure 11.
Hierarchical fuzzy Markov model of gas turbine states
Consider an example. In Figure 12, the FADEC state estimation with faults is presented on the basis of the degradation degree of the elements.
Figure 12.
Example of hierarchical estimation of state parameters
At the 10th level the BMS detected a fault of measurement in the form of break of the first coil of parameter n11 (shaft speed sensor). On the basis of the fuzzy rule R(2), the parameters of measurement state of n1 in the channel A are characterized by the following three values[μT1(n11)=0,2μT2(n11)=0,7μT3(n11)=0,1].
The measurement state in the channel B is defined as[μT1(n12)=1μT2(n12)=0μT3(n12)=0], because no faults were detected. At the 9th level, the sensor state of the n is obtained using the multiplication of the vector of state parameters and faults influence indexes:
The state of an element of a higher level is calculated by multiplication of the current state to fault influence indexes of the fault elements. The state of both measurement channels of temperature T is "operational", therefore, the sensor T state equals[S(T)o=1S(T)d=0S(T)f=0] The sensor of fuel feed α is also good working.
At the 8th level the state of two sensors n and T after similar calculations becomes equal { 0,78; 0,19; 0,03 } that indicated the system degradation in the part of control of fuel consumption.
For the estimation of a state of the fuel consumption control function, the "OR" operation is also used. The state of the actuator of fuel consumption control circuit is characterized by the parameters { 0,66; 0,34; 0 }. The state of FADEC is characterized by the fault of fuel consumption control function or the state of the guide vanes control function. Using the operation "OR", the state of FADEC is detected as { 0,66; 0,34; 0 }. In this example, the whole system is considered to be operational, whereas partial degradation is observed, which is not influencing the system operability.
Thus, the technique of state parameters determination for FADEC and its systems on the basis of fuzzy logic and Markov chains is proposed. This technique can be used during flight or in maintenance on the ground.
At the present time a necessary condition for realization of intellectual algorithms is the complete development of the distributed intellectual control models focused on control optimization, forecasting and system safety [16, 17]. In Figure 13, the scheme of the distributed FADEC is shown.
Thus, in each sensor or actuator, it is necessary to have physically built-in control system (or function) to form and monitor the fault signals in the unit, communication lines, cooperating sensors, indication devices and systems [18]. The use of the built-in monitoring control systems working in real time allows to obtain a number of additional possibilities for improving control quality and system operational characteristics as followings:
emergency states detection of the control object and system;
fault detection of elements of the control object;
state diagnosis and parametrical degradation of the object.
Figure 13.
Distributed architecture of FADEC
5. Conclusion
In this chapter, the hierarchical fuzzy Markov modeling of fault developments processes has been proposed for the analysis of an airplane system safety. The hierarchical model integrates functional, physical structure of gas turbine and its FADEC elements and units, the tree of states, a tree of fault influence indexes. This model allows to decompose the power-plant for a quantitative estimates of degradation state and gradual faults. The analysis of hierarchies allows to utilize the state model on the basis of fault development processes which estimates the power-plant state at each level of hierarchy. Furthermore, the technique of determination of state parameters of the gas turbine and its systems on the basis of fuzzy logic is presented. The state of each element, unit and system is represented in the form of a vector with parameters { operational, degradation, faults }. The use of the proposed indicator ”degradation degree” allows to obtain an objective quantitative estimate of the current state which can be used as, the "distance" to a critical situation and the reserve of time for decision-making in-flight. This indicator is defined on the basis of the discrete-ordered scale and fault influence indexes that allows to determine about 30 % of gradual faults in gas turbine and its systems at the stage of fault development. The examples of fuzzy rules on the basis of expert knowledge are given, whereas fuzzy logic is used for interpolation.
The application of hierarchical Markov models for the analysis of experimental data is also considered for control system development: as the compact representation of information of a system state change during flight, the estimation of transition probabilities.
Nomenclature
FADEC – Full Authority Digital Engine Control.
BMS – built-in monitoring system.
ω – weighting coefficient of fault.
S – state (condition) of gas turbines.
µ – membership function.
P – probability.
X – state variable.
U – control variable.
Acknowledgments
The work was supported by the grants from the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFFI) №12-08-31279, №12-08-97027 and the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/45163.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/45163.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45163",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45163",totalDownloads:2334,totalViews:162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:9,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 21st 2012",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 19th 2013",dateFinished:"June 3rd 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/45163",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/45163",book:{id:"2447",slug:"progress-in-gas-turbine-performance"},signatures:"G. G. Kulikov, V. Yu. Arkov and A.I. Abdulnagimov",authors:[{id:"153631",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennady",middleName:null,surname:"Kulikov",fullName:"Gennady Kulikov",slug:"gennady-kulikov",email:"gennadyg_98@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Ufa State Aviation Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"154202",title:"Prof.",name:"Valentin",middleName:null,surname:"Arkov",fullName:"Valentin Arkov",slug:"valentin-arkov",email:"v_arkov@mail.ru",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Ufa State Aviation Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"154203",title:"Dr.",name:"Ansaf",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulnagimov",fullName:"Ansaf Abdulnagimov",slug:"ansaf-abdulnagimov",email:"ansafufa@mail.ru",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Ufa State Aviation Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Hierarchical model of faults development processes in gas turbines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Fuzzy technique of determination of state parameters of gas turbine and its systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Fuzzy hierarchical Markov state models",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kulikov GG. Principles of design of digital control systems for aero engines. In Cherkasov BA. (ed.), Control and automatics of jet engines. Mashinostroyeniye, Moscow; 1988. p253-274.'