Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6994",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Tea - Chemistry and Pharmacology",title:"Tea",subtitle:"Chemistry and Pharmacology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book addresses in a succinct way some of the state-of-the-art studies on the chemistry and pharmacology of teas. It starts with some of the reasons why tea is called the elixir of life, and looks at the world consumption of tea and its role in many western and eastern cultures. The book proceeds with a systematic study that establishes the predominant compositions of different types of tea. The effects of tea constituents on health are discussed, and a final chapter discusses some of the potential applications of tea in the food industry.",isbn:"978-1-83880-618-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-607-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-619-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73746",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"tea-chemistry-and-pharmacology",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e6241cd52834161ac64d4a7b2a812796",bookSignature:"Gonçalo Justino",publishedDate:"May 27th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6994.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6901,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 14th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 16th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 15th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"76687",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonçalo",middleName:null,surname:"Justino",slug:"goncalo-justino",fullName:"Gonçalo Justino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76687/images/system/76687.jpg",biography:"Gonçalo Justino is a research fellow at CQE/IST, Portugal. He holds a PhD in Clinical and Pharmaceutical Biochemistry from the University of Lisbon. His research interests are focused on the metabolism and health impact of flavonoids, the structural characterization techniques applied, and more recently the application of computational techniques in protein structure and drug design targeting human diseases.",institutionString:"Universidade de Lisboa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"991",title:"Herbalism",slug:"herbalism"}],chapters:[{id:"70751",title:"Introductory Chapter: Tea - Chemistry and Pharmacology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90838",slug:"introductory-chapter-tea-chemistry-and-pharmacology",totalDownloads:628,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gonçalo Justino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70751",authors:[{id:"76687",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonçalo",surname:"Justino",slug:"goncalo-justino",fullName:"Gonçalo Justino"}],corrections:null},{id:"64041",title:"Tea Is an Elixer of Life",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81591",slug:"tea-is-an-elixer-of-life",totalDownloads:678,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Green tea is a commonly consumed beverage in the world and it is a rich source of polyphenolic compounds, which are known as the tea flavonoids. Polyphenolic compounds are effective against oxidative damage in various pathological conditions. Many herbal medicines are used in traditional medicine for their protective and therapeutic properties against various diseases. Among their bioactive components, tea catechins have been found to be active against all kind of diseases including cancer. Extensive report is available that green tea displays a wide range of healthy properties, such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and chemopreventors against reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. This review aims to critically analyze the available literature regarding the effects of green tea or tea catechins with special emphasis on its phytoremediation against various health disorders elicited by different chemical compounds. Overall, data in literature show tea catechins appear to be a promising elixir to recover the illness of human beings.",signatures:"Tamilselvan Hema, Mathan Ramesh, Selvaraj Miltonprabu and Shanmugam Thangapandiyan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64041",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64041",authors:[{id:"69905",title:"Dr.",name:"Milton",surname:"Prabu",slug:"milton-prabu",fullName:"Milton Prabu"},{id:"206812",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathan",surname:"Ramesh",slug:"mathan-ramesh",fullName:"Mathan Ramesh"},{id:"256293",title:"Dr.",name:"Thangapandiyan",surname:"Shanmugam",slug:"thangapandiyan-shanmugam",fullName:"Thangapandiyan Shanmugam"},{id:"268161",title:"Ms.",name:"Hema",surname:"T",slug:"hema-t",fullName:"Hema T"}],corrections:null},{id:"64147",title:"Remedial Effects of Tea and Its Phytoconstituents on Central Nervous System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81521",slug:"remedial-effects-of-tea-and-its-phytoconstituents-on-central-nervous-system",totalDownloads:649,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tea in all its forms is one of the commonly consumed beverages globally, after water. Apart from just being a beverage, it also has extensive therapeutic values. The phytoconstituents of tea either in their pure form or as an extract are essential part of traditional as well as modern day medicines. Tea has shown its medicinal benefits in treating, improving and preventing many of the ailments ranging from being potential antimicrobial, antioxidant agent to being central nervous system (CNS) stimulants. This chapter focuses specifically on physiological impacts that each of its constituents have over our nervous system like role of L-theanine to enhance dopamine and serotonin levels, theobromine, and theophylline for stimulating CNS, caffeine to inhibit adenosine receptors, hence, causing increase in brain activity etc. along with many more neuroprotective properties of tea constituents.",signatures:"Manisha Singh, Vandana Tyagi and Shriya Agarwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64147",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64147",authors:[{id:"258955",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",surname:"Singh",slug:"manisha-singh",fullName:"Manisha Singh"},{id:"270775",title:"Ms.",name:"Vandana",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"vandana-tyagi",fullName:"Vandana Tyagi"},{id:"270776",title:"Ms.",name:"Shriya",surname:"Aggarwal",slug:"shriya-aggarwal",fullName:"Shriya Aggarwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"63614",title:"Tea and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80998",slug:"tea-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:740,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Tea consumption as a beverage is very common in various parts of the world. It has attained a worldwide liking and measure of social status in many parts. Tea contains various chemicals which have positive effects on health from heart to skin. It has been associated with the cure of aging to potent anticancer agent also. Considering these facts an attempt was made to establish a relation between tea and oral health. Tea has its effects on oral microorganisms, anticariogenic properties, and reduction of gingivitis as well as periodontitis. A cup of tea immediately after lunch had reduced dental caries in children and rinsing with 0.2% Chinese green tea decreased plaque and the gingival index significantly. Tea has been found to be effective against oral cancer, precancerous lesions and conditions as well. Hence tea has been rightly said as a functional food for health. Green tea has shown to have bactericidal effects on Porphyromonas gingivalis and Prevotella species. The gingival inflammation is reduced and a marked reduction in pocket size has been noticed. Tea selectively induces p57 and apoptosis as well as inhibits the growth and invasion of oral carcinoma.",signatures:"Aswini Y. Balappanavar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63614",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63614",authors:[{id:"250405",title:"Dr.",name:"Y.B.",surname:"Aswini",slug:"y.b.-aswini",fullName:"Y.B. Aswini"}],corrections:null},{id:"70109",title:"Black Tea: Chemical and Pharmacological Appraisal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90114",slug:"black-tea-chemical-and-pharmacological-appraisal",totalDownloads:665,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Medicinal plants are gaining popularity as folk medicine due to future demand to get rid of synthetic health promoting medicines. Nowadays, black tea is gaining interest as the most frequently consumed therapeutic drink after the water. The importance of black tea is due to existence of flavonoids such as (Thearubigins (TRs) and theaflavins (TFs) and catechins) that are the main therapeutic agents and are more bio-direct and stable compounds compared to those exist in other herbal plants alongside some other promising compounds which enhance is credentials as therapeutic drug. Numerous scientific explorations have elucidated the biological worth of these bioactive moieties against plethora of ailments with special reference to metabolic disorder. The mandate of current chapter is to discuss the black tea chemistry for elucidating its pharmacological worth.",signatures:"Ali Imran, Muhammad Umair Arshad, Ghulam Hussain, Rabia Shabir Ahmed, Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad, Bilal Rasool, Muhammad Imran, Qasim Ali, Jazia Naseem, Darosham Sohail, Sara Ishtiaq, Neelam Faiza, Usman Naeem, Muhammad Asif Khan and Muhammad Shahbaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70109",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70109",authors:[{id:"235082",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Imran",slug:"ali-imran",fullName:"Ali Imran"},{id:"239057",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia Shabir",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rabia-shabir-ahmad",fullName:"Rabia Shabir Ahmad"},{id:"244012",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Umair",surname:"Arshad",slug:"muhammad-umair-arshad",fullName:"Muhammad Umair Arshad"},{id:"244014",title:"Ms.",name:"Neelam",surname:"Faiza",slug:"neelam-faiza",fullName:"Neelam Faiza"},{id:"292144",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",surname:"Hussain",slug:"ghulam-hussain",fullName:"Ghulam Hussain"},{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad"},{id:"292146",title:"Dr.",name:"Qasim",surname:"Ali",slug:"qasim-ali",fullName:"Qasim Ali"},{id:"292148",title:"Dr.",name:"Jazia",surname:"Naseem",slug:"jazia-naseem",fullName:"Jazia Naseem"},{id:"292151",title:"Mr.",name:"Usman",surname:"Naeem",slug:"usman-naeem",fullName:"Usman Naeem"},{id:"292153",title:"Ms.",name:"Darosham",surname:"Sohail",slug:"darosham-sohail",fullName:"Darosham Sohail"},{id:"306496",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",surname:"Rasool",slug:"bilal-rasool",fullName:"Bilal Rasool"},{id:"309546",title:"Ms.",name:"Sara",surname:"Ishtiaq",slug:"sara-ishtiaq",fullName:"Sara Ishtiaq"}],corrections:null},{id:"71942",title:"Azerbaijan Tea (Camellia sinensis L.): Chemical Components, Pharmacology and the Dynamics of the Amino Acids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92190",slug:"azerbaijan-tea-em-camellia-sinensis-em-l-chemical-components-pharmacology-and-the-dynamics-of-the-am",totalDownloads:600,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The carried out researches show that tea (Camellia sinensis L.) is the most unique and complex plant for its chemical component. The ingredients in the component of tea have a physiological activity and could be used in the treatment and prophylactics of a number of diseases. The obtained results prove that the new aspects of the utilization of tea could be used in the prophylactics of a number of pathological processes. Taking into consideration the extraordinary biological activity of amino acids in the component of tea and its effects on human body, the amino acids and their dynamics in the component of green tea leaves which was grown and processed in Lankaran-Astara region have been studied. It has been basis of total quantity determined that tea extractives contain 16 amino acids, including irreplaceable amino acids. Theanine contains the basis of the total quantity of amino acids. The highest of theanine was observed in the tea varieties of Azerbaijan-4 (16.90 ± 0.46) and the least quantity in Azerchay brand (9.96 ± 0.35). Theanine quantity is 41.3% of the total amino acids in the content of the tea-Azerbaijan-1 grade, and contains 38.8% of amino acids in Kolkhida variety.",signatures:"Mikayil Akbar Maharramov, Muhendis Mammadhuseyn Jahangirov and Sevinc Ismail Maharramova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71942",authors:[{id:"313501",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikail",surname:"Maharramov",slug:"mikail-maharramov",fullName:"Mikail Maharramov"},{id:"313502",title:"MSc.",name:"Muhendis",surname:"Jahangirov",slug:"muhendis-jahangirov",fullName:"Muhendis Jahangirov"},{id:"317209",title:"Dr.",name:"Sevinc",surname:"Maharramova",slug:"sevinc-maharramova",fullName:"Sevinc Maharramova"}],corrections:null},{id:"63830",title:"Elemental Classification of Tea Leaves Infusions: Principal Component, Cluster and Meta-analyses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81379",slug:"elemental-classification-of-tea-leaves-infusions-principal-component-cluster-and-meta-analyses",totalDownloads:928,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The elemental analysis of 11 teas consumed in Turkey is clustered by principal component analyses (PCAs) of metals and plant cluster analyses (CAs), which agree. Samples group into four classes. Elemental PCA and tea CA allow classifying them and concur. The first PCA axis explains 45%; the first two, 71%; the first three, 85% variance; etc. Different behaviours of teas depend on Cu, etc. They are considered as a good source of Mn, etc. Two elemental classes are distinguished: Cu-K-Mn and Fe-Na-Zn. Teas present adequate elemental contents, good antioxidant capacity and may be used as a functional beverage. They represent plants useful as a natural source for nutraceutical formulations.",signatures:"Francisco Torrens and Gloria Castellano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63830",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63830",authors:[{id:"198272",title:"Prof.",name:"Gloria",surname:"Castellano",slug:"gloria-castellano",fullName:"Gloria Castellano"},{id:"269573",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Torrens",slug:"francisco-torrens",fullName:"Francisco Torrens"}],corrections:null},{id:"64102",title:"QSPR Prediction of Chromatographic Retention Times of Tea Compounds by Bioplastic Evolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81735",slug:"qspr-prediction-of-chromatographic-retention-times-of-tea-compounds-by-bioplastic-evolution",totalDownloads:648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Structure-property relationships model the ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatographic retention times of tea compounds. Bioplastic evolution presents a viewpoint in evolutionary science. It conjugates the result of acquired characters and associations rising between three rules: evolutionary indeterminacy, morphological determination, and natural selection. It is used to propose the co-ordination index, which is utilized to describe the retentions of tea constituents. In molecules, three properties allow computing the co-ordination descriptor: the molar formation enthalpy, molecular weight, and surface area. The result of dissimilar kinds of characteristics is examined: thermodynamic, steric, geometric, lipophilic, etc. The features are molar formation enthalpy, molecular weight, hydrophobic solvent-accessible surface area, decimal logarithm of the 1-octanol/water partition coefficient, etc. in linear and quadratic associations. The formation enthalpy, molecular weight, hydrophobic surface, partition, etc. differentiate the molecular structures of tea components. Feeble quadratic associations result between partition, hydrophobic surface and retention. The morphological and co-ordination descriptors complete the associations.",signatures:"Francisco Torrens and Gloria Castellano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64102",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64102",authors:[{id:"198272",title:"Prof.",name:"Gloria",surname:"Castellano",slug:"gloria-castellano",fullName:"Gloria Castellano"},{id:"198271",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Torrens",slug:"francisco-torrens",fullName:"Francisco Torrens"}],corrections:null},{id:"67461",title:"Tea Polyphenols Chemistry for Pharmaceutical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81370",slug:"tea-polyphenols-chemistry-for-pharmaceutical-applications",totalDownloads:1367,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Tea is one of the most ancient popular beverages and extensively used dietary supplement in the western world. Tea leaves are rich in polyphenols and also well known for its antioxidant properties. In addition, green tea extract contains several polyphenols with antioxidant compounds. The predominant effective antioxidant components are epigallocatechin 3-gallate and epicatechin 3-gallate (monomers). Tea polyphenols have an additional role to induce aroma and taste in beverages. Furthermore, tea polyphenols have multiple applications in food industry and biomedical applications. This chapter will summarise the origin of tea leaves and its beneficial account on antioxidant, food industry (meat products, plant products and fish products) and therapeutic applications against many diseases such as lowering of blood pressure, diabetes, Parkinson’s disease and anticancer properties. Mainly tea polyphenols have potential to inhibit the cancer proliferation of skin, prostate, lung and breast cancer.",signatures:"Ponnusamy Ponmurugan, Shivaji Kavitha, Mani Suganya and Balasubramanian Mythili Gnanamangai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67461",authors:[{id:"251331",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ponnusamy",surname:"Ponmurugan",slug:"ponnusamy-ponmurugan",fullName:"Ponnusamy Ponmurugan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5828",title:"Flavonoids",subtitle:"From Biosynthesis to Human Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"118536a8dd1dffe12dd10db4179ed101",slug:"flavonoids-from-biosynthesis-to-human-health",bookSignature:"Goncalo C. 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1. Introduction
It has been said that the central nervous system (CNS) is the most complex among the fetal and adult systems. This is one of the most common sites of congenital malformation, both in fetuses with and without chromosomal abnormality. It is extremely difficult to diagnose structural abnormalities or mild ultrasound (US) abnormalities that have been linked to major functional problems. Just the opposite, major anatomic defects may not lead to significant malfunctioning of the system. It is extremely important to study the structure, in an attempt to understand the function of the normal and abnormal fetal central nervous system [1, 2]. The detection of CNS anomalies in fetal life is feasible using modern ultrasound equipment. Many anomalies of the central nervous system develop early, and nowadays, we have the tools to detect some conditions at 11–13 weeks [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8] or even earlier. The first-trimester detection of CNS anomalies is probably the most important advance in modern sonoembriology. Later in pregnancy, neurosonography is a powerful tool in diagnosing CNS pathology.
