\r\n\tThe aim and objectives are to illustrate the current status of ethanol production from different feedstocks and the state of technologies involved in ethanol production from such different feedstock.
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1. Introduction
Magnetic nanoparticles (NPs) have been the focus of intense studies, both at the fundamental and at the technological level. Among many promising materials, nanostructured spinel ferrites occupy a special place. These iron oxide‐based materials are easy and cheap to synthesize, are stable under a wide range of conditions and some family members present low toxicity for living organisms. Besides, due to their high reactivity toward several organic groups, ferrite surface offers a great versatility for ligand functionalization, which in many cases defines the ultimate application. In addition, one of the most prominent properties of spinel ferrite NPs is the onset of superparamagnetism. This phenomenon is a crucial feature for several biomedical applications [1], catalytic processes [2, 3] and environmental remediation strategies [1, 4–7]. Currently, there are available in the literature several extensive reviews covering these issues in detail [8, 9]. In this chapter, we focus primarily on adsorption and oxidation technologies for water decontamination using nanostructured spinel ferrites where particle functionalization plays a major role. In particular, we focus on basic topics concerning spinel ferrite NPs with an emphasis on the surface manipulation by chemical methods and how it is reflected in the properties and performances of the ultimate nanomaterial. Also, attention is paid to the machinery that governs the adsorption process in order to try to systematize the available data. Every step in this direction is aimed to improve and design newer and better solutions for the great challenge of water remediation.
2. Structural and magnetic properties
Spinel ferrites are mixed valence oxides where oxygen anions form a close‐packed cubic array, while metallic cations occupy randomly one‐eighth of the tetrahedral (A) sites and one‐half of the octahedral (B) interstices. This family is classified into the Fd3m space group with the general formula [M(1−i)Fei]A[MiFe(2−i)]BO4, where M (Fe, Ni, Mg, Mn, Zn, Co, etc.) is a divalent cation that shares with Fe(III) cations the occupancies of A and B sites, while i is defined as the inversion parameter. There are three possibilities [10]: (i) i = 0 yields a normal spinel such as ZnFe2O4; (ii) i = 1 yields an inverse spinel such as Fe3O4 and CoFe2O4 and (iii) for 0 < i < 1 cations are distributed on both sites yielding a partially inverted spinel such as MnFe2O4 in which i = 0.2. In addition, it is possible to synthesize mixed ferrites in the sense that different divalent cations could coexist in the same compound [11, 12]. All these possibilities open an amazing range for tailoring different properties [11, 13].
In the spinel structure (left panel of Figure 1), magnetic moments of sublattice A are coupled with magnetic moments of sublattice B in an antiferromagnetic fashion by superexchange interactions mediated by the oxygen anions [14]. Since spins in both lattices are generally uncompensated, the resulting net magnetic moment causes the material to display ferrimagnetic behavior [10]. As can be inferred, either the type of divalent ion or the average ion distribution plays a critical role in the magnetic properties of the material. This effect can be illustrated by varying the Zn content in the mixed ZnxFe3−xO4 ferrite [11] in which Zn2+ presents a zero magnetic moment (μ = 0) and a high tendency for tetrahedral A sites. In the interval 0 < x < 0.4, the saturation magnetization (MS) increases as x increases, since the antiferromagnetic A‐B interaction is progressively weakened, thus enhancing the net magnetic moment in sublattice B (see the right panel of Figure 1). However, for values of x near 1, A‐B interactions are no longer dominant, but the magnetism now depends on the very weak B‐B interactions, thus leading to a marked decrease of MS, which becomes zero at x = 1.
Figure 1.
Left: Representation of a partial spinel ferrite unit cell and the ferrimagnetic order of the structure (Reproduced from Ref. [10] with permission of the American Society of Chemistry). Right: Schematic view of the spin organization in sublattice A and B as a function of the content of Zn in ZnxFe3−xO4 (Adapted from Ref. [11] with permission of Wiley).
2.1. Nanomagnetism
Magnetic NPs differ from bulk magnetic materials mainly due to the finite size and surface effects. The reduction of size leads to a single magnetic domain at a particular size and the onset of superparamagnetism, while surface effects result in symmetry breaking of the crystal structure, which could also alter the magnetic properties. These new features are treated briefly below.
2.1.1. Single‐domain limit
Large magnetic particles usually have a multidomain structure, each domain separated from its neighbors by domain walls. As the particle diameter D or volume V is decreased, domain wall creation is no longer energy favorable for a specific size, leading to single‐domain NPs with all atomic spins aligned in the same direction. This critical particle diameter is characteristic for each material and is of the order of tens of nanometers (128 nm for Fe3O4) [9]. Since the spins are parallel within the NPs, magnetic reversal does not depend on wall displacement but is only possible by the coherent rotation of spins, which depends entirely on the effective anisotropy (Keff). Given that coercitivity (HC) is proportional to Keff, it is higher for nanomaterials with respect to their bulk counterparts. For single‐domain particles with uniaxial anisotropy, the anisotropy energy is defined as:
E(θ)=KeffVsin2θE1
Here, θ is the angle between the net magnetization and the easy axis of magnetization. For spherical particles, Keff can be expressed as:
Keff=KV+6DKSE2
Here, KV and KS are the volume and surface anisotropies, respectively. As can be seen, for ultra‐small NPs, the surface term may dominate the total anisotropy of the material.