},{id:"B2",body:'Arkov VY, Kulikov GG, Breikin TV. Life cycle support for dynamic modelling of gas turbines. Prepr. 15th Triennial IFAC World Congress, Barcelona, Spain; 2002. p2135-2140.'},{id:"B3",body:'Kuo BC. Automatic control systems. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs; 1995.'},{id:"B4",body:'Saaty TL. Analytic Hierarchy Process: Planning, Priority Setting, Resource Allocation. McGraw-Hill, New York, London; 1980.'},{id:"B5",body:'Saaty TL, Vargas LG. Models, Methods, Concepts & Applications of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Kluwer Academic Publisher; 2001.'},{id:"B6",body:'SAE ARP 4761. Guidelines and Methods for Conducting the Safety Assessment Process on Civil Airborne Systems And Equipment. Aerospace recommended practice; 1996.'},{id:"B7",body:'Arkov V, Evans DC, Fleming PJ, et al. System identification strategies applied to aircraft gas turbine engines. Proc. 14th Triennal IFAC World Congress; 1999. p145-152.'},{id:"B8",body:'Kulikov G, Breikin T, Arkov V and Fleming P. Real-time simulation of aviation engines for FADEC test-beds. Proc. Int. Gas Turbine Congress, Kobe, Japan; 1999. p949-952.'},{id:"B9",body:'Zadeh LA. "Fuzzy algorithms," Information and Control 1968;12(2): 94-102.'},{id:"B10",body:'Kulikov GG, Fleming PJ, Breikin TV, Arkov VY. Markov modelling of complex dynamic systems: identification, simulation, and condition monitoring with example of digital automatic control system of gas turbine engine. USATU, Ufa; 1998.'},{id:"B11",body:'Breikin TV, Arkov VY, Kulikov GG. On stochastic system identification: Markov models approach. Proc 2nd Asian Control Conf ASCC\'97; 1997. p775-778.'},{id:"B12",body:'Breikin TV, Arkov VY, Kulikov GG. Application of Markov chains to identification of gas turbine engine dynamic models. International Journal of Systems Science 2006; 37(3) 197-205.'},{id:"B13",body:'Kulikov G, Arkov V, Lyantsev O, et al. Dynamic modelling of gas turbines: identification, simulation, condition monitoring, and optimal control. Springer, London, New York; 2004.'},{id:"B14",body:'Kulikov G, Arkov V, Abdulnagimov A. Markov modelling for energy efficient control of gas turbine power plant. Proc. IFAC Conf. on Control Methodologies and Technology for Energy Efficiency, CMTEE-2010, Faro, Portugal; 2010. http://www.ifac-papersonline.net/Detailed/42981.html'},{id:"B15",body:'Arkov V, Kulikov G, Fatikov V, et al. Intelligent control and monitoring unit and its investigation using Markov modelling. Proc. IFAC Int. Conf. on Intelligent Control Systems and Signal Processing ICONS-2003, Faro, Portugal; 2003. p489-493'},{id:"B16",body:'Vasilyev VI, Ilyasov BG, Valeyev SS. Intelligent Control Systems for gas Turbine engines. Proc. of the Second Scientific Technical Seminar on GT Engines, Turkey, Istanbul; 1996. p71-78.'},{id:"B17",body:'Culley D, Thomas R and Saus J. Concepts for Distributed Engine Control, AIAA-2007-5709, 43rd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Cincinnati, Ohio, July 8-11, 2007.'},{id:"B18",body:'Kulikov GG., Arkov VYu., Abdulnagimov AI. Hierarhical Fuzzy Markov Modelling for System Safety of Power-plant : Proc. of 4th International Symposium on Jet Propulsion and Power Engineering, September 10-12, 2012, Xi’an, China: Northwestern Polytechnical University Press; 2012. p. 589-594.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"G. G. Kulikov",address:null,affiliation:'
Automated Control and Management Systems Department, Ufa State Aviation Technical University, Ufa, Russia
Education is the heart of any nation, and as the nation progresses, so must its educational delivery systems. For most part of Fiji’s education system, the traditional approach has been utilized to implement a national curriculum. Looking at the rapid changes to the Fijian lifestyle in the recent years, especially in terms of technological infrastructure, communication, and the mobile revolution that has taken place, there remains a need to re-look at how this implementation and delivery of the Fijian education is taking place.
Educational technology is the considered implementation of appropriate tools, techniques, or processes that facilitate the application of senses, memory, and cognition to enhance teaching practices and improve learning outcomes [1]. Januszewski and Molenda [2] define education technology as “the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.” Thus educational technology includes multifaceted implementations that are diverse in nature. These technologies do not only consist of computers and projection devices for teachers, but they include computers and portable devices for the learners, the hardware and software support systems to host and deliver learning resources, the technical expertise required to carry out implementation, and continued support and maintenance and the financial effort that would accompany all these activities.
The Fijian education system is a slow to change enterprise. Legacy practices remain the greatest challenge for any reform to handle. Teacher education, student comprehension, resource availability, and student access are all challenges to the implementation of any educational technology systems in schools. A key challenge that must be kept in mind is the “attitude towards technology and perceived usefulness of technology in teaching, the institutional cultural environment, as well as resources available to support uptake” [3].
Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to research on the educational technologies used in classrooms around the world and determine the availability of educational technologies to a Fijian classroom and the relevance of the available technologies in a Fijian classroom. Research by Ghavifekr and Rosdy [4] states that the integration of information, communication, and technology (ICT) will assist teachers to the global requirement to replace traditional teaching methods with a technology-based teaching and learning tools and facilities. Some of these tools could be made available to Fijian teachers to implement the syllabi that they are expected to deliver. Not every single technology that is availed to educators is feasible or logical given the socio-economic background of any educational institution or its students, but their relevance could be regulated to identify which ones are applicable to Fijian schools.
1.1 Purpose of study
The purpose of this research will be to ascertain if the Fijian classroom is ready to incorporate e-Learning concepts completely or even partially into its teaching and learning methods. The intention of this research is to outline the myriad of technologies and devices heralded for e-Learning in classrooms around the world and relate them to the Fijian classroom situation.
1.2 Research problem
This study would help understand where the Fijian classroom stands in comparison with classrooms around the world today in the case of the use of educational technologies and to determine their relevance through user feedback on acceptance of change.