The following chapter is structured as follows:
Normal findings
Ventricular system (ventriculomegaly, aqueduct stenosis)
Some intracranial segments of CNS are seen on ultrasound extremely early in development, especially when using high-resolution probes and modern electronic tools. Although many features are indeed recognizable, the clinical utility of such studies is yet to be proven (Figures 1–3).
Figure 1.
Dating ultrasound scan at 8 weeks of amenorrhea (WA) and 3 days (d). Volumetric ultrasound: sectional planes in the multiplanar mode (a). Subsequently, OmniView facility was used, the line mode (b, c, and d). The embryonic central nervous primitive vesicles can be observed.
Figure 2.
The same case, at 10 WA 1d. The same technique was used, after acquiring a static 3D volume.
Figure 3.
The same case, at 10 WA 1d. The region of interest is placed inside the head, and HD (high-definition) inversion mode surface rendering is applied. This imaging technique acts like a matrix, or a “mold,” bringing forth fluid-filled cavities: the early ventricular system.
In the late first trimester, current guidelines recommend checking for present cranial bones, for normal midline falx, and for the presence of choroid plexus and filled ventricles [9]. The most recommended planes for assessing the head anatomy are the axial ones. In terms of spine assessment, the guidelines state that “longitudinal and axial views should be obtained to show normal vertebral alignment and integrity, and an attempt should be made to show intact overlying skin” [9] (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
The thalamic plane (a and b), the third ventricle plane (c), and the longitudinal image of the spine, in a prone position (d). In b, the head biometry is represented (measurement of BPD and HC).
From the early second trimester onwards, the commendation is to obtain in standard assessment three standard axial planes (transventricular, transthalamic, and transcerebellar), and, if technically feasible, the fetal profile [10] (Figures 5 and 6).
Figure 5.
The thalamic plane.
Figure 6.
The biventricular (transventricular) and the transcerebellar plane.
The measurements for fetal head biometry (the biparietal diameter—BPD and the head circumference—HC) are possible when using the transventricular (biventricular) and the transthalamic plane. In the most commonly used technique, the calipers are placed from the outer edge to the inner edge (the “leading edge” technique), at the widest part of the skull, using a perpendicular angle to the midline falx. The HC is measured on the external contour. The cranial bones describe on axial planes a regular ovoid shape. The midline must be continuous, having no deviations, and the intracranial structures must be symmetrical, mirroring each other’s half. Usually, the proximal hemisphere to the probe has a lower visibility, and only the distal one is described by the operator. On the transthalamic plane, the anatomic landmarks are (from anterior to posterior) the frontal horns of the lateral ventricles (LVs), the cavum septi pellucidi (CSP), located between them as a fluid-filled structure, the two thalami (resembling together a “heart image”), the third ventricle between them, and the hippocampal gyrus. The biventricular plane is found just above the previous one and allows the visualization of the lateral ventricles, with the choroid plexus inside them. The width of the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle must be measured using the exact mark of the parieto-occipital sulcus, inside the echoes generated by the ventricular walls, by a direction aligned perpendicularly to the long axis of the ventricle. Before 25 WA, the measurement must be smaller than 8 mm. The transcerebellar plane is obtained just below the transthalamic one, in an oblique fashion. The slight posterior tilting allows the visualization of the frontal horns of the lateral ventricles, CSP, thalami, cerebellum, and cisterna magna [1, 10]. The transversal diameter of the cerebellum (in mm) equals roughly the gestational age (in weeks). In the second half of gestation, the depth of the cisterna magna (measured between the cerebellar vermis and the intern margin of the occipital bone) is stable and should not exceed 10 mm.
The neurosonogram implies obtaining four more coronal planes and three sagittal/parasagittal planes and assessing the evolving cerebral fissures, gyrations, and circumvolutions [1]. The coronal planes are displayed in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
The transfrontal plane (the frontal-2), the transcaudate plane (mid-coronal-1), the transthalamic plane (mid-coronal-2), and the transcerebellar plane (occipital-1 and 2).
The transfrontal plane is obtained through the anterior fontanelle. The interhemispheric fissure (IEF) in the median plane and the anterior horns of the lateral ventricles on both sides can be seen. This plane passes anterior to the genu of the corpus callosum (CC), and this is why the IEF appears uninterrupted. The transcaudate plane passes at the level of caudate nuclei and the genu of the CC. It interrupts the continuity of the IEF. CSP appears as an anechogenic triangular structure under the CC. Lateral ventricles are seen, surrounded by the cortex. Also, the Sylvian fissures may be identified, laterally. In the transthalamic plane, the thalami are seen adjoining. In some cases, the third ventricle is seen in the median plane. In this plane, at the base of the skull, the vessels of the circle of Willis and the optic chiasma may be recognized. The transcerebellar plane is obtained through the posterior fontanelle. The occipital horns of the LV and IEF are seen, also the cerebellar hemispheres and the vermis.
The antero-posterior planes are displayed in Figures 8 and 9.
Figure 8.
The sagittal plane. The corpus callosum is highlighted in the middle image.
Figure 9.
The sagittal plane with HD flow applied, displaying the pericallosal artery (a), the measurement of the nasal bone and the fronto-maxillary facial angle, and the parasagittal or oblique plane-1 (c).
In the midsagittal (median) plane, all components of the CC (rostrum, genu, body, splenium) may be seen. Also, the CSP, the brain stem, pons, vermis, and posterior fossa. The parasagittal planes (right and left) depict the entire LV, the choroid plexus, the periventricular tissue, and the cortex.
2.1. The spine
In the sagittal and parasagittal planes, the ossification centers of the vertebral body and posterior arches form two parallel lines that converge in the sacrum, in the prone position of the fetus. Efforts must be made to demonstrate the integrity of the overlying skin.
In the second and third trimesters, these planes allow imaging of the spinal canal and of the spinal cord within it. The conus medullaris is usually found at the level of L2–L3 vertebrae (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
The imaging of the spine and the distal region of the spinal canal. Axial thoracic vertebrae.
In transverse planes or axial planes, the vertebrae have different shapes at different levels [1]. Fetal thoracic and lumbar vertebrae have a triangular shape, the first cervical vertebrae are quadrangular in shape, and sacral vertebrae are flat.
The normalcy of the vertebrae and ribs’ arches may be very easily demonstrated in the coronal plane, using the 3D technique, skeletal mode. Both can be readily numbered (Figure 11).
Figure 11.
Imaging the spine in the coronal plane. In left image, a supernumerary lumbar rib case is shown.
In the prenatal scanning, many normal and abnormal structures may vary and evolve intensively. Thus, using descriptive terms is advisable. The observer may use a thorough detailed depiction of the visualized structures and features, may note the absent normal structure/structures, and may signalize an abnormal structure. This approach is preferred to issuing a specific diagnosis.
3. Abnormalities of the ventricular system
Ventriculomegaly is the most frequent abnormal CNS finding diagnosed in utero and is the most common indication for second-level neurosonography and fetal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [11].
Establishing its class of severity is based on the width of the atrium of the lateral ventricle measurement: ventriculomegaly is considered to be mild when the atrial width is 10–12 mm, moderate between12 and 15 mm, and severe if larger than 15 mm.
In rare cases, ventriculomegaly is accessible in early pregnancy (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Early ventriculomegaly cases.
Yet, this is usually a second- and third-trimester diagnosis. The prevalence of mild ventriculomegaly, based on current criteria, is estimated to be around 0.7% [12]. The finding of ventriculomegaly should trigger a thorough analysis of the fetal brain to investigate all associations (malformative, clastic, tumoral, and syndromic). If no underlying pathophysiology and etiology are found, ventriculomegaly is referred to as “isolated.” Melchiorre et al. [13] demonstrated the particularly difficult counseling in such cases. Aqueductal stenosis is the most common cause of ventriculomegaly and its extreme form—fetal hydrocephalus. Published studies of neonates with aqueductal stenosis have noted variable outcomes, with normal development seen in 24–86% of cases [14] (Figures 13–15).
Figure 13.
Severe obstructive ventriculomegaly, with unknown origin. Pathologic differentiation of diencephalon and mesencephalon. Conventional necropsy confirms the enlarged ventricles. Microscopy: marked astrocyte cell line proliferation, neuronal migration defects, and cortical fibrosis (stained with hematoxylin and eosin, ob. 40×).
Figure 14.
Different cases of unilateral borderline isolate ventriculomegaly, symmetric, and asymmetric.
Figure 15.
Twin monochorionic diamniotic pregnancy, with discordant major SNC anomaly: severe ventriculomegaly due to aqueductal stenosis. The images display comparatively the same planes: the transthalamic (a) and transcerebellar plane (b), the fetal profile (c) at 17 WA. The transthalamic plane at 25 WA (d). The long-term evolution of fetus B was favorable (after ventriculo-peritoneal shunt).
4. Neural tube defects
Neural tube defects (NTDs) are a frequent group of severe anomalies of the central nervous system. The most frequent conditions are anencephaly, spina bifida, and cephalocele [15]. The open NTDs occur as a result of a primary failure of the neural tube closure between the 17th and 30th postfertilization days. They have a rather stable prevalence. This highlights the importance of primary prevention by folic acid supplementation and the paramount meaning of accurate prenatal diagnosis. In rare cases, some forms of NTDs may be recognized very early in pregnancy (Figure 16).
Figure 16.
Early embryonic demise, in a case of suspected exencephaly.
Yet, the vast majority of cases are approached in the late first trimester (11–13 WA), due to the fact that the role of this scan has evolved [5, 7, 8, 16, 17, 18]. The technique has grown, no longer being a screening for aneuploidy tool [19, 20, 21, 22]—but a method to almost assess the complete fetal anatomy. This became the first anomaly scan in many units [4, 5, 18, 23, 24, 25].