2.1.2. Superparamagnetism
The product KeffV is the energy barrier for the coherent rotation of all atomic spins between the two equivalent easy axes of magnetization. As D is decreased, the thermal energy kBT eventually overcomes the energy barrier for a particular size, thus leading to thermal equilibrium of the total magnetic moment of the system. In this state, the resulting HC is zero and the system behaves like a paramagnet but with a huge magnetic moment. For an assembly of non‐interacting single‐domain NPs, each magnetic moment fluctuates with a relaxation time τ given by the Arrhenius‐Néel law [15]:
τ=τ0e(KeffV/kBT)E3
Here, τ0 is a characteristic time of the system and the actual magnetic state at a given T depends on the measuring time τm. If τ < τm, the systems are in the superparamagnetic state, and for τ > τm, the spins appear in a blocked state. The temperature for which τ=τm is the so‐called blocking temperature TB and is given by:
TB=KeffVkBln(τ0/τm)E4
One of the main advantages of ferrites is the possibility for tuning the magnetic properties by varying simply either the divalent cation or the arrangement of the metals into the spinel structure. For instance, in a series of nanoparticle ferrites MFe2O4 (M = Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Zn2+), Mohapatra et al. [16] could vary MS and TB by taking advantage of the differing magnetic moments and spin‐orbit coupling strengths of M2+ cation. Similar conclusions can be extracted from other reports [17]. Likewise, for ultra‐small CoFe2O4 NPs, the progressive variation in the inversion index (from a total to a partially inverted spinel) as D decreases is reflected in a decrease in the magnetocrystalline anisotropy and hence, in the HC of the material [18]. In other works, Tahar et al. [13] found that as Zn2+ substitutes Co2+ cations in 5‐nm‐mixed ZnxCo1−xFe2O4 ferrite NPs both HC and TB decrease, in accordance with progressive reduction of magnetocrystalline anisotropy, which is higher for octahedral coordinated Co2+ cations.
2.1.3. Surface effects
Progressive decrease in NPs’ size makes the number of atoms on the surface comparable with the number of atoms in the bulk. For magnetic NPs, this trend lowers MS and increases Keff as D decreases [19, 20]. The decrease in MS is associated with the presence of a magnetic dead layer, occurrence of spin canting or spins glass‐like behavior at the surface level. The increase in Keff is associated with the onset of surface anisotropy following Eq. (2).
The effect of surface coating in order to tune the magnetic properties of NPs is another area of active investigations. The adsorption of organic ligands could alter the particle size distribution, the interparticle interactions and the spin canting at the surface [21]. The overall effect seems to be the result of a complex interplay between the coordination mode, the capping density and the surface disorder in the synthesized sample [22]. In a careful study of adsorption of stilbene carboxylates and phosphonates as capping agents of 39 nm Fe3O4 NPs, Daou et al. [23] reported that carboxyl ligands tend to enhance spin canting at the surface of the oxide, leading to MS reduction; on the other hand, phosphonate ligands seem to mimic the iron coordination in the bulk, hence, MS of the NPs is unaltered as for uncovered Fe3O4. However, a direct correlation between magnetic measurements and the nature of the coordination bonding at the organic‐inorganic interface is still needed. Regarding the important case of carboxylates, Odio et al. [24] found that spin disorder is larger in chelating than in bridging complexes; it suggests that occurrence of this last geometry makes possible the partial reconstruction of the crystal field of iron ions in the bulk phase. In another report, Aslibeiki et al. [25] noted that tetraethylene glycol ligands attached to Fe3O4 surface also contribute to decrease the surface spin disorder. Similarly, Jia et al. [26] noted that in Co‐ and Ni‐mixed ferrite with SO42− attached to the surface, MS values increase with the content of superficial anions. In contrast, adsorption of carbonyl groups belonging to poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) capping chains of Mn ferrites seems to decrease MS values [27].
In an interesting paper, Vestal and Zhang [28] performed a systematic study of the correlation between the nature of the capping ligand (substituted benzenes) and the magnetic properties of MnFe2O4 ferrites with different particles’ diameter. They found that for very small NPs (4 nm), HC is reduced by ligand interaction with respect to the uncovered ferrite, while MS is enhanced. Such behavior is consistent with the fact that metal‐ligand interactions at the surface reduce KS, leading to a reduction of HC, and at the same time, they induce spin order at the surface. Furthermore, the authors showed that the higher the crystal field splitting energy of the surface complex, the smaller the magnitude of the spin‐orbit interaction parameter and hence, the smaller the KS value. The fact that such trends are less pronounced for larger particles (12 nm and 25 nm) reveals the importance of surface effects in HC and MS of single‐domain NPs. This point has been verified in other reports [16, 29]. Besides, the contribution of KS to Keff is revealed when comparing the HC variation of MnFe2O4 and CoFe2O4 particles with the same diameter and organic ligands: in the case of Co ferrite, the larger magnetocrystalline anisotropy masks KS variation, leading to nearly unchanged values of HC [30].
2.1.4. Magnetic interparticle interactions
The presence of magnetic interactions between particles has a great influence on superparamagnetism [31–33]. This effect alters the energy barrier for coherent rotation, which is no longer governed by only anisotropic contributions. The system becomes very complex and results in the difficulty to separate the contributions of different factors [34]. For ferrite NPs, the ordinary kinds of magnetic interactions are dipolar‐dipolar and direct exchange interactions between spins at the interface of particles in close contact [35]. The first contribution is almost ubiquitous in any system, given its anisotropic and long‐range nature, which could favor either ferro or antiferromagnetic alignment of the spins. The minimization of such an effect can only be achieved in samples where individual particles are well separated from each other, either by steric or by coulombic repulsions [25, 36]. The dipolar magnetic field generated by a single spherical particle is proportional to its volume; hence, the effect is more pronounced for large particles. In that case, the magnetic energy between two spheres decays with d−3, but smaller systems in the superparamagnetic state (where moments fluctuate) partially destroy the order induced by dipolar interactions, and hence, the energy associated decays with d−6. In the limit of strong interactions, particles do not relax according to their own energy barrier, but the magnetic evolution depends on the energy of the whole ensemble [22, 34, 36, 37].