1.2.1 Subproblems
The subproblems are as follows:
What are key educational technologies used in classrooms around the world today?
Are the educational technologies that are used around the world today available for the Fijian classroom?
How many of the key educational technologies available for the Fijian classroom are relevant for them?
2. Literature review
Educational technologies remain one of the major contributing factors to improve the performance of students as well as facilitate teacher in teaching and learning. Educational technology is not restricted to individual computer use. It can involve other equipment such as tablets and mobile devices as well as tools made available via the Web, such as the cloud and its applications [5, 6]. It is a known fact that the application of educational technology enhances skills and cognitive characteristics [7], and if such a tool exists, then it must be incorporated into the educational pedagogy.
While there are a number of educational technologies used in classrooms around the world, their availability and relevance of the available technologies in a Fijian classroom need to be looked at. This research is needed because as mentioned in earlier “Modernising an education system should work with both, the syllabi as well as the methods employed by teachers to implement them,” the use of educational technologies plays a major role in the delivery of these syllabi that have been entrusted by the Ministry of Education [8, 9]. “Learning, teaching, and assessment enabled by technology require a robust infrastructure” [10]. This robust infrastructure is a reference to the educational technologies that can exist in any classroom.
Technology gives teachers the ability to tailor instructional materials and assessments to directly address their students’ learning needs and offers access to more authentic material to assist in the development and delivery of lessons; they can potentially contribute to reshaping teaching and learning practices, and they might be able to replace a wide array of previous pedagogical tools, such as blackboards, textbooks, student and teacher notebooks, and laboratories [11, 12]. It is time that the “education system should soon give up on its obsession with textbooks and come out from the old-fashioned way of teaching students for an outcome-based education” [13].
This reality is visible all around the nation, where textbooks govern the delivery of education to students. With time, age, and budget that foot us with the rest of the world given our size, Fiji needs to start embracing innovative methods of delivery to prepare critical thinkers once students enter university, instead of beginners finding their feet with educational technology while they are undergraduates. An undisputable fact is that today’s generation will grow up with a myriad of educational technologies around them and as such need to “cope with these changes and bridge the gap between the world outside school and inside school” [14]. The truth remains that “it is becoming increasingly easy for learners to bypass traditional bricks and mortar language schools and courses; in this scenario, the role of the teacher becomes that of guide, facilitator and consultant…” [15]. Thus, teachers need to be technologically prepared to guide students in the right direction and learn how to discover the correct information in the context of their delivery [16].
Lund et al. [17] have brought about a concern in teacher education with regard to helping students develop a profession-based digital competence relevant to teaching. While we herald the importance of so many benefits and needs for educational technology, an important fact that must be borne in our minds is the need to have teachers versed in using educational technology to prepare and implement lesson [16]. The entire exercise and investment would prove futile should the educator fail to comprehend the tools at their disposal.
Not only should we be concerned with implementing and using educational technology and claiming it as a yardstick for success, it is imperative that “educators need to learn how student learning changes with e-Learning, and how to alter their teaching methodologies with pedagogical approaches that take advantage of the opportunities afforded by-learning” [18, 19, 20]. Teaching using educational technology is not a one-way street, it is by far more complex than the traditional learning system given that the electronic methods appear as the third leg of the educational process and thus be balanced.
Finally, “in a high-tech economy, technological innovation needs to move hand in hand with investing in teachers, which is a far better long-term solution. Students will be made future ready through a blend of technology and teachers, the best of both worlds which will be needed to teach future generations” writes [16, 21].
The future of education is ease of access and ease of learning using educational technology
Review of journal article
Technology is improving over the years to make delivery of education and access easier
Educational learning is slowly becoming the key delivery tool
Table 1.
Review of existing literature on educational technologies.
3. Educational technologies
Educational technologies have three domains of use [7]:
Technology as a tutor (computer gives instructions and guides the user)
This involves the use of any form of technology to assist and educate a user through lesson/ lessons. This method is utilized to deliver self-paced education and is ideal for tertiary level courses and distance learning or to deliver syllabi to remote areas without any access to educator. This approach uses a drill and practice implementation whereby the user can keep repeating the lesson until the required mastery is achieved. An example of this would be a typing tuition application, allowing for self-paced, timed lessons. There are, of course, numerous advanced applications that are available for self-paced learning [22].
Technology as a teaching tool
This educational technology approach is by far the more popular approach used around Fiji. It involves educators utilizing technology to deliver curriculum to learners through, for example, the use of Microsoft PowerPoint to present slides and portable document formats to supply notes, worksheets, activities, and textbooks. This requires deep engagement by the educator to prepare lessons for delivery. This, of course, could be substituted with ready designed courses that are provided for a fee [22]. This tool can be expanded into numerous hardware aids that exist for educators to utilize in classrooms. Some common examples of lesson delivery hardware equipment are interactive whiteboards, overhead data projectors with portable computers, and smart screens [23].
Technology as a learning tool
These normally consist of computer hardware that is used by students to gain access to the resources that are prepared and shared by educators. These resources may be placed on a server, and the student is required to be part of the domain via proper credentials. Some examples of these tools are personal computers (PCs), laptops, tablets, and smartphones. These can also be used to gain access to tutorial activities for learners to access and progress academically [23].
The framework was drawn up in relation to evaluation of the adoption and use of educational technology in the Fijian classroom. The research was based on e-Learning in Fijian schools in terms of the following: implementation, benefits, challenges, and use (e-Learning for teaching or a complete implementation of e-Learning including both delivery and students’ ends) (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Model.
The intention of this framework was to take a snapshot of the presence of e-Learning in some Fijian school. This was undertaken using a convenience sample method to identify the current state of e-Learning in the sample of schools. The implementation and challenges will be evaluated once the convenience sample was received. From the sample, the benefits and use would be identified as they would be different for each sample. While the generic ideas on the implementation, challenges, benefits, and use are easily available, the research pinpointed these to the frame of a Fijian classroom. The key outcomes of this research were to identify the depth of the adoption or e-Learning in the sample, benefits and challenges, and the current use of e-Learning.