In terms of central nervous system, the newest area of debate is the significance of posterior fossa ultrasound semiology. At 11–14 weeks of gestation, it is possible to visualize and measure many spaces in the posterior brain: the brainstem (BS), the fourth ventricle or intracranial translucency (IT), and the cisterna magna (CM). In some settings, such anatomical spaces are assessed routinely by ultrasound in parasagittal or oblique views of the fetal face, as part of the nuchal translucency (NT) scan [26, 27]. Abnormalities of the posterior brain spaces or deviations of their measurements have been proposed as markers of congenital malformations of the posterior fossa [26, 27, 28, 29]. Subsequently, the correlation between the decreased amount of intracranial fluid and open spina bifida (OSB) has been established [16, 30]. More recently, it has been suggested that increased fluid may indicate the presence of cystic posterior fossa anomalies such as Dandy-Walker malformation (DWM) and Blake’s pouch cyst (BPC) [31, 32, 33, 34, 35].
Also, the axial planes offer many indirect signs of OSB and have competed with the sagittal planes in the efficacy of first-trimester screening for OSB [36, 37, 38]. It seems that in experienced hands, OSB may reach 100% early detection rates, being reliably diagnosed at 11–14 weeks of screening [39].
In our view, both sagittal and axial planes of the fetal head may be used in OSB screening, depending on the operator’s skills and the equipment used. Also, the small BPD may be useful [40, 41].
2D planes and markers for fetal central nervous system (CNS) morphologic assessment at the first-trimester ultrasound scan are shown in Figure 17: left column, a normal fetus; right column, isolated OSB fetus.
Figure 17.
The transthalamic view of cranium in a normal (left) and an OSB case (right).
In the thalamic plane, the regularity of the skull and the bone ossification should be assessed. Also, measurements may be performed: the biparietal diameter (BPD), the head circumference (HC), and optional—the occipito-frontal diameter (OFD). Thalamus, the third ventricle (red arrow), and symmetry of the intracranial structures may be subjectively assessed. In this plane, the “crash sign” may be subjectively evaluated (the aqueduct of Sylvius position) or the distance between this feature and the occipital bone may be measured (the aqueduct—indicated by the blue quadrant, and mesencephalon—normal by the yellow contour and pathologic by the red contour).
In the lateral third-ventricle plane, aside from the regularity of the skull and the bone ossification assessment, the following structures should be visualized: the midline falx echo, the choroid plexuses, the interhemispheric fissure, the posterior horns of the lateral ventricles (LVs), the lateral walls of the anterior horns of the LV, and the thin brain mantle. In this plane, the “dry brain phenomenon” is usually present in OSB cases: the subjective large choroid plexus for the skull (Figure 18).
Figure 18.
The sagittal plane of cranium in a normal (left) and an OSB case (right).
In the sagittal plane (often called the mid-sagittal plane), many CNS structures may be identified and measured: the thalamus (T), the brain stem (BS), the medulla oblongata (MO), the midbrain (M), and the future cisterna magna (CM). In OSB cases, some mild signs may be found: the alteration of the BS (brainstem diameter)/BSOS (brainstem to occipital bone diameter) ratio and the decreased frontomaxillary facial (FMF) angle. The most valuable in screening seems to be the alteration of the cisterna magna (Figure 19).
Figure 19.
Rachischisis. Medical termination of pregnancy at 16 WA. 3D ultrasound in a surface-rendering mode (a), pathologic specimen (schisis of the lumbar skin, with exposing the meninges and the spinal canal structures) and MRI details of specimen, confirming the hemivertebra suspected on US.
Along with the mild early signs of spinal neural tube defects, other major malformations reach 100% detection rates in many reports. Figures 20–22 show several such cases, showing correlations between the ultrasound data and the specimen aspects.
Figure 20.
Exencephaly. Ultrasound images and the pathologic specimen at 12 WA.
Figure 21.
Encephalocele at 12 W. Conventional 2D ultrasound and 3D surface rendering.
Figure 22.
Complex lethal facial and cerebral anomaly. The red arrow indicates the single orbit. The pathologic specimen confirms ciclopy, proboscis, exencephaly (a). Second-trimester case of anencephaly: 2D conventional and 3D ultrasound (b).
5. Cortical formation abnormalities
The cerebral cortex development implies evolvement through three steps: neuronal precursor proliferation and differentiation; migration of immature neurons; and cortical maturation (the laminar organization and occurrence of synapsis). Neurons migrate from the ventricular zone (called the germinal matrix) toward the pial surface, along radially oriented glial scaffolds [42, 43, 44]. Gyration and sulcation occur afterword, beyond 32 WA. Disruption of any of these steps in cerebral development, due to inherited or acquired causes, can result in a wide spectrum of abnormalities.
Schizencephaly is a congenital cerebral defect in clefting, where clefts extend through the hemispheres from the ventricles to the pial surface [45]. Having two clinical types (open and closed), it seems to be caused by a primary failure of development of the cerebral mantle in early pregnancy. The condition is different from porencephaly, being characterized by the presence of heterotopic gray matter lining the cleft. Although primary, it has also been reported as a destructive process mediated by vascular injury also.
Lissencephaly means literally “smooth brain.” This is a rare brain malformation, gene-linked, characterized by the absence of normal convolutions in the cerebral cortex, leading to microcephaly. In most cases, neonates have usually a normal sized head at birth. The “cobblestone lissencephaly” is characterized by the irregular surface of the brain on the pathological specimen. This is due to aberrant neuroglial overmigration into the subarachnoid space. The formation of an extracortical agyric neuroglial layer occurs. It seems that the primary cause is the deficit of glycosylation of dystroglycans, resulting in neuroglial overmigration [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
The presence of neurons in any position other than the cortex is called neuronal heterotopia. This is caused by an abnormal phenomenon of migration during fetal development. The most frequent type is periventricular heterotopia, given by an abnormal development of the neuroependyma [44, 50]. It consists of groups of disorganized neurons and glial cells that are located along the walls of the lateral ventricles. They may be isolated (X-linked and non-X-linked forms) or associated with other CNS malformations. The prevalence in the general population is unknown, but it has been related with epilepsy, seizures, and/or developmental delay, with different grades of severity. The prenatal diagnosis has been reported, but the condition is underdiagnosed in the vast majority of screening settings. The true microcephaly is considered part of a complex disorder [48, 49, 50, 51], occurring in syndromes (with or without chromosomal anomalies). It may be associated exclusively with cerebral anomalies (due to either primary cerebral maldevelopment or clastic events like the ischemohemorrhagic ones) or infectious diseases; the latter has gained a particular interest lately, in light of the recent emergence of microcephaly related to Zika virus infection [48, 49, 50, 51]. Macrocephaly may result from macrocrania, hydrocephalus, or a major subarachnoid space abnormality. If not associated with other conditions, macrocephaly is synonymous with megalencephaly, meaning an increase in the weight and size of the brain [52] (Figure 23).
Figure 23.
Complex cortical anomaly. Nodular periventricular heterotopia seen. Cortical hypoplasia. Microcephaly. Periventricular leukomalacia. The postpartum image highlights the abnormal excessive ossification of the coronal suture and the dysmorphic facial features of the neonate.
6. Midline abnormalities
Holoprosencephaly is a congenital induction disorder, occurring extremely early in pregnancy (3–6 WA), with failing the segmentation of the neural tube [53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. This leads to incomplete separation of the prosencephalon. It has been classified into four subtypes: alobar, semilobar, lobar, and a middle interhemispheric fusion variant (syntelencephaly).
The alobar holoprosencephaly is the most severe type, having a complete lack of separation of the cerebral hemispheres; this lead to a single ventricle, absence of the CC and IEF, and fused thalami. In the semilobar type, the cerebral hemispheres are fused anteriorly. In lobar holoprosencephaly, the fusion of the cerebral hemispheres is present at the frontal lobes. The middle interhemispheric fusion variant results from nonseparation of posterior frontal and parietal lobes.
The corpus callosum is the largest commissure of the brain, and its development is accelerated between 8 and 20 WA. Any disturbance of this process may lead to CC agenesis or partial agenesis (hypogenesis or dysgenesis). Many CC abnormalities (in terms of dimensions and shape) are frequently diagnosed during pregnancy although their significance is still debated [58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67]. Abnormal CC has been described among patients assessed for mental retardation.
In a similar way, the absence of fluid in the CSP (with or without intact septum pellucidum and corpus callosum) may indicate subtle or severe midline brain abnormalities. All these conditions may have significant implications for postnatal neurological development [58, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68] (Figures 24 and 25).
Figure 24.
Different cases of holoprosencephaly in the first trimester (a,b). c. a case which associates proboscis.
Figure 25.
Second-trimester alobar holoprosencephaly (a and b). Short and thick corpus callosum (c).
7. Posterior fossa abnormalities
Posterior fossa abnormalities include the Dandy-Walker malformation (complete or partial agenesis of the cerebellar vermis, cystic dilatation of the fourth ventricle, and enlarged posterior fossa, with upward displacement of the tentorium, torcula, and transverse sinuses); the mega cisterna magna (a CM measuring more than 10 mm and a normal vermis); the Blake’s pouch cyst (the presence of an upwardly displaced normal cerebellar vermis, normal appearance of the fastigium, tentorium, and size of the cisterna magna); and isolated vermian hypoplasia (a normally formed vermis but of smaller size, with an otherwise normal size and anatomy of the posterior fossa) [69, 70]. It seems that the Dandy-Walker malformation, even if apparently isolated on ultrasound imaging, carries a high risk for chromosomal and associated structural anomalies. Isolated mega CM and Blake’s pouch cyst have a low risk for aneuploidy and associated structural anomalies. The isolated vermian hypoplasia is extremely rare; thus, the literature does not offer definite conclusions about its significance. This needs to be further assessed (Figure 26).
Figure 26.
Isolated mega cisterna magna. US and MRI images of the same third-trimester case.
8. Vascular abnormalities
Possible causes of hemorrhage include arteriovenous malformation, benign or malignant, intracranial tumors, fetal infection, drug toxicity, and clotting disorders, such as isoimmune or alloimmune thrombocytopenia [71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79].
Fetal hemorrhagic and hypoxic-ischemic insults can lead to antenatal brain damage and fetal stroke. These are associated with fetal death, postnatal seizures, mental retardation, psychomotor delays, and cerebral palsy [72]. Fetal intracranial hemorrhages and strokes can be prenatally diagnosed by ultrasound and MRI. The classification of intracranial hemorrhages includes five major types: intraventricular hemorrhage, cerebellar, subdural, primary subarachnoid hemorrhages, and other intraparenchymal hemorrhages. Intraventricular hemorrhage is the most common variety of neonatal intracranial hemorrhages and is characteristic of the immature brain. Intraventricular hemorrhages are subdivided according to their severity into four grades: the first three grades are limited to the ventricles, while the fourth grade includes parenchymal involvement.
The outcome of bleeding into the ventricles ranges from hemorrhage absorption and resolution without residual deficit, to brain damage, with neurological and mental deficits, epilepsy and in extreme cases to fetal or neonatal death. Different scoring systems have been developed to predict the prognostic significance of fetal intraventricular hemorrhage. They depend upon ventricular enlargement and the presence or absence of brain parenchymal damage [72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79].
Spontaneous antenatal subdural hemorrhage is rare [71].
Vein of Galen aneurysmal malformation is a rare congenital malformation (1% of all abnormalities of the fetal cerebral arteriovenous system [80]. It occurs in isolation, although there have been reported cases related to cardiac abnormalities or cystic hygroma. The current hypothesis is the early occurrence (between the 6 and 11 WA), as a result of the persistence of an abnormal connection between the primitive choroidal vessels and the proximal region of the prosencephalic median vein. The persistence of the connection leads to the appearance of some abnormal arteriovenous shunts and the formation of the vein of Galen (Figures 27 and 28).
Figure 27.
Massive intraparenchymatous hemorrhage in a case of fetal/neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia.
Figure 28.
The same case. The fetus has had a complete normal neurosonogram in mid-trimester.
9. Destructive cerebral lesions
The destructive lesions may include an extremely wide range of conditions: hydranencephaly, tumors/mass lesions, cysts, periventricular leukomalacia, infections, dysplasias, intracranial hemorrhage, and other lesions. Identification of these abnormalities can be extremely helpful in providing the patients with management options. Moreover, it has the potential to modulate the neonatal therapy [81, 82, 83, 84, 85].
Hydranencephaly is a severe congenital condition: most of the cerebral hemispheres are replaced by a membranous sac. The pathogenic mechanism and the prognosis remain controversial. Still, fetal and postnatal neuroimaging data and histopathologic findings suggest an early bilateral internal carotid artery occlusion occurring at 8–12 WA [81].
Fetal brain tumors are rare and have a different histologic pattern [84]. The definitive diagnosis relies on histopathology. The distinction between potentially curable tumors and tumors rapidly fatal after birth is extremely difficult. Moreover, some intracranial masses are not real tumors. Among the histological structure, we mention teratoma, glioblastoma, fetus-in-fetu, craniopharyngioma, and hemangioma.