In the presence of interparticle interactions (IPI), Eq. (4) for TB is modified to [38–40]:
TB=To+KeffVkBln(τ0/τm)E5
Here, To<TB is a measure of the strength of the IPI in the system. To determine To, TB needs to be measured at several different measuring frequencies fm = 1/τm. The presence of IPI is also determined by the quantity Φ=ΔTB/[TBΔlog10fm] with ΔTB=TB(2)−TB(1) being the difference in TB determined at two sufficiently different measuring frequencies fm(2) > fm(1) [41]. The magnitude of Φ < 0.13 signifies the presence of IPI with its strength increasing with decreasing magnitude of Φ. In a recent paper [42], Φ and To have been shown to be related by the equation:
Φ=Φo[1−(To/TB(1))]E6
In Eq. (6), Φ0=2.3026/{ln[f0/fm(2)]}. As noted above, measurements of TB at several different frequencies are essential in order to determine Keff since fo and To must also be determined simultaneously [40].
3. Synthesis
Synthesis of spinel ferrite NPs is a challenging task owing to their colloidal nature. A good methodology must yield well‐dispersed particles with uniform size and good crystallinity; besides, it is desirable that the synthetic setup allows for the tuning of structure and properties of the materials by simple modification of the conditions. Other important features entail the use of nontoxic reagents, low‐temperature processes and the requirement of simple scalable operations. The procedures for the synthesis of ferrite NPs are given in several reviews [2, 8]. Here, we outline some of the most common examples.
3.1. Co‐precipitation
Co‐precipitation is straightforward and efficient and can be extended for a wide variety of simple and mixed ferrites [12, 43, 44]. This method, developed by Massart, consists of the joint precipitation of an aqueous solution containing inorganic salts in the proper stoichiometry by increasing the solution pH. Ageing of the resulting particles can be assessed at room or higher temperatures. By changing experimental conditions (e.g., concentration of metal precursors, pH of the final solution, anion of initial salts, reaction time, reaction temperature and ionic strength), it is possible to obtain a wide variety of particle sizes and shapes [45, 46]. The main drawback relies on the difficulties for a proper separation of nucleation and growth stages, which leads to relative broad size distribution [45]. Besides, in some instances, the resulting powder is subjected to thermal annealing to enhance crystallinity [12, 43].
Nucleation and growth of NPs can be affected by the addition of surfactant molecules like sodium dodecyl sulfate [47], poly(acrylic) acid (PAA) chains [48] and hexadecyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) [49]. Variations in the surfactant content give rise to different particle sizes and morphologies of the as‐synthesized material. Other employed additives aiming to decrease the particle size dispersion are polymeric matrices like cellulose [50] and chitosan [51, 52]. A similar approach entailed the use of graphene oxide (GO) during the co‐precipitation step. After the formation of the ferrite/GO composite, GO is reduced to yield porous nanocomposites containing superparamagnetic ferrite NPs and reduced GO (rGO) is used as a functional material. The resulting material possesses high surface area since rGO avoids ferrite particle agglomeration. Ni, Co and Mn ferrites/rGO nanocomposites have been synthesized with this strategy [53–55]. Alternatively, some investigations have reported the use of organic amines, which can act as precipitating and stabilizing agents [17, 56, 57]. Alkanolamines limit and control the particle growth by forming surface complexes with M2+ cations resulting in a marked reduction in Co ferrite size as compared when using NaOH [56].
3.2. Thermal decomposition
This method utilizes thermal decomposition of organic metal complexes in a high boiling point solvent and in the presence of a surfactant. This approach yields monodisperse highly crystalline NPs and allows for the fine‐tuning of NP size and morphology by controlling several parameters like the solvent nature, kind and concentration of surfactant, aging temperature and reaction time. The typical setup with oleic acid (OA)/oleylamine (OAm) as surfactants can be used to obtain (ZnxM1−x)Fe2O4 (M = Fe2+, Mn2+) mixed ferrites with different Zn contents as the doping cation [11]. OAm is believed to assist OA deprotonation, which promotes the formation of iron carboxylates at the NP surface [58]. In a systematic study, Mohapatra et al. [16] have reported the synthesis of MFe2O4 (M = Mn2+, Co2+, Fe2+, Ni2+, Zn2+) NPs using chloride salts as precursors and OAm acting as a solvent, reducing agent and stabilizing surface capping agent. By decreasing the amine content, it was possible to obtain uniform NPs with D values between 2 and 9 nm. OAm chains seem to control the growth process: high concentration enables an extended coverage of the initial nuclei, which hampers a fast growth and leads to uniform small NPs.
In an important report on the synthesis of Fe3O4 and other ferrite NPs, Hyeon et al. [59] used iron(III) oleate as an organometallic precursor with the purpose to avoid environmental harmful reagents like Fe(CO)5 [60] and Fe[acac]3 [61]. Also, there is no need for external reducing agents and extra surfactant stabilizers [36, 61–63]. The authors obtained high yields of well‐crystallized monodispersed NPs with D values ranging from 9–22 nm by varying the solvent boiling point. Moriya et al. [64] introduced an interesting approach in which a pre‐synthesized trimetallic complex containing two Fe3+ cations and one divalent cation (Fe, Co, Mn) is decomposed in dibenzyl ether in the presence of benzylic acid (BA). The resulting nanocrystals showed uniform size with variable shapes (from truncated octahedrons to cubes) that can be tuned as BA concentration is increased; the nature of the weak intermolecular interactions between adsorbed BA molecules seems to play a key role to bring about the final morphology.