5. Methodology
The approach to this paper was to review journal articles to discover and elaborate on educational technologies, its presence, and use. The types of educational technological hardware were also researched on and the more common ones identified. Following this, a type of nonprobability sampling method was used to gather data on the stance of some Fijian school on the use, implementation, benefits, and implementation for teaching and learning purposes. This method is referred to as convenience sampling. Convenience sampling (grab sampling, accidental sampling, opportunity sampling, haphazard sampling) is a type of nonprobability sampling in which people are sampled simply because they are “convenient” for researchers [25]. The survey questionnaire was delivered to respondents using an electronic questionnaire via www.surveymonkey.com. The sample was biased to schools in urban and suburban areas. This survey method is best used if a researcher desires to launch a pilot study for a case where minimal historical data or research is present. The responses of the survey were analysed under the theoretical framework based on implementation, benefits, challenges, and use. Additional information was gathered using empirical methods of conversations with some respondents to provide additional information.
5.1 A snapshot of educational technologies in a Fijian classroom
The intention of the research that was conducted was to establish the status of educational technologies in some schools around Fiji. The Fijian classroom is still in the early stage of modern evolution of teaching practices. While majority of schools in Fiji are still contented with the cheap method of chalk and blackboards for delivery, many Fijian educational leaders are looking forward to modernizing their schools with educational technologies to initiate e-Learning in their school.
The survey data was reviewed with respect to the four areas involved in the adoption and use of educational technology in Fijian classroom—implementation, benefits, challenges, and uses.
5.2 Summary of research and discussion
5.2.1 Implementation
Fijian administrators have realized that educational technologies are a step forward in the Fijian classroom and are taking steps to slowly introduce educational technologies to support e-Learning in segments. They recognize the relevance of educational technologies to the Fijian classroom and are making efforts to step forward into the future.
5.2.2 Benefits
If you have answered Yes to Question 4, state the benefits from implementing such a system.
The following benefits were summarized from the responses gathered:
The use of technologies allows for a child-centered approach making it easier to deliver lessons to students.
It provides an additional learning support for students.
This modern, different approach from the normal board and chalk boosts interest from children allowing the teacher to capture a lot more of the content while teaching since lectures are accompanied with demonstrations easily which makes teaching effective.
Interesting method of learning for students since it is learner friendly.
With multimedia, other related information to lesson can be shown to students.
The use of a different teaching method available on education websites and video sharing sites when shown to the class increased the student’s awareness on other learning tools available through the Internet and reinforces learning outcomes far more efficiently.
The students’ interest continues to build up as they learn.
Students get engaged for longer time.
Very efficient way of delivering content to the twenty-first-century students as they are known as digital natives. They are more interactive with educational technology for educational purposes.
Promotes discovery learning whereby students can also do presentations using technology.
Copies of class resources will remain conveniently organized and available with teachers and students for longer periods. This promotes flexibility since content can be edited and shared as seen fit. Makes teaching efficient. This is termed as working smart.
Images used and projected on the screen are clear and colorful. This increases the level of understanding on the subject matter.
Teachers and students remain abreast with data as technology usage increases research and analytical skills.
Raises the professional standard of teachers to another level.
The benefits listed are summarized from the responses received from Fijian educators. They are vividly clear on the benefits attained from the uses of such technologies in the least, delivery of lessons. The future solutions provided by the use of educational technologies remain a common identifier.
5.2.3 Challenges
If you have answered Yes to Question 4, state the challenges faced during the implementation of such a system.
The cost of acquiring educational technology is steep. Single implementation is not feasible in an academic year due to lack of single grant approval. Implementation over time could see technology become obsolete before completion.
Regular electricity outages in some areas remain a challenge.
Availability of experts to plan and improve architecture, purchase, implement, and train users. Maintenance and network management is quite difficult as well.
Preparation of electronic lessons is quite time-consuming and affects current teacher planning. Content development is also difficult for teachers as some may not be well versed with computer technology.
Some teachers find using educational technology quite challenging since they themselves are not trained in the use of these technologies.
Some students may resist the use of technology for teaching. Technology acceptance is not absolute.
Reluctance of management to provide technological resource since these investments requires thousands of dollars of investment. Educational technology investment across an entire school may require tens of thousands of dollars of investment.
If implementation depends on Internet connectivity, then downtimes and throttled speeds remain an issue.
Mishandling of equipment. Some students take technology for its entertainment value only. Some teachers may not be secure with their credentials allowing students to engage in abuse of resources.
Given the challenges outlined, the relevance of educational technologies to the Fijian classroom faces its key argument. These outline the present state of educational technology implementation in Fiji. These issues are real and diminish the swiftness with which educational technologies need to be introduced. These are the key areas that need to be addressed thoroughly before the relevance of educational technologies in a Fijian classroom I recognized.
5.2.4 Use
If you have answered Yes to Question 3, which educational technology for e-Learning approach has been implemented in your school?
The most common implementation of educational technology is for technology as a teaching tool (78%) for teacher delivery of lessons using a PC, projector, and whiteboard/screen.
The very large school has either piloted (22%) the use of PC, projector, and interactive boards or implemented it completely in their schools.
The use of smart board remains non-existent in the sample.
Total e-Learning implementation with teacher delivery and student portal is not used either, and it seems that this would need more time to be accepted as it requires equal acceptance and investment from parents and other stakeholders as well.
The key fact here remains that educational technologies have limited implementation in the sample. The limit of use remains with teacher delivery only. The true potential of educational technologies in the form of e-Learning remains to be seen.
6. Findings
Based on the data analysed and literature reviewed, a comparison was made with present technologies and researched data; it is evident that some forms of educational technologies are being utilized albeit its limited use in most Fijian classrooms. It also remains non-existent in many schools but these schools were not sampled. Awareness and desire to implement and utilize educational technology remain elevated. The benefits of such implementations far outreached the challenges. The greater belief is that students will benefit vastly should teachers take care in using technology and implementing carefully despite the challenges faced.