The acronym TORCH is used to refer to congenital infections: toxoplasmosis, other infections (syphilis, varicella zoster, and parvovirus B19), cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus. Zika virus has emerged as an important worldwide congenital infection. Many maternal and fetal symptoms are common. All mentioned infections may cause neurologic damage (ventriculomegaly, intraventricular adhesions, subependymal cysts, intracerebral calcifications, and microcephaly). The Zika virus leads to a more severe spectrum of CNS abnormalities and affects mildly other organ systems [85]. All congenital infections have rather nonspecific ultrasound findings. For the imagist professional, the awareness of imaging features of common congenital infections may facilitate early diagnosis and may, at times, lead to prompt initiation of therapy.
Periventricular leukomalacia has been reported in preterm and growth-restricted fetuses and neonates, and in monochorionic complicated pregnancies. It manifests as punctate white matter lesions or focal white matter necrosis. In clinical settings, cranial US has a limited sensitivity in detecting them. MRI is a more useful tool [78, 86].
Unfortunately, cortical dysplasias, involved as an epileptogenic substrate, are the most subtle lesions to identify, diagnose, and characterize [87, 88]. Improved MRI techniques with a multimodality approach (magnetoencephalography, positron emission tomography) will probably increase sensitivity and specificity for identifying them.
The most used classification [88] tried to unify the terminology of cortical dysplasias, which are seen as a subset of all malformations of cortical development. This proposal is based on histopathologic data, clinical and imaging findings, being currently under review [87] (Figures 29–31).
Figure 29.
Benign, small dimensions, non-evolving intracerebral cyst: 28 WA (a and b), 30 WA (c), and postpartum, by means of transfontanellar ultrasound assessment (d).
Figure 30.
Porencephaly.
Figure 31.
Arachnoid cyst.
The above division of CNS congenital anomalies is an arbitrary one. In the most severe cases, several types of cortical malformation may be found simultaneously. Moreover, many types succed one another, or overlap in time.
Figures 32–34 show several examples of such associated abnormalities.
Figure 32.
Midline abnormality and unilateral asymmetric borderline ventriculomegaly.
Figure 33.
Complete agenesis of the corpus callosum. Unilateral voluminous intracerebral cyst. Severe unilateral asymmetric ventriculomegaly. Subsequently, the short-term and long-term evolution was completely normal.
Figure 34.
Complete agenesis of the corpus callosum. Cystic dilatation of the fourth ventricle and enlarged posterior fossa, with upward displacement of the tentorium, torcula, and transverse sinuses. Confirmation of the absence of CC by means of conventional autopsy.
\n',keywords:"cortex, spine, cerebellum, brain stem, malformations, development",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60546.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60546.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60546",totalDownloads:2147,totalViews:396,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:67,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"March 5th 2018",datePrePublished:"April 6th 2018",datePublished:"May 2nd 2018",dateFinished:"April 6th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Central nervous system (CNS) is one of the most frequent sites for prenatal diagnosed congenital abnormalities (10 per 1000 live births, much higher than the heart—eight per 1000, kidneys—four per 1000, and other fetal systems). Due to the evolving pattern, ultrasound screening for fetal brain malformations is usually performed at 19–22 weeks’ gestation, but severe congenital anomalies can be diagnosed much earlier. This chapter is a short review, structured in eight subchapters: the first one is dedicated to the normal ultrasound aspect of different CNS segments, and the following ones are to detect pathology in prenatal life. We used many ultrasound images and tried to correlate the prenatal findings with the ones obtained postpartum/postabortum for each case, by means of pathology/imaging techniques.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60546",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60546",book:{id:"6307",slug:"congenital-anomalies-from-the-embryo-to-the-neonate"},signatures:"Andreea Ceausescu, Andreea Docea, Marina Dinu, Stefan\nDegeratu, Dominic Iliescu and Monica Cara",authors:[{id:"212459",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Iliescu",fullName:"Dominic Iliescu",slug:"dominic-iliescu",email:"dominic.iliescu@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"244664",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",middleName:"Elena",surname:"Ceausescu",fullName:"Andreea Ceausescu",slug:"andreea-ceausescu",email:"and_deea2006@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247842",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",middleName:null,surname:"Docea",fullName:"Andreea Docea",slug:"andreea-docea",email:"andreea.docea@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247843",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinu",fullName:"Marina Dinu",slug:"marina-dinu",email:"bulmez.marina@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247844",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Degeratu",fullName:"Stefan Degeratu",slug:"stefan-degeratu",email:"sdegeratu90@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247846",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cara",fullName:"Monica Cara",slug:"monica-cara",email:"daimoniquelle@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Normal findings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. The spine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Abnormalities of the ventricular system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Neural tube defects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Cortical formation abnormalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"6. Midline abnormalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"7. Posterior fossa abnormalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"8. Vascular abnormalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"9. Destructive cerebral lesions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sonographic examination of the fetal central nervous system: Guidelines for performing the ‘basic examination’ and the ‘fetal neurosonogram’. International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology Education Committee. 2007;29:109-116'},{id:"B2",body:'Kurjak A, Antsaklis P, Stanojevic M, Vladareanu R, Vladareanu S, Neto RM, Barisic LS, Porovic S, Delic T. 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A rare occurrence of three consecutive autosomal trisomic pregnancies in a couple without offspring. Clinical and Experimental Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2016;43(2):287-290'},{id:"B21",body:'Sosoi S, Streata I, Tudorache S, Burada F, Siminel M, Cernea N, Ioana M, Iliescu DG, Mixich F. Prenatal and postnatal findings in a 10.6 Mb interstitial deletion at 10p11.22-p12.31. Journal of Human Genetics. 2015;60(4):183-185'},{id:"B22",body:'Calin FD, Ciobanu AM, Dimitriu MCT, Pacu I, Banacu M, Popescu I, Tarcomnicu IM, Ceauşu Z, Socea B, Paunica-Paunea G, Furau CG, Furau GO, Bacalbaşa N, Gheorghiu D, Ionescu CA. Edwards’ syndrome diagnosis-between first trimester screening and ultrasound minor markers. Archives of the Balkan Medical Union. 2016;51(3):445-450'},{id:"B23",body:'Volpe P, Ubaldo P, Volpe N, Campobasso G, De Robertis V, Tempesta A, Volpe G, Rembouskos G. Fetal cardiac evaluation at 11-14 weeks by experienced obstetricians in a low-risk population. 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Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2002;20(3):296-298'},{id:"B72",body:'Elchalal U, Yagel S, Gomori JM, Porat S, Beni-Adani L, Yanai N, Nadjari M. Fetal intracranial hemorrhage (fetal stroke): Does grade matter? Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2005;26(3):233-243'},{id:"B73",body:'Vergani P, Strobelt N, Locatelli A, Paterlini G, Tagliabue P, Parravicini E, Ghidini A. Clinical significance of fetal intracranial hemorrhage. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1996;175:536-543'},{id:"B74",body:'Malinger G, Lerman-Sagie T, Watemberg N, Rotmensch S, Lev D, Glezerman M. A normal second-trimester ultrasound does not exclude intracranial structural pathology. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2002;20:51-56'},{id:"B75",body:'Ghi T, Simonazzi G, Perolo A, Savelli L, Sandri F, Bernardi B, Santini D, Bovicelli L, Pilu G. Outcome of antenatally diagnosed intracranial hemorrhage: Case series and review of the literature. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2003;22:121-130'},{id:"B76",body:'Aziz NA, Peeters-Scholte CM, de Bruine FT, Klumper FJ, Adama van Scheltema PN, Lopriore E, Steggerda SJ. Fetal cerebellar hemorrhage: Three cases with postnatal follow-up. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2016;47(6):785-786'},{id:"B77",body:'Garel C, Rosenblatt J, Moutard ML, Heron D, Gelot A, Gonzales M, Miné E, Jouannic JM. Fetal intracerebral hemorrhage and COL4A1 mutation: Promise and uncertainty. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2013;41(2):228-230'},{id:"B78",body:'Cruz-Martinez R, Tenorio V, Padilla N, Crispi F, Figueras F, Gratacos E. Risk of ultrasound-detected neonatal brain abnormalities in intrauterine growth-restricted fetuses born between 28 and 34 weeks’ gestation: Relationship with gestational age at birth and fetal Doppler parameters. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2015;46(4):452-459'},{id:"B79",body:'Buca D, Pagani G, Rizzo G, Familiari A, Flacco ME, Manzoli L, Liberati M, Fanfani F, Scambia G, D’Antonio F. Outcome of monochorionic twin pregnancy with selective intrauterine growth restriction according to umbilical artery Doppler flow pattern of smaller twin: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2017;50(5):559-568'},{id:"B80",body:'Herghelegiu D, Ionescu CA, Pacu I, Bohiltea R, Herghelegiu C, Vladareanu S. Antenatal diagnosis and prognostic factors of aneurysmal malformation of the vein of Galen: A case report and literature review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(30):e7483'},{id:"B81",body:'Cecchetto G, Milanese L, Giordano R, Viero A, Suma V, Manara R. Looking at the missing brain: Hydranencephaly case series and literature review. Pediatric Neurology. 2013;48(2):152-158'},{id:"B82",body:'Scher MS, Belfar H, Martin J, Painter MJ. Destructive brain lesions of presumed fetal onset: Antepartum causes of cerebral palsy. Pediatrics. 1991;88(5):898-906'},{id:"B83",body:'Pretorius DH, Russ PD, Rumack CM, Manco-Johnson ML. Diagnosis of brain neuropathology in utero. Neuroradiology. 1986;28(5-6):386-397'},{id:"B84",body:'Desvignes F, Beaufrère AM, Biard M, Déchelotte P, Laurichesse-Delmas H, Lemery D, Gallot D. Prenatal diagnosis of cerebral tumors and differential diagnosis. Journal de Gynécologie, Obstétrique et Biologie de la Reproduction. 2013;42(3):290-296'},{id:"B85",body:'Levine D, Jani JC, Castro-Aragon I, Cannie M. How does imaging of congenital Zika compare with imaging of other TORCH infections? Radiology. 2017;285(3):744-761'},{id:"B86",body:'Panigrahy A, Wisnowski JL, Furtado A, Lepore N, Paquette L, Bluml S. Neuroimaging biomarkers of preterm brain injury: Toward developing the preterm connectome. Pediatric Radiology. 2012;42(Suppl 1):S33-S61'},{id:"B87",body:'Madan N, Grant PE. New directions in clinical imaging of cortical dysplasias. Epilepsia. 2009;50(Suppl. 9):9-18'},{id:"B88",body:'Palmini A, Najm I, Avanzini G, Babb T, Guerrini R, Foldvary-Schaefer N, Jackson G, L_ders HO, Prayson R, Spreafico R, Vinters HV. Terminology and classification of the cortical dysplasias. Neurology. 2004;62(6 suppl 3):S2-S8'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Andreea Ceausescu",address:"and_deea2006@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Emergency University Hospital, Romania
Department of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania
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1. Introduction
The concepts of Smart Grid and Smart City have rapidly expanded worldwide with the objective to raise sustainability standards, quality of life, and economic dynamism of future cities. At present, cities are responsible for more than 75% of waste, 70% of greenhouse gas emissions, and 75% of energy consumption [1]. This trend is going to be more and more significant due to the increase in population of urban areas. By 2045, according to the World Bank1, the number of people living in cities will increase by 1.5 times to 6 billion. This fact emphasizes the importance of increasing sustainability, reducing waste energy, and ‘smart’ management of the available resources. In this context, natural gas systems, similarly to the rest of energy systems, are evolving towards a highly technified structure, where the consumer is called to play a starring role. The implementation of a natural gas smart infrastructure requires the proper development of smart metering and communication protocols to be able to give real-time and remote consumption readings and provide advanced services to the users. The implementation of this smart architecture is ongoing in some European countries and abroad as will be discussed in the following sections.
Demand response programs are the best candidates to promote the consumers’ flexibility, empowering the smart natural gas infrastructure to be a resilient and feasible energy network. Future trends in the development of natural gas systems will be focused on, exploring the huge potential that remains unexplored on the natural gas demand side, which could be used by gas network operators for the solution of technical constraints, balance services, or optimization of programming of underground storage. This potential is especially interesting at this moment, when the massive rollout of gas smart meters is taking place [2, 3]. In this context, smart gas systems would facilitate the use of demand response resources for the better operation of gas networks, similarly to how it happens in power systems.
The chapter will be organized as follows: at first, the state of the art of the massive rollout of smart meters currently ongoing worldwide will be presented. Then, demand response programs currently used in natural gas systems around the world will be explored and analyzed, including a review of some international experiences on this matter. Before, the novel application of smart grid concepts, exclusively used up to now for power systems, will be proposed for the architecture of the smart natural gas system, including the analysis of existing barriers that prevent the implementation of demand response programs in this kind of networks. Finally, the future developments required to optimize the use of this energy resource and to improve the operation of natural gas systems will be presented, identifying new agents and new energy resources (such as hydrogen) that are expected to contribute to developing the natural gas systems in the coming years.