One drawback of the thermal decomposition method is that the as‐synthesized ferrite NPs do not disperse in water due to the hydrophobic surfactant adsorbed onto the surface, which leads to further phase transfer steps. To obtain directly water‐soluble NPs, the groups of Li [29] and Verma [58] introduced a variation in which 4–5 nm Fe and Co ferrites are obtained through the decomposition of metal acetylacetonates in the presence of pyrrolidones that act either as solvents or as hydrophilic stabilizing agents.
3.3. Polyol method
This is a variation of the thermal decomposition in which a given polyol acts as a high‐boiling solvent, reducing and stabilizer agent. Metal precursors are generally organic complexes like acetylacetonates and other carboxylate complexes [65]. Given that the reaction mixture is refluxed at the boiling point of the polyol, changing either the kind or concentration of the polyol leads to different particle D values [66–68], generally between 4 and 15 nm. The obtained NPs have a narrow size distribution and high crystallinity, although particle agglomeration could occur. There is question about the nature of the molecules adsorbed at the particle surface; some authors have stressed that polyol anchoring to the surface occurs through R‐O− interactions [69, 70], but others have claimed that at high temperatures, hydroxyl groups are oxidized to carboxylic acids, which are further adsorbed onto the oxide surface by forming carboxylate complexes [71]. In many applications, there is no need for further treatment, since the NPs are stable in polar solvents [71]; however, in order to increase water stability and avoid particle aggregation, several polymers can be added to the reaction mixture like PVP and poly(ethylene imine) [67]. Many approaches also include functional materials like carbon nanotubes (CNT) in order to yield magnetic composites with enhanced properties [72]. This method has been used for Fe3O4 as well as for other nanospinels such as Co and Zn ferrites [13, 18, 70, 73].
3.4. Hydrothermal and solvothermal synthesis
Hydrothermal methodology consists of the formation of an aqueous (or aqueous‐alcoholic) solution of the metal salts followed by the addition of a base until basic pH is reached. The resulting mixture is then transferred to a pressurized autoclave and subjected to T > 180 °C for many hours. The mechanism involves the initial formation of metal hydroxides, which are oxidized and converted into the crystalline spinel ferrite due to the thermal treatment at high pressures. The resulting NPs have high crystallinity and an acceptable narrow size distribution. Particle size and shape can be effectively tuned by varying the metal concentration, solvent composition, temperature and reaction time. The addition of surfactants like CTAB [74] and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) [75] can change the shape of NPs and aid to control the growth and avoid agglomeration. This method can be adapted for the in situ synthesis of ferrite composites with functional materials like rGO [76, 77]; after base addition, metal hydroxides are adsorbed onto GO, and both spinel crystallization and GO reduction (by the action of supercritical water) occur during hydrothermal treatment. As a result, the size of near‐spherical Zn ferrite NPs decreases as the GO content increases. On the contrary, the absence of GO sheets yielded NPs with a rod‐like shape [78]. An alternative procedure by Komarneni et al. [79] involves hydrothermal treatment under microwave radiation, leading to a drastic reduction in reaction times to just few minutes; this approach was useful for many ferrites.
Solvothermal synthesis can be understood as a modified hydrothermal process where water is replaced by an organic solvent. For instance, n‐octanol along with sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate has been employed for the preparation of mixed ferrite NPs of Ni and Co with several compositions and varying sizes (7–16 nm), which was tuned as a function of the reaction time [26]. OA can also be used as a steric stabilizer in the reaction mixture using n‐pentanol as a solvent [22]; increasing OA content decreases D from 19 to 5 nm and changes the particle morphology from nanoplatelets to well‐dispersed nanospheres. Other approaches reported the use of diol molecules as solvents [25, 80, 81]. Bastami et al. [80] introduced PEG and PVP as polymeric surfactants, which bind preferentially at the surface of the near normal (i = 0.2) MnFe2O4 spinel ferrite compared to the inverse spinel Fe3O4 NPs synthesized similarly. As a consequence, an increase in D was noted for magnetite relative to Mn ferrite. Such behavior can be rationalized by taking into account the larger content of highly reactive Fe(III) species in octahedral coordination in the normal ferrite. The same procedure has been used for including GO in the reaction mixture [81]; since polyols can act as reducing agents under these conditions, the simultaneous reduction of GO and the formation of ferrite NPs are verified. Other methods used for synthesizing ferrite NPs include sol‐gel [28, 82, 83], micro‐emulsion [10, 36, 84], biogenic [85, 86], auto‐ignited combustion [87–89], electrochemical [90] and mechanical [91] methods.
4. Functionalization
Surface functionalization of nanostructured ferrites is a crucial step in the design of nanodevices for many applications since proper functionalization determines the final use and allows control over the physico‐chemical processes at the surface, thus tuning several magnetic, optical and electrical properties in the desired direction. Although several synthetic methods allow in situ functionalization of obtained ferrite NPs, this approach is not always enough, and postsynthetic surface functionalization becomes necessary. For example, biomedical and environmental applications require hydrophilic NPs with definite chemical groups. The crucial feature that allows for surface functionalization is the availability of superficial transition metal d orbitals acting as Lewis acids in the presence of donor ligands. Fortunately, spinel ferrite surface is reactive toward many chemical groups, which provide room for multiple combinations. Ligands comprise many low and high molecular weight compounds [92]; functional groups available for surface complexation include carboxylic acids [93–95], amides [27, 29], hydroxyl [70, 96], phosphonic [73, 97] and hydroxamic acids [73].