An immense need for stakeholder participation and investment was outlined in order to realize the potential of educational technology and eventually e-Learning implementations. Fijian administrators are quite intrinsically aware of the benefits of educational technology since they have been beneficiaries of such tools in their time in universities as students and as such recognize the relevance of educational technologies in their classrooms.
Based on the feedback, educational technologies’ relevance in a Fijian classroom cannot be questioned. Times have changed as students’ exposure to a myriad of technology requires them to be placed in classrooms of similar nature. Students would possibly draw more benefits from such initiative since most challenges do not involve them directly instead concern other stakeholders.
7. Conclusion
To conclude, educational technologies can no longer be ignored as emerging technology since its relevance and presence to Fijian classrooms are realized by educators. Given the types of educational technologies available around the world and those that have been sourced by the sample, it is clear that most solutions are present in the Fijian classroom and have been acquired and used by some schools already. While not all technologies are readily available or affordable, research shows that Fijian classrooms are slowly investing in educational technology. While acceptance of these technologies constitute for an in-depth research, the relevance to our education system remains divided. Even though the benefits are outlined and some form of educational technology implementation has been made, the challenges faced are also real.
The cost of investment is the single primary deterrent to making educational technology and subsequently e-Learning more relevant given that not enough investment or confidence is being placed into such advancement by the key financial stakeholders. Looking at the research, the implementations are limited for each school. Only one school in the sample has a complete installation of educational technologies. The rest of the schools have very few classrooms engaged.
This simply indicates that the Fijian classroom is not quite ready to completely embrace educational technologies into their operations given the challenges are few but immense. The leap in effort from all stakeholders is imperative for educational technology and eventually e-Learning to find their relevance in a Fijian classroom.
8. Future directions
The following questions, when answered, indicate a possible future direction.
Are there any accelerated efforts for plan and preparation for educational technologies for the nation’s classrooms from the key stakeholders?
Are there milestone requirements of authorities for schools to implement educational technologies in stages for the benefit of students?
Are national syllabi team planning and delivering content and tools that are compliant to educational technology standards?
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It is defined as “the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.” This research intends to identify educational technologies that are popular around the world and elaborate upon them. The research project further used a case study to sample schools in Fiji to determine their use of educational technologies in the Fijian classroom. Various uses, benefits, implementations, and challenges were identified together with the limitations of how educational technologies’ relevance to the Fijian classroom could be affected. The findings indicate that the Fijian classroom is not quite ready to completely embrace educational technologies into their operations given the challenges are few but immense. Questions suggesting future activities were also identified.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68867",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68867",signatures:"Reginald Gani, Sharika Devi, Sam Goundar, Emmenual Reddy and Fatemeh Saber",book:{id:"6940",type:"book",title:"e-Services",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"e-Services",slug:"e-services",publishedDate:"September 1st 2021",bookSignature:"Sam Goundar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6940.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-791-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-508-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-792-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"280395",title:"Dr.",name:"Sam",middleName:null,surname:"Goundar",slug:"sam-goundar",fullName:"Sam Goundar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"280395",title:"Dr.",name:"Sam",middleName:null,surname:"Goundar",fullName:"Sam Goundar",slug:"sam-goundar",email:"sam.goundar@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280395/images/system/280395.png",institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"309389",title:"Mr.",name:"Emmenual",middleName:"Vimlesh",surname:"Reddy",fullName:"Emmenual Reddy",slug:"emmenual-reddy",email:"reddy_e@usp.ac.fj",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of the South Pacific",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Fiji"}}},{id:"309390",title:"Mr.",name:"Reginald",middleName:null,surname:"Gani",fullName:"Reginald Gani",slug:"reginald-gani",email:"reginaldgani@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"309391",title:"Ms.",name:"Sharika",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Sharika Kumar",slug:"sharika-kumar",email:"kumarsharika@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"309392",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatemeh",middleName:null,surname:"Saber",fullName:"Fatemeh Saber",slug:"fatemeh-saber",email:"saberfa2002@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. 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Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"8. Future directions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Aziz H. The 5 keys to educational technology. The Journal—Transforming Education Through Technology. 2010 Available from: https://thejournal.com/articles/2010/09/16/the-5-keys-to-educational-technology.aspx [Retrieved: 20 21, 2018]'},{id:"B2",body:'Januszewski A, Molenda M. Educational Technology: A Definition with Commentary. New York and London: Routledge; 2013'},{id:"B3",body:'Kumar S, Daniel BK, Integration of learning technologies into teaching within Fijian Polytechnic Institutions. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education. 2016;13(1):36. Available from https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-016-0036-8'},{id:"B4",body:'Ghavifekr S, Rosdy WA. Teaching and learning with technology: Effectiveness of ICT integration in schools. International Journal of Research in Education and Science. 2015:176'},{id:"B5",body:'Domingo MG, Garganté AB. Exploring the use of educational technology in primary education: Teachers\' perception of mobile technology learning impacts and applications\' use in the classroom. Computers in Human Behavior. 2016;56:21-28'},{id:"B6",body:'Gosper MM, Pizzica JM, Ashford-Rowe K. Student use of technologies for learning—What has changed since 2010? In: Hegarty B, McDonald J, Loke S-K, editors. Proceedings of ASCILITE 2014. Dunedin: Australian Society for Computers in Tertiary Education; 2014. pp. 290-301'},{id:"B7",body:'Stosic L. The importance of educational technology in teaching. International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE). 