2. State of art of the smart metering infrastructure
The implementation of a smart city requires the proper development of a smart metering infrastructure, a system for the intelligent measurement of the energy consumption of each user, through smart meters able to give real-time and remote consumption readings of different services (electricity, water, gas, and district heating), providing advanced services to the users2.
In order to reach the proper integration of different energy supplies, such as electricity, gas, water, district heating and energy produced by waste3, and service systems such as the internet, video terminal, and e-cars, it is necessary to promote the use of different electronic meters (e.g. electric, water, heating, and gas meters) and different sensors integrated into a distributed architecture, able to gather and analyses heterogeneous data. So as to achieve this objective, the following subsystems should be implemented:
Smart Grids: Intelligent interconnected networks, which have a bidirectional data flow between the service center and the end user.
Smart Buildings: Commercial and residential buildings that respect the environment and have integrated energy production systems.
Smart Sensors: Sensors with the function of collecting data from the necessary variables at the smart city. They are fundamental to managing energy and avoiding waste.
Information and Communication Technology Infrastructure (ICT): ICT infrastructure must be able to control the different subsystems of the smart city, through which citizens and administrative operators can actively participate in the management of the different facilities and uses [4].
Smart Citizens: They have to actively participate in smart solutions and smart programs. From the energy perspective, it is the energy consumer.
2.1 Pilots and cases of application
Smart city pilot projects have largely spread out in Europe (Spain, Germany, France, Finland, or Italy). In 2010, the Association “Genova Smart City” drew up a project to turn the capital city of Liguria into a smart city, meeting the requirements of the European Commission [5]. In 2015, into the framework of “Flexemeter project4—Flexible smart metering for multiple energy vectors with active prosumers”, two pilot applications have been performed in Turin (Italy) and Malmo (Sweden). Both projects involved the local DSOs and volunteer “prosumers5” on real systems and were predominantly focused on the integration of the electricity and heating district supply. By 2030, supported by the European Commission, Geneva (Switzerland) will become a smart city for the electric, heating, and cooling networks, with the integration of renewable energies (wind turbines).
The diffusion of flexible multi-utilities and multiservice system is the crucial step to improve energy and market efficiency, to optimize the energy management during the peak periods, and to promote the integration of DR programs profiled on more efficient energy demand prediction [6]. In that framework, a fundamental role is played by the smart meters. At present, a smart metering infrastructure able to collect, aggregate, and analyze real-time data is essential to properly manage the different energy resources and to reduce greenhouse emissions as required by the COP21 [1].
The European Smart Metering Landscape report [7] has presented the best practices in the smart metering field. Different smart metering pilot projects have been successfully carried out in Europe: in Finland, the smart metering project was based on the monitoring of the cottage’s electricity consumption in real time and its impact on the carbon footprint. Another example was carried out in Spain, where consumers equipped with smart meters received specific information to allow an evaluation on how to reduce their average electrical consumption. In Germany, a German start-up company created a Social Metering App that allows users to view and share smart metering data in terms of carbon emissions, kWh, or monetary costs for all energy carriers (electricity, gas, and oil), and water meters.
Under the Third Energy Package6, Member States are required to ensure the implementation of smart metering for electricity, gas, water, and heating. In this framework, long-term cost benefits analysis (CBA) has been carried out so as to decide the implementation of a smart metering infrastructure [8].
In contrast with the Electricity Directive, which required that 80% of consumers should have smart electricity meters by 2020, the Gas Directive does not specify how many consumers should have smart meters or provide a deadline for deployments following a positive CBA. The following section will show the current situation of the rollout of smart meter gas in Europe.
3. Architecture of the smart natural gas system
The main purpose of the gas system is to supply gas to consumers with the required safety and quality characteristics at a reasonable cost. In order to fulfill this target in a cost-effective manner, different agents are necessary; each of them will be assigned some specific role.
The gas transmission network is the physical medium through which consumers can obtain the amount of gas they need. Depending on the type of network (characterized, among other parameters, by the pressure level and its capacity), there are transmission and distribution networks. Distribution networks are structures connected to the transmission network and carry the gas to the final consumers. The owners of the network, which are in charge of maintenance and development of those infrastructures, will therefore be transmitters and distributors.
Distribution (low and medium pressure network) is the final link of the chain in delivering natural gas to customers. While some large industrial or commercial customers, as well as power generators fueled by gas, receive natural gas directly from high-capacity interstate and intrastate pipelines, most users receive natural gas from their local gas utility, also called local distribution company (LDC).
Unlike other energy sources, the gas can be stored in large amounts at different points of the grid. The network operator, whose mission is to ensure that the gas system remains balanced and stable so that energy transactions can be performed safely and reliably, can use these gas stores.
Depending on the type of network they manage, these operators may be transmission or distribution operators. The operation of the network is an activity that could be developed by agents different from the owners of the infrastructures, so that these operators would be different from the transmitters and distributors previously defined.
Other agents that should be established according to size and characteristics of the gas system, as well as the configurations that the network can adopt, are the aggregators, whose mission is grouping small distributed demand resources into larger packages that can provide significant value to the system as a whole.
Finally, the figure of the gas retailer appears as an intermediary of the retail market between the final consumers (small amounts of energy) and the mechanisms of the wholesale market and gas production (large amounts of energy). The different agents and the activities they would carry out within the new framework that smart grids offer to the natural gas market are further discussed subsequently.
3.1 Agents in a smart natural gas system
When the natural gas system is structured according to a smart grid architecture, the need for specific agents arises to make the whole network work properly. The different agents that would be involved in the proper performance of a smart natural gas system, including the provision or utilization of DR resources were identified in the research of Montuori et al. [2] and they could be summarized as follows:
End users, who consume natural gas and pay the supplier the price requested. Moreover, end users in smart natural gas systems may provide the grid operator with demand response services.
Producers, who explore, investigate, and exploit the gas deposits.
Gas storage managers, who handle storage facilities to adapt the gas supply according to the end users’ needs and the availability of resources in real time.
Aggregators, who group small end users so as to create significant blocks of flexible demand that can be used by grid operators, as well as any other stakeholder needing demand response resources.
Transmitters, who manage the gas network infrastructure at high pressure.
Distributors, who, similarly to transmitters, manage the gas network to supply end users.
Retailers, who behave as buyers in the wholesale market and sellers in retail markets to supply the natural gas to end users.
Wholesale energy traders, who buy natural gas in international markets and incorporate it into the system, reselling it to retailers or to large end users, as well as to transmitters or distributors for operation purposes.
Transmission System Operator (GSO), who operates the transmission gas network and guarantees the supply according to security standards and regulations in force.
Distribution network operator, who operates a regional distribution network.
Market operator, who manages the necessary mechanism to exchange natural gas between the parties in the wholesale market (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Roles to be played in a smart natural gas system [2].
The aforementioned activities refer to roles but not entities. Therefore, it is possible that some agent (for example, a distribution company) plays more than one role (distributor and distribution network operator).
3.2 New agents: aggregators
The role of the aggregator in smart natural gas system has been discussed in detail in previous research of Montuori et al. [2, 9]. This agent aggregates small and middle gas consumers, behaving as DR providers, and the stakeholders interested in using those services (such as transmission system operators, distribution network operators, retailers, etc.), who behave as DR requesters.
Aggregation in smart natural gas systems could be understood in two different ways:
Traditional aggregation, which would be based on the joint management of gas consumptions of end users that actually use natural gas directly (similarly to what this agent does in power systems). This is the case of consumers using gas in a boiler or a burning system for heating purposes.
District heating operators. This is a real novel approach, further detailed in [9], that considers the aggregation not of direct gas consumption, but of thermal energy that is produced in a centralized way by consuming natural gas. Therefore, the district heating operator, that is the actual gas consumer, may offer some kind of flexibility by managing the aggregated thermal consumption of the steam or hot water consumers within its portfolio.
One essential requirement for aggregators is to have appropriate monitoring and control equipment so as to offer reliable operation services to some particular stakeholders. Therefore, the massive rollout that is taking place in some countries, as mentioned earlier, will have a positive impact on this point since it will help to further develop the role of the aggregator in smart natural gas systems (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Activities of the aggregator.
One of the main advantages of aggregation would be related to the balancing of natural gas, which would avoid the need for the transmission system operator to purchase natural gas in the wholesale market during high prices periods. In this case, aggregators may offer the same service by increasing or reducing the amount of gas of their consumers. Moreover, this aggregated service would make the system behave more efficiently since the activation of a demand response service when more gas is required is translated into a reduction of the gas level in the network, which also reduces the risk of congestion. Additionally, demand response reduces the greenhouse emissions when the amount of gas is reduced but not shifted to other periods.
4. Massive rollout of smart gas meters in Europe
In recent years, the European Union has played a leading role in promoting the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in line with the ambitious new targets that fix the GHG reduction emissions levels below at least 55% by 2030. In accordance with this de-carbonization process, deep changes are required to meet these standards and a new settlement of the gas retail market needs to be held.
In order to enforce the transition to a more efficient organization for the gas system, the introduction of gas smart meters and smart metering network concepts have to be promoted as it has been already done in the electrical sector. To support these innovative changes, a new concept of consumer like a more aware and active participant in the marketplace needs to be promoted [10]. Similarly, the role of aggregators also needs to be empowered as an intermediary between small customers and network operators willing to use customers’ services (DR resources) so as to manage their infrastructures more efficiently. With regard to the metering instruments and in prospective to the development of multiservice smart cities, the European Directive MID 2014/32/UE defines the functionality of measuring instruments for the promotion of efficient consumer behavior and for their active participation in the energy market. In spite of that, the Directives on the Internal Market for Electricity and Gas (Directives 2009/72/EC and 2009/73/EC) included in the Third Energy Package does not oblige European countries to participate in the rollout of the smart meter gas and does not state a deadline to complete it either. This lack of a mandatory regulation on this matter derives into different behaviors in each European country.
Similarly, to that previously done in the electrical sector, European countries have carried out a CBA for participation in the smart meter gas rollout [11].
As shown in Figure 3, the results were dissimilar and a slower approach to the smart meters gas introduction was registered:
In 2017, just five member states (Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the United Kingdom) decided to introduce smart meters by 2020.
In 2019, also France, Austria, Hungary, and Denmark set up a strategy for the massive smart gas meters rollout implementation.
Figure 3.
Gas smart metering rollout in Europe (source: [12]).
In 2013, 19 European countries conducted a CBA with 12 countries showing negative CBA results (Germany, Spain, Portugal, Romania, Finland, Sweden, Poland, Czech Rep, Belgium, Greece, and Latvia). In 2018, eight Member States carried out a new CBA, obtaining coherent results with the previous one except for Austria and Ireland, where the first CBA was positive and this new one had a slightly negative result. Seven Member States did not conduct any CBA (Bulgaria, Croatia, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Poland, and Portugal). Finally, states without natural gas networks have not been considered (Cyprus and Malta).
The latest conducted analysis among the State Members EU-28 has recognized different factors that push a country to install a gas smart meter. On one side, the two main driving factors are the digitalization of the distribution network and the optimization of the grid operation, together with the digitalization of the retail market that enables new services for private players [12]. Moreover, smart metering helps to reduce operating costs through savings in manual meter readings, theft protection, process improvement, better scheduling, and balancing processes, as well as consumer engagement opportunities. However, the participation in the massive rollout and the results of the CBA are also influenced by other factors, such as density of gas customers, gas customer expenditure, and competitiveness of supply market and need for consumer engagement, meter location, and meter ownership [11]. Currently, countries with a high density of gas customers and a significant share of gas bills such as the UK and Italy were more favorable to the smart metering rollout. Additional benefits of taking part in the rollout of gas smart meters could be derived from the higher transparency and awareness about the gas consumption and from the reduction of GHG emissions improving energy efficiency. These social benefits, together with the introduction of DR programs, should be driving factors to enlarge the number of EU countries enrolled in this program.
Germany is the largest gas consumer country in the EU. However, it does not accept the mandatory rollout due to unclear costs-benefit ratio of the smart metering gas implementation, according to the report of Wissne and Stronzik [13]. In addition, the saving costs derived from theft protection were not as high in Germany as in the other countries, as this is not a frequent problem in that country. Similarly, Sweden rejected the participation in the rollout because the low number of gas consumers (around 40.000) made it not attractive, as highlighted by Brodin et al. [14]. On the other side, Spain has a much higher amount of gas customers (over 7 million) but, despite that, the CBA had negative results. The most significant results obtained in the countries which have adopted the rollout are described in the following sections.
4.1 Italy
The Italian CBA showed a positive net benefit, coming from the reduction of the operation costs mainly due to two reasons: the lower cost of metering compared to the manual reading and the reduction of energy theft. The CBA does not consider the installation of In-Home Display (IHD) as underlined Poletti et al. [15].
According to the Plan of the Authority for the Electric, Gas and Water, the mass market rollout started in Italy in 2013. The gas smart meter deployment target adopted was more ambitious than those set by other European countries pretending to end the mass-market stage of the rollout by the end of 2018. Conversely, the installation of electronic meters is still ongoing due to several disruptions (lack of funding and infrastructure) even if it shows a considerable growth, according to Bianchini et al. [16]. The new target period to complete the wide-scale rollout has been extended up to 2023 with the installation of 85% smart gas meters.