There are mainly three approaches to make hydrophilic functional NPs: (i) ligand exchange reaction, (ii) silica coating and (iii) polymer coating. Ligand exchange reactions effectively transfer hydrophobic particles to aqueous medium by the replacement of hydrophobic ligands with hydrophilic ones, without affecting the magnetic core considerably. However, for some applications, magnetic NPs can also be transferred from polar to nonpolar mediums [98, 99]. Small ligands stabilize the NPs mainly by coulombic repulsion of ionized groups, like quaternary ammonium cations and carboxylates [100]; charged groups not only stabilize the magnetic suspension but also reinforce water affinity by facile solvation. Conversely, macromolecular ligands stabilize NPs by interparticle steric repulsions due to extended conformations that they can adopt in contact with good solvents [101]. In cases when the polymer carries ionisable groups, as PAA [34, 93, 101], coulombic repulsions enhance their capabilities as a stabilizer.
Silica coating has the advantage that provides excellent chemical stability to the magnetic core while preventing magnetic interactions, which is traduced into colloidal stability. Following the hydrolysis‐condensation method established by Stöber [102], it is possible to achieve silica shells with controlled thickness by careful addition of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) to the NP dispersion without the appearance of individual silica particles, which in turn allows for a fine‐tuning of magnetic interactions [103]. Furthermore, silica coating can be functionalized with several organosilanes containing suitable groups like ‐SH [104–106] and ‐NH [105], as depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Scheme of the synthesis of amine and thiol functionalization of core magnetite NPs protected with a silica shell (Adapted from Ref. [105] with permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry).
Two main routes for polymer coating of NPs [107, 108] are: (i) functionalization of the NP surface with a molecule that acts as an initiator for further interfacial‐controlled polymerization [109, 110] and (ii) synthesis of the polymer as the first step followed by surface anchoring [111–114]. The latter is simpler and allows for a wide variety of macromolecules, provided they bear suitable functional groups for surface binding. The former, although more laborious, has the advantage that it is possible to control the surface density of the grafted polymer and the length of the growing chains [115]. A shortcoming concerning macromolecular coating of magnetic NPs emerges when high mass magnetizations are required. Since polymers do not contribute to magnetization, mass magnetization of highly functionalized NPs drops noticeably, and so they might disable the whole system.
Conjugation after primary NP synthesis and water stabilization constitutes the final step prior to environmental and biomedical applications. It affords the ultimate precise chemical functions. Several strategies have been reported to achieve this goal entailing many known organic reactions [107]. For example, Zhao et al. [116] obtained hydroxamic acid‐decorated Fe3O4/poly(acrylamide) (PAM) nanocomposites by treating the amide bonds with hydroxylamine solution and Zhao et al. [117] introduced amine groups by reacting ethylenediamine with a polymer containing epoxy moieties previously attached to Fe3O4 NPs. A very similar approach was employed in order to obtain thiol groups by adding NaSH to episulfide moieties [118]. Amide and ester formation are nice strategies to achieve NPs conjugation; in these reactions, carbodiimides are used as effective coupling agents. Following this strategy, Ren et al. [119] incorporated EDTA ligands to Fe3O4@SiO2@chitosan particles through amide bonds between EDTA –COO− moieties and –NH2 groups in chitosan shell (see Figure 3), while Ge et al. [120] incorporated a polycarboxylic acid into amine‐decorated magnetite. Rare sulfur‐containing functional groups have been incorporated from chitosan modification, as is the case of xanthate‐decorated magnetite NPs [121]. Thiol‐ene reactions have also employed to include phosphonic acid moieties in a thiol‐decorated nanoplatform [122]; the kinetics and efficiency of this reaction prevent phosphonic acid depletion due to surface binding. The reaction is depicted in Figure 4.
Figure 3.
Synthesis of EDTA‐containing magnetic NPs by amidation of chitosan (Adapted from Ref. [119] with permission of Elsevier).
Figure 4.
Synthesis of diphosphonic acid‐containing magnetic NPs by a facile thiol‐ene reaction (Adapted from Ref. [122] with permission of the American Chemical Society).
Coordination reactions like MOF construction have also been developed at ferrite surface. Fe3O4 NPs decorated with carboxyl groups were conjugated with a zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF‐8) for the adsorption of contaminants [123, 124]. Such MOF was grown in a step‐by‐step assembly, initiated by the Zn2+ chelation to the oxide surface through carboxyl groups, resulting in a magnetic core surrounded by the ZIF shell. By varying the number of growth cycles, it is possible to tune the thickness of the MOF shell and hence, the interparticle distance between the magnetic cores. Another inorganic reaction at the interface of magnetic NPs reported recently [125] consists of the deposition of hydrous lanthanum oxide over Fe3O4@SiO2 core‐shell NPs simply by adding LaCl3 at basic pH in the presence of the magnetic material. Nanostructures composed of ferrites and noble metals have interesting and promising optical and magnetic properties; the synthesis of such materials can be easily performed by reduction of the corresponding metal salt in the presence of ferrite NPs [126].
In the case of surface thiol‐decorated nanostructures, special care must be taken, since free thiol groups are prone to be oxidized during the synthetic procedures. For example, several papers have reported the oxidation of DMSA and cysteine to disulfide and sulfoxide compounds in the presence of Fe3O4 NPs [24, 127–129]; these undesirable processes not only reduce the effective amount of –SH groups but also could alter magnetite phase. To overcome this drawback, Maurizi et al. [130] grafted PEG chains onto the oxide surface as steric barriers in order to avoid the formation of intermolecular disulfide bridges between adjacent DMSA molecules. More recently, Odio et al. [34] designed a novel PAA copolymer containing disulfide bridges; after Fe3O4 functionalization with this polymer, resulting NPs were treated with tributyl phosphine in order to reduce disulfide bridges to free –SH groups. Both strategies are depicted in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Two methods for thiol protection. Top: Steric hindrance by surface PEG grafting (Adapted from Ref. [130] with permission of the American Chemical Society). Bottom: Reversible thiol oxidation to disulfide bridges (Reproduced from Ref. [34] with permission of Elsevier).