2015;3(1)'},{id:"B8",body:'Ross SM, Morrison GR, Lowther DL. Educational technology research past and present: Balancing rigor and relevance to impact school learning. Contemporary Educational Technology. 2010;1(1):17-35 Available from: http://dergipark.gov.tr/cet/issue/25719/271396'},{id:"B9",body:'Selwyn N. Distrusting Educational Technology. New York: Routledge; 2013'},{id:"B10",body:'Office of Educational Technology. Reimagining the Role of Technology in Education. U.S. Department of Education; 2017'},{id:"B11",body:'Sang G, Valcke M, Van Braak J, Tondeur J. Student teachers’ thinking processes and ICT integration: Predictors of prospective teaching behaviors with educational technology. Computers & Education. 2010:103-112'},{id:"B12",body:'Simon J, Garcia-Belmar A. Education and textbooks. Technology and Culture. 2018:940-950'},{id:"B13",body:'Yadav N, Gupta K, Kethrapal V. Next education: Technology transforming education. South Asian Journal of Business and Management Cases. 2018:68-77'},{id:"B14",body:'Winthrop R, Williams T, McGiveny E. Innovating to unburden teachers. In: Education and Development. Washington, USA: Brookings Institution Press; 2016'},{id:"B15",body:'Hockly N, Gavin D. Current and future digital trends in ELT. RELC Journal. 2018:164-178'},{id:"B16",body:'Tondeur J, Roblin NP, Van Braak J, Voogt J, Prestridge S, Forkosh-Baruch A, et al. Effective approaches to prepare future teachers for educational technology use. In: Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference. Savannah, GA, United States: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE); 2016. pp. 3082-3085'},{id:"B17",body:'Lund A, Furberg A, Jonas B, Engelin KL. What does professional digital competence mean in teacher education? Universitetsforlaget Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy. 2014;9:281-299'},{id:"B18",body:'Blackburn G. My end is my beginning: Elearning at the crossroads. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology. 2016:87-97'},{id:"B19",body:'Darling-Aduana J, Heinrich CJ. The role of teacher capacity and instructional practice in the integration of educational technology for emergent bilingual students. Computers & Education. 2018;126:417-432'},{id:"B20",body:'Wu SP, Corr J, Rau M. How instructors frame students\' interactions with educational technologies can enhance or reduce learning with multiple representations. Computers & Education. 2019;128:199-213'},{id:"B21",body:'Shah T. Facilitator Technology for the Future Net. 2018. Digital Learning. Available from: http://ezproxy.usp.ac.fj/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.usp.ac.fj/docview/2047324208?accountid=28103 [Retrieved: August 17, 2018]'},{id:"B22",body:'Taylor II RP. The computer in school: Tutor, tool, tutee. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education; 2013'},{id:"B23",body:'Data Projections. 4 Different Types of Educational Technology Software Available. 2018. Available from: https://www.dataprojections.com/dp-blog/4-different-types-educational-technology-software-available/ [Retrieved: October 23, 2018]'},{id:"B24",body:'Modern Consumers. Types of Classroom Technologies. 2017. Available from: http://modernconsumers.com/types-classroom-technologies/ [Retrieved: October 23, 2018]'},{id:"B25",body:'Statistics How To. Convenience Sampling (Accidental Sampling). 2015. Available from: http://www.statisticshowto.com/convenience-sampling/ [Retrieved: October 24, 2018]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Reginald Gani",address:null,affiliation:'
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Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
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\n\t
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\n
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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secondary metabolites are having the great application in human health and nutritional aspect. Plant cell and organ culture systems are feasible option for the production of secondary metabolites that are of commercial importance in pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavors, and other industrial materials. The stress, including various elicitors or signal molecules, often induces the secondary metabolite production in the plant tissue culture system. The recent developments in elicitation of plant tissue culture have opened a new avenue for the production of secondary metabolite compounds. Secondary metabolite synthesis and accumulation in cell and organ cultures can be triggered by the application of elicitors to the culture medium. Elicitors are the chemical compounds from abiotic and biotic sources that can stimulate stress responses in plants, leading to the enhanced synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites or the induction of novel secondary metabolites. Elicitor type, dose, and treatment schedule are major factors determining the effects on the secondary metabolite production. The number of parameters, such as elicitor concentrations, duration of exposure, cell line, nutrient composition, and age or stage of the culture, is also important factors influencing the successful production of biomass and secondary metabolite accumulation. This chapter reviews the various abiotic and biotic elicitors applied to cultural system and their stimulating effects on the accumulation of secondary metabolites.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Poornananda M. Naik and Jameel M. Al–Khayri",authors:[{id:"176282",title:"Prof.",name:"Jameel M.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khayri",slug:"jameel-m.-al-khayri",fullName:"Jameel M. 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Due to advances in molecular approaches during the last decades, nowadays it is possible to develop economically important transgenic crops that have increased tolerance to stresses. This chapter discusses the oxidative stress and damage to plants. In addition, it reports the involvement of antioxidant enzymes in the tolerance of plants to various stresses.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Andréia Caverzan, Alice Casassola and Sandra Patussi Brammer",authors:[{id:"176303",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Casassola",slug:"alice-casassola",fullName:"Alice Casassola"},{id:"176409",title:"Dr.",name:"Andréia",middleName:null,surname:"Caverzan",slug:"andreia-caverzan",fullName:"Andréia Caverzan"},{id:"176410",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Patussi Brammer",slug:"sandra-patussi-brammer",fullName:"Sandra Patussi Brammer"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4174,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"63148",title:"Domestic Livestock and Its Alleged Role in Climate Change",slug:"domestic-livestock-and-its-alleged-role-in-climate-change",totalDownloads:15946,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is very old wisdom that climate dictates farm management strategies. In recent years, however, we are increasingly confronted with claims that agriculture, livestock husbandry, and even food consumption habits are forcing the climate to change. We subjected this worrisome concern expressed by public institutions, the media, policy makers, and even scientists to a rigorous review, cross-checking critical coherence and (in)compatibilities within and between published scientific papers. Our key conclusion is there is no need for anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and even less so for livestock-born emissions, to explain climate change. Climate has always been changing, and even the present