During 2020, almost three-quarters of domestic customers, 85% of condominiums, 75% of public service activities, and two-thirds of customers with other uses (Figure 4) were installed. By the end of 2020, the total number of gas smart meters installed was 23,854 thousand while the number of remaining traditional smart meters was 7432 thousand (comprising class from G4 up to G40) [17].
Figure 4.
Percentage of smart meter gas installed in Italy 2013-2020 (Source: [17]).
4.2 Luxembourg
Luxembourg is one of the EU countries, which had two positive CBAs, the first in 2013 and the second in 2018. At the first instance, the government chose to start a mandatory rollout with the introduction of gas smart meters and electrical smart meters by 2020 for at least 95% coverage. Now, the end of the massive rollout is expected by the end of 2021, reaching 90% of the total. The smart metering rollout started in 2015, and it included the development of an energy grid for the integration not just of electricity and natural gas consumptions but also distributed energy resources such as solar, wind, biogas, and heat pumps [7].
4.3 Ireland
In 2013, the CBA had in Ireland the strongest positive result, especially for the fast rollout scenario with the combination of energy statement with In-Home display (IHD) and variable tariff. Regarding the additional benefits from reduced emissions of greenhouse gases, all the considered scenarios were positive. However, in 2018 the trend changed and the CBA was reviewed with a slightly negative result that was considered neutral by the European Commission. The new deadline for the large-scale rollout has been set up in 2024 [12].
The company Gas Networks Ireland7 (GNI) currently supports the National Smart Metering program, which is focused on both gas and electricity metering devices. The program includes the use of smart metering technology, variable time of use, and in-home displays according to the CBA results. A share communication infrastructure has been implemented for gas meters and electricity meters in order to leverage the costs. In future, the same infrastructure could be used also for water smart meters.
4.4 Netherlands
In 2009, due to privacy concerns, the mandatory rollout was not accepted by the Dutch Senate, so a voluntary rollout of 7 million consumers started. During 2012, the installation of smart meters was performed on a small scale and the company Oxxio (former Eneco Energie) provided over 200,000 smart meters using GPRS as the communication technology [18]. Considering that almost 100% of the households accepted the smart meter (with almost 100% standard readings), it would be expected a benefit of approximately 770 million euros, which is equivalent to 50 € per metering point according to the positive results of the CBA discussed by Bouw et al. [19]. In 2014, the Netherlands decided to implement a strategy for the smart meter gas rollout. In 2015, the rollout of smart meters in the Netherlands reached approximately 1.5 million domestic small meters installed. The target of the Dutch grid operator is to have at least 80% of all Dutch households connected to the network by a smart meter by the end of 2021.
4.5 United Kingdom
The CBA carried on by the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2014 on the smart meters rollout was positive, with an estimation of net benefits equal to £6.2 billion (equivalent to 7.2 billion of euro) [20]. The UK’s rollout is the largest project in the gas market, and it involves 30 million customers with a gas consumption equal to 50% of the household energy costs, as investigated by Segalotto [21]. Households can freely choose, if applying or not, for a smart meter of new generation, for the gas and electricity with an in-home display screen that shows in real time the exact amount of the energy consumption8.
At the end of 2013, there were 295,700 smart meters already installed in domestic properties in the country. However, the British government started officially a smart meter rollout in 2016.
The home area network (HAN) implemented in the UK for the smart meters’ remote reading uses a ZigBee Energy network. ZigBee Smart Energy is the network solution for electric meters, gas meters, and in-home displays, due to its maturity and popularity in Smart Energy application profile and its capability of ensuring robust communications architecture of a smart natural gas system [22]. At the end of 2020, there were 98,600 smart meters installed in non-domestic sites and, in spite of the delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic breakdown, smart meters installation showed the highest peak of the rollout (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Non-domestic smart meter gas installed in Great Britain from 3rd quarter 2012 to 4th quarter 2020 (source: [23]).
On the other side, the installation in the domestic sites continued increasing in 2020 and reached a total of 3.1 million smart meters installed, as shown in Figure 6 [23].
Figure 6.
Domestic smart meter gas installed in Britain from 3rd quarter 2012 to 4th quarter 2020 (source: [23]).
4.6 France
In France, Electricité Réseau Distribution France (ERDF) carried out an initial gas smart meter pilot project in 2011. From the start of 2010, the pilot project was carried out for 18 months in four regions (Auch, Saint-Omer, Laval and Pierre Bénite, and Etampes) with the installation of 18,500 meters. The obtained results support the idea that the smart meter is essential to achieve efficiency and reliable operation of the natural gas system. The utilization of smart meters made consumers aware of their consumption which, together with the use of demand response, resulted in savings of 0.9% in the gas consumption as gathered by Drozdowski and Vandamme [24].
In 2017, the French gas company GRDF started a huge smart gas meter rollout that should drive the replacement of 11 million traditional gas meters with an investment of 1 billion euros. To achieve this goal, the French gas infrastructure started an upgrade of the existing technological infrastructure to be able to meet the highest communication system standards. The full rollout of 11 million meters is expected to be complete by the end of 2022 [25]. Nowadays, the French rollout is ongoing according to the agreed planning. Six million meters had been already installed at the end of 2020, with an average value of 150,000 meters per month.
5. Demand response experiences in natural gas systems
DR concepts have been used for years (with different levels of development depending on countries) in the management of power systems [26]. Thus, DR programs, either offered by system operators or utilities, contribute to solving different matters that appear in the habitual operation of the power grid. Nevertheless, and in spite of the similarities existing between the power and natural gas systems, there are few successful experiences of DR applications in the natural gas system. However, as agreed by some researchers and professionals, DR concepts could be essential for the better and more efficient operation of natural gas systems, as can be deduced, among others, from the following factors highlighted by Srinivaspura [27]:
Electricity and natural gas markets are closely related as this resource is more and more used for power generation. The main reasons are:
Environmental issues related to the reduction of power production with such fuels as coal.
The higher performance of natural gas power plants (especially in combined cycle facilities)
The massive utilization of renewable energies, which makes necessary generation technologies able to quickly respond to the high variability of this kind of generation, providing power reliability and supply guarantee.
The volatility of natural gas markets is increasing, especially due to the utilization of natural gas for power generation.
Until the recent past, natural gas demand used to be quite stable and seasonal; however, this tendency is changing nowadays [29].
Natural gas is replacing other fuels in hydrocarbon markets [28].
Until now, DR concepts have been applied worldwide as predominantly pilot projects, but results achieved have been promising [29]. In Canada, residential end-users have been asked to participate in DR programs based on the gas management through the regulation of the thermostat for heating applications. The energy savings estimated were influenced by the thermal oscillation (external Temperature) and the warmness of the season and could reach up to 21% [30].
Enernoc, the most active company in DR applications for small and medium customers in the electricity sector, is also trying to develop some experiences in the natural gas sector. In particular, this company has developed a platform, which is being tested in customers from National Grid in the State of New York, in order to shift consumptions to optimize the use of fuel sources based on weather availability. Therefore, Enernoc will try to demonstrate that DR concepts may help in winter to solve the same kind of problems that the power system (closely linked to the gas consumption) has during peak periods in summer [31].
Regarding Europe, Spain was a pioneer in the approval of an interruptible program in 20069, based on the need of establishing tools and mechanisms so as to make more flexible the natural gas system. By means of this program, the gas system operator has the possibility to interrupt the supply to large customers willing to do that in case of emergencies. This advanced mechanism has two types or modes of interruptibility:
Mode A: This mode can be used between the gas trader and the final consumer so that the consumer may help the trader in case of imbalance due to incidents which may produce the lack of gas in the portfolio of such traders.
Mode B: Interruptible fee. The agreement is established between the final consumer, the gas trader, and the gas system operator, so that the consumer is committed to reduce the consumption under requirement from the system operator due to the lack of gas in the system. In this case, a reduced access fee is applied to the consumer for using the infrastructures of the gas system.
Interruptible customers must be able to completely interrupt their consumption with a notification in advance of 24 h. The duration of the interruption may vary from 6 h up to 10 days. However, as mentioned earlier, only large customers with an annual consumption higher than 10 GWh and a daily consumption higher than 26 MWh and connected to a pipeline with a pressure higher than 4 bar can participate.
Another experience can be found in the United Kingdom, where there is a kind of interruptible program, but just at the distribution level and less developed than in Spain. Just a small group of large industrial consumers can participate, depending upon the commercial arrangements they have agreed to10. Interruptible customers receive discounted transportation charges when reducing their consumption in periods of high demand (especially in winter peaks). In 2010, just 27 customers participated in interruptible gas contracts in the UK [32].
In the Netherlands, a consortium of 11 entities called Energy Delta Gas Research (EDGaR)11 coordinates the development of different scientific, applied, and technological research projects on natural gas. However, even if there are some research lines in the field of smart natural gas systems, none of them is dealing at the moment with DR applications in the natural gas sector. Said that, it is true that for this consortium, customer’s flexibility is a key value in smart grids, and some ideas have arisen about the utilization of flexibility of electricity consumers for the management of power plants fueled by natural gas, as indicated in the research of Huitema et al. [33].
All these experiences demonstrate the promising application of DR resources for a more efficient management of the natural gas systems, similarly to the power grid. However, most of them are just in the pilot phase at present or, in the best case, only large industrial customers are enabled to participate.
6. Constraints in the natural gas system
The present section has the aim to describe the technical constraints that may affect the natural gas system, highlighting the potential of demand response so as to overcome these limits and promote the development of a reliable natural gas system, able to quickly face sudden network failures.
Generally speaking, the physical/technical constraints of a gas network system are set by one or more of the following parameters:
The capacity of the pipelines, which limits the quantity of gas that can be transmitted between two points.
The pressure of the gas supply. Actually, a different reliability issue can derive from the natural gas operation. The gas network is characterized by variable flow for each arc, which determines a variable pressure at every node [34].
The extension and meshing complexity of the network—areas not served by the pipelines cannot be supplied by gas.
Regarding the commercial constraints, they may be set by the following:
Energy regulations. The energy regulations should be addressed to implement the efficiency of the gas network by providing incentives.
Political stability. Sometimes, the presence of a large gas storage site or gas availability in countries defined as politically unstable could affect the trend of the natural gas market.
Geographical position of a country. The geographical position of a country may facilitate more or less the connections with large gas reserves or with strategic gas transit hubs.
Availability of other energy resources for thermal production. The presence of other energy resources guarantees energy independence from the natural gas network failure
Interruptions of gas supply that could occur in the gas system determine a non-continuity of the service. Traditionally, interruptions have been divided into short and long. Short interruptions are those whose duration is shorter than a standard value defined in regulation. For example, the Italian regulation defines an interruption as short when the duration is less than or equal to 120 min. However, interruptions are considered as long when exceeding such standard duration.
According to its nature, interruptions could be also classified as follows:
Scheduled interruptions (also called interruptions with notice), which take place due to scheduled operations of maintenance of the system (transmission and distribution). Usually, operators notify the customers at least 24 h before a planned interruption occurs, specifying the date, time, and duration for the scheduled activities. Generally, among the activities considered as scheduled interruptions, the more relevant are the following:
Ordinary/planned system maintenance, scheduled by the network operator (replacements of working parts of valves, of piping, etc.)
Extraordinary maintenance, scheduled by the network operator (the rollout of the meters replacing)
Extraordinary maintenance, requested by the customers (request for a metrological test, leakage test, etc.)
Unscheduled interruptions (or without notice), which are unexpected events that occur on the gas system network and cannot be forecasted by the network operators. Among the reasons, those which can motivate an interruption without notice can be considered:
Congestion of the pipelines in specific nodes of the network, defined as the impossibility of the system to meet the energy needs of end users. It could be of two types:
Commercial congestion, due to the not commercial availability of the gas on the wholesale market
Technical congestion, due to the non-physical presence of sufficient quantity of gas to meet the energy needs
Extraordinary maintenance operations because one of the following events occurs:
Detection of gas leakage from any part of the supply system (meters, pipelines, compression cabin, valves, etc.)
Presence of water in the gas pipelines or in the meters
Tampering of the network system (vandalism act, close of the meter valve, damage)
Blocking of the pressure regulator in the compression cabin
Pressure level out of the range of the proper operation of the system
Political issue that determines unpredictable events such as acts of public authorities or such as the gas crisis of 2014 because of the political instability in the relationship with Russia.
Natural catastrophe, unusual natural events for which has been declared a state of emergency by the competent authority, such as the heart quake in the center of Italy, which happened in the summer of 2016, which determined the damage of several pipelines and compression cabins.