5. Coordination chemistry at the surface
Since the nature of the metal‐ligand interactions at the interface of the ferrites plays a key role in the properties of NPs, efforts have been devoted to unravel the structure and implications of the surface complexes occurring for different types of ligands. For this purpose, spectroscopic techniques like FTIR, XPS, EXAF and XANES are usually employed [22, 24, 58, 122, 131–133]. Mössbauer spectroscopy has also been used since iron spectra are sensitive to spin reorganization after ligand binding and to the kind of iron site that participates in the surface complexes [23, 58, 131].
Specifically, Daou et al. [131] showed that phosphate ligands bind to magnetite surface by forming bidentate binuclear complexes with octahedral Fe(III) cations. In contrast, Costo et al. [21] suggested that phosphonates bind to the surface through mono‐dentate ligands. For carboxylates, it is reported that in solvothermal and thermal decomposition methods, OA is anchored to the surface by bridging bidentate complexes [22, 24, 134], a conclusion supported by a theoretical DFT study showing that the bidentate mode was the most stable configuration of iron‐oleate complex no matter the surface plane exposed to the ligand [135]. However, after ligand exchange reactions with other carboxylic acids, carboxylate complexes could form chelates [24, 34, 136]. The use of amine functional groups showed that long‐chain amine molecules adsorb at the surface of ferrites by N‐metal interactions [16, 137]. In contrast, if both OA and OAm are used in the ferrite synthesis, the mode of coordination of each functional group could depend on the concentration and molar ratio of the surfactants. Thus, if the surfactants are diluted in N‐methyl 2‐pyrrolidone with a molar ratio 1:1, Verma and Pravarthana [58] suggested by means of IR analysis that OA complexes retain the bidentate mode while OAm molecules appear protonated and associated to the surface through coulombic interactions. However, XPS studies of Wilson and Langell [133] indicated that if the reaction is performed without a solvent and a higher OAm proportion is employed, OAm is anchored to the surface by Fe‐N coordination, while OA binds to the surface though a mono‐dentate complex. Using IR studies, alcohols are reported to be anchored to the oxide surface by metal‐OH interactions [70]. Besides, ligands with thiol moieties anchor to magnetite surface by Fe(II)‐S interactions, as suggested by IR and XPS studies [24, 138]. Finally, cyclic amides like PVP and 2‐pyrrolidone seem to interact with ferrite surfaces through the carbonyl groups [27, 29]. Since this subject is not yet completely understood, computational methods are likely necessary to unravel the structural and electronic properties of surface complexes.
6. Environmental applications
In this section, we focus on two applications of nanostructured spinel ferrites for environmental remediation technologies in connection with water decontamination: adsorption and oxidation technologies.
6.1. Adsorption technologies for removal of inorganic and organic contaminants
Adsorption is often the most suitable choice for removal of toxic substances in drinking or waste waters, mainly due to its simplicity and high efficiency; the main disadvantage is the sorbent separation after the adsorption process, which can become tedious and energy consuming. However, the use of magnetic materials for adsorption makes the task of sorbent separation easier by allowing magnetic decantation with a permanent magnet. The high surface area of ferrite NPs along with their room temperature superparamagnetism and the great versatility for binding specific functional groups on their surfaces for specific contaminants makes them ideal candidates for the design and development of innovative adsorption strategies. Although several recent reviews covering this subject are available [6, 7, 139, 140], these have generally focused on the thermodynamics and kinetics of the adsorption process and relatively less attention has been paid to unravel the atomic and molecular nature of the interactions occurring at the interface. Although this is a difficult task, this information is crucial for the improvement and optimization of the nanoadsorbent.
6.1.1. Heavy metal cations
Heavy metal cations, found in natural and waste waters resulting from industrial activities, comprise a wide family of hazardous substances with a high impact on human health [141]. Here, we concentrate on those reported studies with a focus on two directions: (i) improving the adsorption capacity and/or selectivity toward a given contaminant by surface functionalization of ferrite NPs and (ii) shedding light on the adsorption mechanism at a molecular and atomic level.
6.1.1.1. Amine‐functionalized nanosystems
Fe3O4 NPs functionalized with several amino‐containing polymers were tested as Cr(VI) and Cu(II) sorbents in aqueous medium [142], showing the increase of adsorption capacity for both cations with the number of –NH moieties in the ligand incorporated to the magnetic nanoplatform. Adsorption and spectroscopic data suggested that metal removal involves coulombic interactions, ion exchange processes and formation of complexes between amine groups and metal ions, although the structure of such complexes was not revealed. Similar results were reported by Huang and Chen [113], in which Fe3O4@PAA NPs decorated with amine groups were proved as a good adsorbent for several heavy metals with positive and negative charges; based on pH studies, authors suggested that cations are adsorbed through chelate complexes while anions are incorporated after ion exchange mechanisms. New insights about Cr(VI) adsorption with an amino‐decorated magnetic sorbent were reported by Zhao et al. [143]. This approach comprises nanocomposites of Fe3O4 and amino‐functionalized GO sheets. Based on XPS measurements, authors suggested that after attractive coulombic interactions between chromate species and protonated amino groups, a fraction of Cr(VI) is reduced to Cr(III), which further forms amino‐complexes; the source of electron for Cr(VI) reduction is provided by the GO sheets. Without extra evidence, these results should be taken with care because XPS deconvolution was not rigorous.
Amino‐functionalized Fe3O4 NPs were tested as a sorbent for Cu(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) [144]. Adsorption decreased at acid pH values and adsorption capacity for Cu(II) was higher than that for softer Lewis acids Cd(II) and Pb(II). Both results, along with thermodynamic and kinetic data, could indicate the prevalence of coulombic and complexing reactions between surface –NH moieties and the cations. Similar results were presented in other reports [52, 145]. Co‐ferrite NPs coated with a polystyrene shell modified with amino and thioether groups were tested for Hg(II) adsorption [146]. Authors proposed the Hg(II) complexation by these functional groups, followed by partial reduction of Hg(II) to Hg(I), although no proof for this mechanism was presented.