warming is most likely driven by natural factors. The warming potential of anthropogenic GHG emissions has been exaggerated, and the beneficial impacts of manmade CO2 emissions for nature, agriculture, and global food security have been systematically suppressed, ignored, or at least downplayed by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and other UN (United Nations) agencies. Furthermore, we expose important methodological deficiencies in IPCC and FAO (Food Agriculture Organization) instructions and applications for the quantification of the manmade part of non-CO2-GHG emissions from agro-ecosystems. However, so far, these fatal errors inexorably propagated through scientific literature. Finally, we could not find a clear domestic livestock fingerprint, neither in the geographical methane distribution nor in the historical evolution of mean atmospheric methane concentration. In conclusion, everybody is free to choose a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, but there is no scientific basis, whatsoever, for claiming this decision could contribute to save the planet’s climate.",book:{id:"7491",slug:"forage-groups",title:"Forage Groups",fullTitle:"Forage Groups"},signatures:"Albrecht Glatzle",authors:[{id:"252990",title:"Dr.",name:"Albrecht",middleName:null,surname:"Glatzle",slug:"albrecht-glatzle",fullName:"Albrecht Glatzle"}]},{id:"66714",title:"Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Plants",slug:"biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-in-plants",totalDownloads:5911,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plants are subjected to a wide range of environmental stresses which reduces and limits the productivity of agricultural crops. Two types of environmental stresses are encountered to plants which can be categorized as (1) Abiotic stress and (2) Biotic stress. The abiotic stress causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide and includes radiation, salinity, floods, drought, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, etc. On the other hand, attacks by various pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, oomycetes, nematodes and herbivores are included in biotic stresses. As plants are sessile in nature, they have no choice to escape from these environmental cues. Plants have developed various mechanisms in order to overcome these threats of biotic and abiotic stresses. They sense the external stress environment, get stimulated and then generate appropriate cellular responses. They do this by stimuli received from the sensors located on the cell surface or cytoplasm and transferred to the transcriptional machinery situated in the nucleus, with the help of various signal transduction pathways. This leads to differential transcriptional changes making the plant tolerant against the stress. The signaling pathways act as a connecting link and play an important role between sensing the stress environment and generating an appropriate biochemical and physiological response.",book:{id:"8015",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants"},signatures:"Audil Gull, Ajaz Ahmad Lone and Noor Ul Islam Wani",authors:null},{id:"62573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7635,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:56,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"62876",title:"Introduction to Phytochemicals: Secondary Metabolites from Plants with Active Principles for Pharmacological Importance",slug:"introduction-to-phytochemicals-secondary-metabolites-from-plants-with-active-principles-for-pharmaco",totalDownloads:5894,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Phytochemicals are substances produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity. In the pharmaceutical industry, plants represent the main source to obtain various active ingredients. They exhibit pharmacological effects applicable to the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and also chronic-degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cancer. However, the next step in science is to find new ways to obtain it. In this chapter, we discuss about the main groups of phytochemicals, in addition to presenting two case studies. One of the most important secondary metabolites is currently Taxol, which is a natural compound of the taxoid family and is also known for its antitumor activity against cancer located in breasts, lungs, and prostate and is also effective with Kaposi’s sarcoma. Our case studies will be about Taxol, extracted from an unexplored plant species, and the production of Taxol by its endophytic fungi.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Nadia Mendoza and Eleazar M. Escamilla Silva",authors:[{id:"51406",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleazar",middleName:"Máximo",surname:"Escamilla Silva",slug:"eleazar-escamilla-silva",fullName:"Eleazar Escamilla Silva"},{id:"243304",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"nadia-mendoza",fullName:"Nadia Mendoza"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"41",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82159",title:"Chlorophyll and Its Role in Freshwater Ecosystem on the Example of the Volga River Reservoirs",slug:"chlorophyll-and-its-role-in-freshwater-ecosystem-on-the-example-of-the-volga-river-reservoirs",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105424",abstract:"The present chapter has the aim to considerate the most significant aspects of chlorophyll (Chl) applications in the ecological study of fresh waters on the example of the Volga River reservoirs. Throughout the cascade of seven large reservoirs, Chl varied in wide range from 2.5–9 to over 100 μg/L with mean values of 16.5–41.2, 6.7–44.0, and 3.6–10.6 μg/L in the Upper, Middle, and Lower Volga, respectively. Mean Chl values that constantly decrease from the Upper Volga to Lower Volga, characterize Ivankovo, Uglich, and Cheboksary reservoirs as eutrophic, Saratov and Volgograd reservoirs as mesotrophic, while Gorky and Kuibyshev reservoirs in some years are mesotrophic or eutrophic. Chl seasonal dynamics in the Rybinsk reservoir that is dynamics of phytoplankton biomass, is characterized by spring, summer, and, in some years, autumn maxima. Water temperature and water regime of the reservoir are the main factors in Chl dynamics. Years with low-water conditions are favorable for the high Chl concentrations and intensive development of algae. Seasonally average Chl that make from 5 to 22 μg/L during 1969–2019, show variations in trophic state of reservoir from mesotrophic (Chl < 10 μg/L), to moderately eutrophic (10–15 μg/L), and eutrophic (15–22 μg/L).",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Natalya Mineeva"},{id:"82027",title:"Underutilized Grasses Production: New Evolving Perspectives",slug:"underutilized-grasses-production-new-evolving-perspectives",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105375",abstract:"Globally, over-reliance on major food crops (wheat, rice and maize) has led to food basket’s shrinking, while climate change, environmental pollution and deteriorating soil fertility demand the cultivation of less exhaustive but nutritious grasses. Unlike neglected grasses (grass species restricted to their centres of origin and only grown at the subsistence level), many underutilized grasses (grass species whose yield or usability potential remains unrealized) are resistant and resilient to abiotic stresses and have multiple uses including food (Coix lacryma-jobi), feed (Eragrostis amabilis and Cynodon dactylon), esthetic value (Miscanthus sinensis and Imperata cylindrica), renewable energy production (Spartina pectinata and Andropogon gerardii Vitman) and contribution to ecosystem services (Saccharum spontaneum). Lack of agricultural market globalization, urbanization and prevalence of large commercial enterprises that favor major grasses trade, improved communication means that promoted specialization in favor of established crops, scant planting material of underutilized grasses and fewer research on their production technology and products development are the prime challenges posed to underutilized grasses promotion. Integration of agronomic research with novel plant protection measures and plant breeding and molecular genetics approaches for developing biotic and abiotic stresses tolerant cultivars along with the development of commercially attractive food products hold the future key for promoting underutilized grasses for supplanting food security and sustainably multiplying economic outcomes.