Strikes or rejection of the authorization documents by the competent authority (not taken into account in this book chapter)
A gas accident, defined as an event involving any apparatus of the gas network that determines serious injuries or deaths of people, or damage to people’s goods not lower than an economic value established by the law. For example, in Italy, this economic value is 1000 euros (Article 28, paragraph 28.1). The causes of a gas accident could be multiple, such as gas leakage (voluntary or not); an uncontrolled combustion caused by insufficient ventilation, etc.
An emergency, defined as an event that can put into risk the safety and the continuity of supply in large proportions of the distribution/transmission network. An emergency can be caused by:
Unplanned unavailability of service at delivery points or interconnection points.
Unplanned out of service at the high, medium, or low-pressure networks that result in the interruption of the gas distribution without notice to one or more end users.
Gas leakage on the pipelines.
Damage caused by excess or defect of pressure in the network compared to the values provided by the current technical standards.
Depending on country-specific regulation, an emergency could be defined in different ways. For example, in Italy, and according to Article 27, paragraph 27.1, an emergency is considered an event that causes the interruption of the gas distribution without notice to at least a number of 250 end users and for the duration of 24 hours.
6.1 Gas network constraints in the United States of America
In the United States, the wide network of interstate and intrastate pipelines that runs throughout the country has several open issues to solve in order to strengthen the stability and reliability of the American gas network:
Implementation of existing pipelines and infrastructure. In spite of the growth in consumption, the US transmission infrastructure does not properly cover all the country and large areas suffer the lack of sufficient pipelines with the adequate capacity for gas delivery, such as the Northwest and New England [35]. In order to face this constraint, new upcoming projects are expected to increase the number and capacity of the existing pipelines in order to transmit natural gas from production centers to consuming markets or exports terminals. Recent projects intended to increase the reach of natural gas produced in the Marcellus and Utica regions of the Northeastern United States (see Figure 7). New infrastructures are expected to be built from the Appalachia production between 2015 and 2025.
Implementation of new pipelines and processing infrastructure. Forecast of energy needs beyond 2025 expects a significant impact of the growth in demand for gas-fired power generation on the existing pipeline system. In particular, to face the growth in electric demand, additional pipelines are needed in order to ensure the system’s reliability. The gas demand for power generation will increase by 73% between 2014 and 2025, in comparison to the 39% increase between 2005 and 2014. New pipelines and processing infrastructure are required to face this growing demand and to connect the end user to new supply source [37].
Reduction of natural gas losses. Local distribution companies (LDCs) have been pursuing the replacement of leak-prone pipes in order to reduce natural gas losses from infrastructure systems, contributing to the increase in safety of the transmission system. Now, the mileage of cast iron distribution pipes has been reduced just for 25% between 2005 and 2014 [38].
Increment in state incentives. New capital expenditures have to be provided by State legislators for building new pipelines and expanding or repurposing existing ones. Such investments should be applied also to other infrastructures, such as compressor and pumping stations [39]. In spite of the growing awareness of the stakeholders about the potential environmental benefits of reducing natural gas losses, many reforms are required on the natural gas infrastructure.
Introduction of DR programs. The introduction of new DR programs for the management of the consumption could help to face the temporary lack of sufficient pipelines with the adequate capacity for the NG delivery (such as Northwest and New England). Indeed, putting in evidence the advantage of this kind of strategies is one of the main objectives of this book chapter.
Figure 7.
Implementation of new pipelines in USA (source: [36]).
6.2 Gas network constraints in Europe
Past gas supply disruptions as a result of the political turbulence between Russia and Ukraine increased EU dependency on gas imports and the risks of the security supply. Therefore, a reliable and interconnected system able to face the EU domestic energy needs should be implemented. Depending on the duration and on the level of the demand, ENTSOG12 shows that potential disruptions may directly affect the majority of EU Member States, except France, Spain, and Portugal, which may be supplied from the south interconnections. Indirect effects would include increases in the prices of LNG for the entire EU. The resilience of the gas infrastructure needs to get improved, carrying on the following implementations:
Improvement of the existing pipelines. The increasing dependence on imports needs the improvement of the existing pipelines. The major issue is the limited connections between the Western pipeline and the Eastern infrastructures. In order to facilitate the creation of a reliable and robust gas system throughout Europe, the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas (ENTSOG), in cooperation with Gas Infrastructure Europe (GIE) implemented the Gas Infrastructure Map, which provides an overview of the existing gas infrastructures and establishes a reference for information of their trends over time.
Diversification of supply routes. In order to reduce the dependency of imports from Russia (the owner of the 23% of the total proved reserves of natural worldwide, as shown in Figure 8) and unstable transit countries, new pipelines need to be built re-routing the Russian imports (i.e. Nord Stream, Yamal, and Blue Stream).
Implementation of reverse flow pipelines. Even if establishing a reverse flow is relatively easy since a technical point of view, there are still many restrictions in the main pipelines, which both hinder competition and decrease the security of supply. The potential to operate pipelines in two directions increases the resilience in case of a supply disruption [41].
Improvement of energy efficiency. It should be considered a potential in the energy-efficient design of the transmission system. These days, 5% of the energy is lost in the transmission grid.
Harmonization of the standards. The diversification and non-integration of the standards adopted by the different countries for technical building and daily operations do not favor the system management across the system borders. A higher degree of standardization is required. Efforts are required so as to regulate the third-party access to the grid (TPA) in free conditions, as well as to improve information requirements to ensure transparency.
Improvement of the security of supply. After the physical breakdowns of energy transmission networks following the crises with transit countries (Ukraine in 2006 and 2008 and Belarus in 2007), EU has been forced to adopt the strategy of diversifying supply routes which would gradually reduce its dependence on such transit countries. An improvement in the energy network and strict cooperation between states is essential so as to ensure a timely response in case of crises.
Introduction of DR programs. The implementation of the DR programs could reduce the vulnerability to gas supply shocks, facilitating the development of an integrated gas market, reducing the import dependency and the variation of natural consumption due to the climate change issue. Some of the most significant benefits of DR programs in the short term in European countries may be:
Management of sudden supply disruption due to catastrophic events (heart quake) and/or to political issues such as in the case of disruption of all supplies from Russia.
Management of the seasonal storage. The EU’s gas storage, together with increased scope for reverse flows, can play a mitigating role in the event of supply disruption.
Management of the growing variable trend of natural gas consumption and network congestion. The demand for natural gas has traditionally been characterized by a highly cyclic trend depending on the season and on the climatic changes. Generally speaking, gas demand is expected to be higher in January and February, and lower during the months of July and August. Correspondently, and in order to meet the cyclical demand, the base-load storage capacity is typically withdrawn in winter (to meet increased demand, while storage injection typically takes place in summer (to store excess gas in preparation for the next upcycle). The recent increase in the use of gas for power generation has resulted in an anomalous and variable behavior of the gas demand. Hence, the increasing use of natural gas so as to generate electricity results in a peak of demand during the warmest months, whose magnitude is as pronounced as the peak in electricity consumption for air conditioning and lighting systems.
Figure 8.
Proven reserves of natural gas worldwide. Top 10 countries (source: [40]).
7. Barriers to the implementation of demand response strategies in the natural gas system
Barriers and handicaps related to the implementation of DR in power systems have been discussed in many studies. One of the most recent examples can be found in Alcázar-Ortega et al. [42], which results from the European project DRIP. Among other results, this project produced a methodology for the systematic evaluation of handicaps, which prevents the implementation of DR strategies in the operation of power systems. Considering this work and based on the similarities previously identified between power and natural gas systems, a preliminary evaluation of barriers can be assessed or referred to the gas side.
One of the main barriers is the difficulty for customer’s acceptance: customers are not willing to reduce their consumption. The first reason is that consumers are not aware of the potential they may have, and they do not know that someone could be willing to pay in exchange for such flexibility. Another reason is that, when being aware of this potential, customers perceive that the economic incentives they may receive are not attractive enough. This barrier can be faced by providing customers with evidence about the economic profitability that DR actions may provide to their energy bills. While this is a difficult task, there are some tools for this purpose (some examples are provided by the aforementioned DRIP project), developed in the last years for the electricity markets that may be used for this purpose but applied to the natural gas sector.
Tools are also necessary so as to jump barriers on the side of retailers or system operators, as the potential offered by customers is difficult to forecast, and the benefits that DR may mean for their business are not easy to assess. However, the benefits of DR have been also proved in power systems for these activities, so similar results can be expected in the natural gas sector. Retailers can find in DR resources a help for the optimization of their portfolio and the reduction of imbalances, with significant cost savings. Regarding the gas system operators, the most significant barrier for them is probably the utilization of small and medium flexible consumptions. In fact, the few examples that can be found about the utilization of DR in natural gas systems are just related to very large consumers (as discussed in Section 2.3). Therefore, the empowering of the figure of the aggregator in natural gas systems is essential for the proper integration of DR resources coming from the residential and commercial sectors, as well as medium and small industries. A significant role can be played here by the managers of district heating networks, as they can provide the system operator with flexible customers willing to play not only with their gas supply but also their hot water or steam utilization. The system operator can utilize the potential offered by flexible customers so as to solve technical constraints related to the maximum capacity of pipelines in periods of peak demand. Additionally, the usage of natural gas storage can be optimized, allowing the system operator to combine both storage and DR resources to guarantee the optimum management of the whole system.
The development of the concept of Smart Energy Systems in recent times, which provides a strong metering and communication structure of the natural gas network, is definitively enabling energy grids for the easier utilization of customer’s flexibility. However, as indicated in [5], the impact of DR programs, most of which would be similar to those existing for power systems, has to be evaluated and validated. At present, except for the few examples mentioned in this section, there are no real experiences demonstrating this potential. Therefore, the implementation of pilots arises as one essential step to provide credibility for considering DR.
There are some opinions against the utilization of DR strategies in the natural gas sector since some experts think that DR programs for gas consumers may be alluring but impractical [43]. Nevertheless, this book chapter proves the suitability of DR strategies applied to the natural gas sector, where similar problems to those arising in power systems can be afforded by this media.
8. Novel resources: hydrogen
One of the most promising tendencies in clean energy sources is the utilization of hydrogen, which has been identified as the fuel for the energy transition of the 21st century by many institutions and scientists as remarked by Cheli et al. [44]. Indeed, mixing hydrogen with natural gas improves the utilization rate of this hydrocarbon while it also reduces greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants [45].
Natural gas and hydrogen may be mixed in the range from 10–20% in order to be compatible with existing natural gas infrastructures [46]. Indeed, in Italy, the gas system operator, Snam, has demonstrated the feasibility of introducing hydrogen into the natural gas pipelines at rates between 5% and 10% [47]. Some experiences have also taken place regarding the metering devices in the natural gas infrastructure, concluding that fractions of hydrogen up to 15% in the natural gas system do neither affect the reliability nor durability of diaphragm gas meters [48].
Hydrogen can be obtained by electrolysis, applying an electrical current. Therefore, this method can be used when renewable energy production is higher than demand during valley periods, which would increase the efficiency of the whole energy system [44]. Such efficiency increment could be maximized by allowing the participation of consumers by means of demand response services, as discussed in the previous sections.
9. Conclusions
Demand Response has been used for years in the operation and management of power systems. However, few experiences exist in the natural gas sector, where the application of DR strategies is almost non-existing.
The most significant experiences on DR utilization in the gas sector, as well as the main issues to take into account for the implementation of DR actions in gas networks, have been highlighted in this chapter. This kind of mechanisms offers many benefits either for customers and other stakeholders within the gas sector and may increase significantly the efficiency of the gas system when used in balance services by the gas system operator. Moreover, due to the similarities existing between the power and natural gas systems, the application of similar strategies used in electric systems for the gas sector should be considered as the natural evolution for a more efficient and operative management. Together with that, new strategies such as the injection of hydrogen in the gas network may also contribute to the higher efficiency of the whole system, reducing emissions and helping to integrate renewable resources.