6.1.1.2. Carboxyl‐functionalized nanosystems
Several reports have focused on the adsorption of heavy metal cations by EDTA‐modified magnetic nanosystems in order to take advantage of the high chelating ability of this multifunctional ligand. The key role of EDTA has been confirmed since the adsorption capacity decreases when no EDTA was used in the preparation of the sorbents. Indeed, Ren et al. [119] noted that the adsorption capacity follows the same order of the metal‐EDTA complex stability: Cu(II) > Pb(II) > Cd(II). Similar conclusions are drawn from recent reports [147, 148] in which the formation of metal‐carboxylates was verified by means of FTIR measurements. Carboxyl‐decorated NPs from acrylic and crotonic acid copolymer were tested for Cu(II), Pb(II), Zn(II) and Cd(II) [120]. Although authors did not show spectroscopic evidences of metal‐carboxylates interactions, the maximum adsorption capacity increases with the increase in Lewis acid hardness of the ion tested (Cu(II) > Zn(II) ≈ Pb(II) > Cd(II)). Likewise, Mahdavian et al. [149] studied the adsorption behavior of Pb(II), Cu(II), Ni(II) and Cd(II) with a nanoplatform consisting of PAA chains grown at the surface of magnetite NPs and found that the metal uptake increases with pH, suggesting chelate formation. Other carboxyl‐based magnetite NPs for Pb(II) removal can be found elsewhere [150].
6.1.1.3. Thiol and other sulfur‐containing compounds functionalized nanosystems
Fe3O4 NPs functionalized with a polythiolated ligand was probed as Hg(II) adsorbent [118]. XPS studies supported the occurrence of Hg(II)‐S interactions and the simultaneous reduction of Hg(II) to Hg(I) likely at the expense of Fe(II) cations at the surface of the magnetic core. Curiously, no sign of thiol oxidation was encountered. Recently, Wang et al. [151] tested a simpler Fe3O4@SiO2‐RSH nanoplatform toward Hg(II), Pb(II) and Cd(II) ions. Although no mechanism was elucidated, the fact that the adsorption capacities followed the order Hg(II) >> Cd(II) > Pb(II) might be indicative of two phenomena: (i) metal uptake is governed by soft‐soft interactions between the cations and the thiolate groups and (ii) for the case of Hg(II) ions, adsorption involves reduction. A similar CoFe2O4@SiO2‐RSH nanosystem for Pb(II) removal has been employed, but no mechanism was proposed [152].
Zhu et al. [121] designed a Fe3O4/chitosan‐OC(=S)SH platform for Pb(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II) adsorption. FTIR and XPS suggested that metal‐ligand interactions comprise both the N atom of the residual chitosan amine groups and the sulfur groups of xanthate moieties. However, neither the specific role of each functional group nor the structure of such complexes was elucidated. Based on the adsorption capacity order Cu(II) >> Pb(II) ≈ Zn(II), it is likely that relative hard chitosan N groups play an important role in the overall performance of the adsorbent. Alternatively, Zhang et al. [72] chose nanocomposites of Fe3O4 and thiolated CNTs as sorbents for Pb(II) and Hg(II) ions. Thiol grafting material proved to be a better adsorbent than Fe3O4/CNT composites. Adsorption capacity is larger for softer Lewis acid Hg(II), which could imply the occurrence of metal‐thiol complexes. A similar trend was found in another report [106].
Fe3O4 NPs functionalized with a copolymer obtained by the partial modification of PAA with thio‐salicyl‐hydrazide were tested for several divalent cations [153]. This system contains both soft (thiol) and hard (carboxyl and amine) moieties, which might explain the good adsorption properties toward soft Cd(II) and hard Co(II) cations. Regarding Pb(II) uptake, XPS studies confirmed the presence of Pb‐S interactions; it is interesting that only one contribution was proposed for the deconvolution of the Pb 4f spectrum, which implies that there is only one coordination environment for Pb(II) cations. The prevalence of Pb‐S interactions is coherent with the small interference effect produced by alkaline/earth metals, since these hard cations largely prefer hard ligands.
Surface ion imprinting techniques can also be used for efficient and selective sequestration of heavy metal cations. Guo et al. [154] added Fe3O4@SiO2 NPs to a solution containing the Pb‐MPTS complex as a template. Condensation of silane groups followed by Pb(II) removal with HCl results in imprinted cavities with the proper thiol configuration (Figure 6). This nanosystem was shown to be a good adsorbent toward Pb(II) ions with excellent selectivity over other heavy metals like Cu(II), Zn(II) and Co(II). In this case, selectivity is not only ruled by the chemical affinity between cation and thiols but it also depends on the ionic radius, coordination number and coordination geometry.