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Sadaf Khalid, Raees Ahmed, Muhammad Zubair Khan, Nagina Rafique, Raina Ijaz, Saira Ishaq, Muhammad Jamil, Aqeel Ahmad, Amjad Shahzad Gondal, Muhammad Imran, Junaid Rahim and Umar Ayaz Aslam Sheikh"},{id:"81218",title:"Murburn Model of Photosynthesis: Effect of Additives like Chloride and Bicarbonate",slug:"murburn-model-of-photosynthesis-effect-of-additives-like-chloride-and-bicarbonate",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:2,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103132",abstract:"Oxygenic photosynthesis essentially involves photo-lysis (splitting of water to release oxygen), photo-reduction (formation of NADPH), and photo-phosphorylation (synthesis of ATP) reactions. These reactions use photoactive pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids. Z-scheme and Kok-Joliot cycle, the acclaimed and deterministic model of photosynthesis, are founded on the classical enzyme reaction mechanisms that depend solely on affinity-based interactions of enzymes with the substrates at defined active sites, for explaining electron/moiety transfers. In contrast, the new murburn model is built on stochastic collisions between diffusible reactive species (DRS) and other milieu components (including enzymes, substrates and ions). This novel perspective explains fast kinetics and action spectrum, and affords a spontaneously probable/evolvable biochemical system. The murburn perspective proposes that the photo-excitation of pigments in the chloroplast leads to effective charge separation and DRS-formation. DRS are stabilized/utilized by a pool of redox-active components via disordered/parallel bimolecular interactions at the thylakoid membrane interface. Herein, we provide details of how murburn model is a thermodynamically, kinetically, and mechanistically viable mechanism for the formation of ATP, NADPH and oxygen. The murburn model also provides more viable explanations for several classical experimental observations in photosynthesis (Emerson enhancement effect, Jagendorf/Racker experiments, etc.) and the non-specific effects of diverse additives (such as chloride and bicarbonate).",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Kelath Murali Manoj, Nikolai Bazhin, Yanyou Wu and Afsal Manekkathodi"},{id:"81388",title:"Electronic Structure of Chlorophyll Monomers and Oligomers",slug:"electronic-structure-of-chlorophyll-monomers-and-oligomers",totalDownloads:40,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104089",abstract:"This chapter deals with the electronic structure of chlorophyll molecules and their complexes. Different theoretical and quantum chemical calculation methods are used to study the molecular and electronic structure of chlorophylls. Studied spectral region covers ultraviolet and infrared spectral regions, containing blue side of the Soret band, as also traditional Qy band region. Thus, there are not only focusing on the traditional Qy, Qx, and Soret transitions of chlorophylls but also high-energy transitions (in this region also proteins and nuclei acids absorb light). The aim is to show the effect of molecular conformation on the electronic states and thus on the absorption and emission spectra of monomers and oligomers. In chlorophyll-protein complexes, such conformation effect finetuning the spectral transitions and increases overlap between donor and acceptor states of energy transfer processes. Also, the role of vibronic transition in the shape of absorption and emission spectra of the studied systems will be considered.",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Juha Matti Linnanto"},{id:"81038",title:"Earth’s Energy Budget Impact on Grassland Diseases",slug:"earth-s-energy-budget-impact-on-grassland-diseases",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99971",abstract:"The change in climate have caused different biotic and abiotic factors to be more prominent when management plan is executed. The increase in temperature have then cause frequent drought that may attract alien species of vectors to spread novel diseases among the native plants. However, the change in climate varies in different countries. Thus, common diseases that threatens food security such as Xanthomonas spp., Pseudomonas spp are in limelight of research. Vectors lifecycle may cause plant diseases to by cyclative. Therefore, to find the break in the vector’s lifecycle will be a method to eradicate harmful population in grassland. Modern days will then call for innovative method and limitations should be considered. Climate change have also impacted pathogens migration and mating pattern. The need for innovative management is constantly on the rise.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Ang Jia Wei Germaine"},{id:"81107",title:"Can Genus Trichoderma Manage Plant Diseases under Organic Agriculture?",slug:"can-genus-trichoderma-manage-plant-diseases-under-organic-agriculture",totalDownloads:95,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103762",abstract:"Organic agriculture has been coming up as one of the promising segments of crop production systems in India. There are numerous reasons for it, however; human health, sustainable environment, soil health, etc. are the important ones. As per the latest information, India has about 1.5% of total cultivable land under organic agriculture. The occurrence of plant diseases in this crop production system is one of the limiting factors. For the management of plant diseases in organically grown crops, there are limited resources since there is a restriction on the use of synthetic fungicides. Under such a situation, bio-pesticides have the potency to take care of plant diseases. Although there are certain fungal and bacterial candidates well efficient in controlling diseases, genus Trichoderma has occupied a prestigious position among them. It is capable of managing seed and soil-borne plant diseases. Presently it is available in wettable powder (WP) and liquid formulations in variable concentrations for the application.",book:{id:"11317",title:"Trichoderma - Technology and Uses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11317.jpg"},signatures:"Kishor Chand Kumhar, Dalvinder Pal Singh and Anil Kumar"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:15},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",keywords:"Water, Water Resources, Freshwater, Hydrological Processes, Utilization, Protection"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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