The barriers that may prevent the utilization of DR resources in the natural gas system are also discussed here. However, many of them can be solved, thanks to the new structure that today is being given to the energy systems based on the concept of smart grid, which is discussed in this chapter. It is indeed in energy systems structured according to the smart grid configuration, where the application of DR is more useful and profitable.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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First of all, different experiences performed worldwide regarding the application of demand response principles to increase the efficiency and operability of natural gas networks are presented. Next, the characteristics of the natural gas system to be configured according to the smart grid architecture are discussed, including the necessary agents for the proper functioning of such infrastructure. After that, the current state of installation of gas smart meters in some European countries is presented, according to the massive rollout process promoted by the European Union. Barriers that prevent the full exploitation of demand response resources related to natural gas systems are presented in the next section. After that, technical constraints which may be solved by using demand response are presented. 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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. State of art of the smart metering infrastructure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Pilots and cases of application",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Architecture of the smart natural gas system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1 Agents in a smart natural gas system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2 New agents: aggregators",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Massive rollout of smart gas meters in Europe",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Italy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Luxembourg",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Ireland",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.4 Netherlands",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.5 United Kingdom",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.6 France",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Demand response experiences in natural gas systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. 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Steady-state analysis of a natural gas distribution network with hydrogen injection to absorb excess renewable electricity. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2021;46:25562-25577'},{id:"B45",body:'Kong M, Feng S, Xia Q, Chen C, Pan Z, Gao Z. Investigation of mixing behavior of hydrogen blended to natural gas in gas network. Sustainability. 2021;13(4255):1-17'},{id:"B46",body:'National Grid, Atlantic Hydrogen Inc. Hydrogen-Enriched Natural Gas: Bridge to an Ultra-Low Carbon World. Fredericton, NB: Atlantic Hydrogen; 2009'},{id:"B47",body:'Alverà M. Rivoluzione idrogeno: La piccola modelocal che può salvare il mondo. Trento: Mondadori; 2020'},{id:"B48",body:'Jaworski J, Kułaga P, Blacharski T. Study of the effect of addition of hydrogen to natural gas on diaphragm gas meters. Energies. 2020;13(3006):1-20'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"https://www.endesaeduca.com/Endesa_educa/recursos-interactivos/smart-city."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"http://www.autorita.energia.it/it/com_stampa/14/140908cs.htm."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"http://flexmeter.polito.it/index.php/project."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Prosumer is a neologism applied to consumers which also are able to produce electricity that can be delivered to the grid."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32009L0072&from=en."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"http://www.gasnetworks.ie/en-IE/About-Us/Our-commitment/Marketplace/Smart-meters."},{id:"fn8",explanation:"https://www.smartenergygb.org/en/about-smart-meters/what-is-a-smart-meter."},{id:"fn9",explanation:"The interruptibility program is regulated in the Resolution 25 July 2006 from the General Direction of Energy Policy and Mines. Available from: https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2006-14314."},{id:"fn10",explanation:"The characteristics of interruptible supplies are described in: http://www2.nationalgrid.com/uk/Industry-information/Gas-transmission-system-operations/Interruptions-to-supply/."},{id:"fn11",explanation:"More information about this consortium is available at: http://www.edgar-program.com [Accessed: April 18, 2017]."},{id:"fn12",explanation:"ENTSOG is the European Network of Transmission System Operators for gas. More information ca be found at: http://www.entsog.eu."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Lina Montuori",address:"lmontuori@upvnet.upv.es",affiliation:'
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Universitat Politècnica de València, Institute for Energy Engineering, Valencia, Spain
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Open Access background
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
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At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
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OAI-PMH
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As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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License
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Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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Peer Review Policies
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All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
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OA Publishing Fees
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The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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Digital Archiving Policy
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IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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Open Science
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Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
\\n\\t
Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
\\n\\t
Reproducible research data and re-analysis
\\n\\t
Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\\n\\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\\n\\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\\n\\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\\n\\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\\n\\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
\\n
\\n\\n
We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\n\n
OAI-PMH
\n\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\n
License
\n\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\n
Peer Review Policies
\n\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\n
OA Publishing Fees
\n\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\n
Open Science
\n\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\n
Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\n
\n\t
Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
\n\t
Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
\n\t
Reproducible research data and re-analysis
\n\t
Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\n\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\n\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\n\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
\n
\n\n
We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\n\n
\n\t
Open Access
\n\t
Open Data
\n\t
Open Metrics and Impact
\n\t
Open Source
\n
\n\n
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Fauchais and A. Vardelle",authors:[{id:"100195",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Vardelle",slug:"vardelle",fullName:"Vardelle"},{id:"100197",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Fauchais",slug:"pierre-fauchais",fullName:"Pierre Fauchais"}]},{id:"16199",doi:"10.5772/17020",title:"Characterization and Properties of Chitosan",slug:"characterization-and-properties-of-chitosan",totalDownloads:34316,totalCrossrefCites:41,totalDimensionsCites:86,abstract:null,book:{id:"158",slug:"biotechnology-of-biopolymers",title:"Biotechnology of Biopolymers",fullTitle:"Biotechnology of Biopolymers"},signatures:"Elson Santiago de Alvarenga",authors:[{id:"27012",title:"Dr.",name:"Elson Santiago",middleName:null,surname:"de Alvarenga",slug:"elson-santiago-de-alvarenga",fullName:"Elson Santiago de Alvarenga"}]},{id:"22917",doi:"10.5772/24901",title:"Ulvan: A Versatile Platform of Biomaterials from Renewable Resources",slug:"ulvan-a-versatile-platform-of-biomaterials-from-renewable-resources",totalDownloads:3502,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:66,abstract:null,book:{id:"395",slug:"biomaterials-physics-and-chemistry",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials - Physics and Chemistry"},signatures:"Federica Chiellini and Andrea Morelli",authors:[{id:"60263",title:"Dr.",name:"Federica",middleName:null,surname:"Chiellini",slug:"federica-chiellini",fullName:"Federica Chiellini"},{id:"60747",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Morelli",slug:"andrea-morelli",fullName:"Andrea Morelli"}]},{id:"31731",doi:"10.5772/33783",title:"Gum Arabic: More Than an Edible Emulsifier",slug:"gum-arabic-more-than-an-edible-emulsifier",totalDownloads:12811,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:64,abstract:null,book:{id:"1332",slug:"products-and-applications-of-biopolymers",title:"Products and Applications of Biopolymers",fullTitle:"Products and Applications of Biopolymers"},signatures:"Mariana A. Montenegro, María L. Boiero, Lorena Valle and Claudio D. Borsarelli",authors:[{id:"97039",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio Darío",middleName:null,surname:"Borsarelli",slug:"claudio-dario-borsarelli",fullName:"Claudio Darío Borsarelli"},{id:"99668",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana A.",middleName:null,surname:"Montenegro",slug:"mariana-a.-montenegro",fullName:"Mariana A. Montenegro"},{id:"135406",title:"BSc.",name:"María L.",middleName:null,surname:"Boiero",slug:"maria-l.-boiero",fullName:"María L. Boiero"},{id:"135407",title:"BSc.",name:"Lorena",middleName:null,surname:"Valle",slug:"lorena-valle",fullName:"Lorena Valle"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58222",title:"Spray Drying: An Overview",slug:"spray-drying-an-overview",totalDownloads:7031,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"Spray drying is a well-known method of particle production which comprises the transformation of a fluid material into dried particles, taking advantage of a gaseous hot drying medium, with clear advantages for the fabrication of medical devices. In fact, it is quite common the production of microspheres and microcapsules designed for drug delivery systems. This review describes the different stages of the mechanism of the spray-drying process: atomization, droplet-to-particle conversion and particle collection. In particular, this work addresses the diversity of available atomizers, the drying kinetics and the importance of the configuration of the drying chamber, and the efficiency of the collection devices. The final properties of the dried products are influenced by a variety of factors, namely the spray dryer design, the feed characteristics and the processing parameters. The impact of those variables in optimizing both the spray-drying process and the synthesis of dried particles with desirable characteristics is discussed. The scalability of this manufacturing process in obtaining dried particles in submicron-to-micron scale favors a variety of applications within the food, chemical, polymeric, pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical industries.",book:{id:"6280",slug:"biomaterials-physics-and-chemistry-new-edition",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials - Physics and Chemistry - New Edition"},signatures:"Daniel Santos, Ana Colette Maurício, Vitor Sencadas, José\nDomingos Santos, Maria H. Fernandes and Pedro S. Gomes",authors:[{id:"56285",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Colette",middleName:null,surname:"Maurício",slug:"ana-colette-mauricio",fullName:"Ana Colette Maurício"},{id:"161695",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Domingos",slug:"jose-domingos",fullName:"José Domingos"},{id:"215518",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"daniel-santos",fullName:"Daniel Santos"},{id:"215519",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Sencadas",slug:"vitor-sencadas",fullName:"Vitor Sencadas"},{id:"215799",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"pedro-gomes",fullName:"Pedro Gomes"},{id:"215800",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"maria-helena-fernandes",fullName:"Maria Helena Fernandes"}]},{id:"23633",title:"The Use of Biomaterials to Treat Abdominal Hernias",slug:"the-use-of-biomaterials-to-treat-abdominal-hernias",totalDownloads:8450,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"1487",slug:"biomaterials-applications-for-nanomedicine",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials Applications for Nanomedicine"},signatures:"Luciano Zogbi",authors:[{id:"56634",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Zogbi",slug:"luciano-zogbi",fullName:"Luciano Zogbi"}]},{id:"65140",title:"Microbial Bioremediation and Different Bioreactors Designs Applied",slug:"microbial-bioremediation-and-different-bioreactors-designs-applied",totalDownloads:1936,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Microbial remediation of pollutants involves the use of microorganisms to degrade pollutants either completely to water and carbon dioxide (for organic pollutants) or into less toxic forms. In the case of nonbiodegradable inorganic compounds, bioremediation takes the form of bioaccumulation or conversion of one toxic species to a less toxic form for example Cr(VI) is converted to less toxic (III). Bioremediation is considered an environmentally friendly way for pollution clean-up. Microbial clean up can be applied in situ (in place of contamination) or ex situ (off the site of contamination). In situ remediation in the natural environment is deemed slow and often times difficult to control and optimize the different parameters affecting the bioremediation. To this end, use of engineered bioreactors is preferred. Engineered bioreactors providing for optimum conditions for microbial growth and biodegradation have been developed for use in bioremediation processes to achieve the different desired remediation goals. Bioreactors in use range in mode of operation from batch, continuous, and fed batch bioreactors and are designed to optimize microbial processes in relationship to contaminated media and nature of pollutant. Designed bioreactors for bioremediation range from packed, stirred tanks, airlift, slurry phase, and partitioning phase reactors amongst others.",book:{id:"7727",slug:"biotechnology-and-bioengineering",title:"Biotechnology and Bioengineering",fullTitle:"Biotechnology and Bioengineering"},signatures:"Memory Tekere",authors:[{id:"231753",title:"Prof.",name:"Memory",middleName:null,surname:"Tekere",slug:"memory-tekere",fullName:"Memory Tekere"}]},{id:"67432",title:"Microencapsulation and Its Uses in Food Science and Technology: A Review",slug:"microencapsulation-and-its-uses-in-food-science-and-technology-a-review",totalDownloads:1909,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Microencapsulation is a group of technologies aiming to produce small particles called microcapsules that can be released at a specific speed under certain conditions. Microencapsulation technology is used in the pharmaceutical, agrochemical, and food industries; however, microcapsule production is most challenging for applications in the food industry owing to the high costs of the technique, which may make the final product too expensive. Common methods for microencapsulation include spray-drying and coacervation, and different wall materials and filling materials can be used for both techniques. In this review, we summarize current methodologies used for microencapsulation, with a focus on applications in the food industry.",book:{id:"6995",slug:"microencapsulation-processes-technologies-and-industrial-applications",title:"Microencapsulation",fullTitle:"Microencapsulation - Processes, Technologies and Industrial Applications"},signatures:"Pedro Henrique Rodrigues do Amaral, Patrícia Lopes Andrade and Leilane Costa de Conto",authors:[{id:"268220",title:"Dr.",name:"Leilane Costa De",middleName:null,surname:"Conto",slug:"leilane-costa-de-conto",fullName:"Leilane Costa De Conto"},{id:"274532",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro Henrique Rodrigues Do",middleName:null,surname:"Amaral",slug:"pedro-henrique-rodrigues-do-amaral",fullName:"Pedro Henrique Rodrigues Do Amaral"},{id:"274534",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrícia Lopes",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade",slug:"patricia-lopes-andrade",fullName:"Patrícia Lopes Andrade"}]},{id:"64746",title:"HyStem®: A Unique Clinical Grade Hydrogel for Present and Future Medical Applications",slug:"hystem-a-unique-clinical-grade-hydrogel-for-present-and-future-medical-applications",totalDownloads:4468,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Medicine needs targeted, minimally-invasive delivery of protein-based and cell-based therapeutics to increase efficacy and reduce occurrence and severity of side effects. Local delivery requires a matrix to sequester and protect the medicine until its effect can be realized. The problem is, unlike stable small molecule drugs, proteins and cells cannot be co-packaged with a matrix in a prefilled syringe—they must be mixed with their matrix at the point of care. HyStem hydrogels fix this problem: They are arguably the first commercially available, GMP-qualified biodegradable hydrogels both with the ability to formulate with either proteins or cells in the hospital/surgical suite and with a history of safe use in humans. HyStem is designed to be protein, cell-friendly and in situ crosslinkable, permitting homogeneous mixing of therapeutics. One HyStem formulation is 510(k) cleared and another the subject of two European clinical trials. Key applications include localized delivery of therapeutic growth factors, antibodies, and cells. In the future, we envision HyStem’s flexibility and clinical use history forming the basis for a new generation of therapeutics. Two examples described here include HyStem’s use for patient-derived organoid culture to develop new drugs as well as for bioprinting to manufacture new organs.",book:{id:"8353",slug:"hydrogels-smart-materials-for-biomedical-applications",title:"Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Hydrogels - Smart Materials for Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Thomas I. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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