Yantasee et al. [155] employed Fe3O4@DMSA NPs for the removal of several cations, suggesting that metal adsorption was driven by free –SH groups, while –COOH groups were anchored to the magnetic core. However, no evidence regarding either the state of the sulfur before and after metal incorporation or the nature of metal‐S complex was presented. Afterward, Odio et al. [24] tested the adsorption capabilities of the same nanoplatform aiming at Au(III). By means of XPS and UV‐vis analysis, they found that before adsorption, DMSA ligands are mostly oxidized to disulfide bridges and Au(III) could adsorb onto Fe3O4@DMSA NPs by three possible ways: (i) chelation with free –COOH moieties; (ii) reduction to Au0 sub‐nanometer clusters triggered by surface Fe(II) oxidation in the bare sectors of the NPs and (iii) extensive reduction to Au0 nanoclusters in the region covered by the organic ligand, which is caused likely due to oxidation of disulfide bridges to –SOx species. The process is depicted in the upper part of Figure 7. On the contrary, when Pb(II) was tested with the same material, the results indicated that neither Pb reduction nor Pb‐S interactions contribute to the adsorption process, but it is solely caused by the occurrence of chelating carboxylates and oxo‐complex at bare sectors [34]. In order to unravel the actual role of both –SH and –COOH functions in the adsorption of hardly reducible divalent cations, the same group studied the adsorption of Pb(II) and Cd(II) by a novel nanoplatform based on Fe3O4 NPs capped with a copolymer with pendant free –COOH and –SH groups [34]; thiol moieties were protected during the synthesis to avoid oxidation and were regenerated just before the adsorption experiments. A detailed XPS analysis indicated that both metal‐carboxylate and metal‐thiolate interactions are verified during adsorption. In addition, it was shown that although both cations showed higher affinity to thiols, this tendency was more pronounced for Cd(II), that is, Pb(II) is less selective, in agreement with its borderline softness characteristics. Nevertheless, the actual structure of the surface metal complexes is still elusive.
6.1.1.4. Other functional groups and particles with a bare surface
Fe3O4/PAM nanocomposites functionalized with hydroxamic acid moieties were shown to adsorb Pb(II), Cd(II), Co(II) and Ni(II) ions by forming bidentate chelating complexes [116]. The key role of hydroxamic groups was demonstrated, which agrees with the fact that the stability constant of metal‐hydroxamic complexes follows the same order as the maximum adsorption capacity. The structure of these surface complexes was determined from IR and DFT studies and the system was selective toward Pb(II) uptake.
Rutledge et al. [122] designed a nanoplatform decorated with diphosphonic acid and thiol moieties for Pb(II), Hg(II) and f‐block elements like La(III) and Eu(III) adsorption. Comparison between different adsorption sites suggested that both hard Lewis acid cations La(III) and Eu(III) are efficiently adsorbed by a hard Lewis base as diphosphonate groups, but they are inert toward thiol‐mediated binding, in accordance with the soft nature of this Lewis base. However, Hg(II) uptake showed the inverse tendency, being very sensitive to –SH moieties, but a kind of unreactive toward diphosphonate basic functions. On the contrary, Pb(II) did not display such selectivity toward a particular functional group, but it showed a synergic effect upon ion uptake. The same behavior for Pb(II) was mentioned above: the fact that Pb(II) cation can bind a wide variety of hard and soft ligands is related with unique electronic properties steaming from relativistic effects [156]. Further theoretical and experimental investigations on this issue are still needed.
Given that surface magnetite NPs biosynthesized by microorganisms are richer in Fe(II) content with respect to stoichiometric Fe3O4, this biomaterial has been tested for the adsorption and reduction of toxic oxyanions containing Cr(VI) and m99Tc(VII) [85]. Results confirm that bio‐magnetite is a better absorber compared to a commercial magnetite of similar size, and the removal capacity changes with the particular iron substrate that was used for bacteria culture. The adsorption‐reduction mechanism of chromate anions was studied by means of XPS and X‐ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD). Authors suggested that after the fast electron transfer reactions between Cr(VI) and surface Fe(II), Cr(III) ions are incorporated into the spinel structure and occupy octahedral interstices, thus forming a layer of ferrimagnetic CrFe2O4 spinel.
6.1.2. Arsenic, phosphorous and fluoride
In a careful spectroscopic study, Liu et al. [157] studied As(V) and As(III) adsorption onto 34 nm magnetite NPs, avoiding the presence of oxygen during the adsorption procedure. After EXAF and XANES analysis, they confirmed that arsenate is adsorbed as a bidentate binuclear corner‐sharing complex, while arsenite binds to the surface through a tridentate hexanuclear corner‐sharing complex (see the left panel of Figure 8). Also important, they noted, based on XPS analysis, that if anoxic conditions are fulfilled, no redox reactions involving arsenic species are verified. This result disagrees with other reports [158, 159] that claimed for redox reactions during adsorption and generates a reasonable doubt about the role of the magnetite surface in the arsenic redox processes. On the contrary, after exposure of the adsorbed material to aerobic conditions, XPS analysis showed substantial amounts of As(V) in the As(III)‐treated NPs and As(III) in the As(V)‐treated NPs. In both samples, the Fe(II)/Fe(III) molar ratio was less than 0.5, denoting Fe3O4 oxidation to γ‐Fe2O3. As(III) oxidation to As(V) can be caused by oxygen contact. On the other hand, As(V) reduction to As(III) was explained assuming that during magnetite oxidation, an electron flow from the core to the surface takes place; eventually, these electrons could cause As(V) reduction. Both processes are depicted in the right panel of Figure 8.
Zhang et al. [160] employed Fe3O4/activated carbon fiber nanocomposites for As(V) removal. Based on XPS studies, authors claimed the occurrence of inner‐sphere bidentate complexes between the mono‐protonated anion and surface oxygen anions from either the magnetite phase or the carbon fibers. In contrast, no redox reactions were claimed. Another carbonaceous material in conjunction with ferrites has also been tested for arsenic removal. Lingamdinne et al. [55] chose 30 nm porous NiFe2O4/rGO nanocomposites and concluded that the high removal efficiency is due to the extended porous structure of the composite, which favors adsorption. The authors claimed that adsorption involves both electrostatic attraction and surface‐complexation reactions, but to our understanding, this issue was not totally clarified.
Another recent report uses Fe3O4@ZIF‐8 as a sorbent [123]. In this case, arsenic adsorption is entirely caused by the ZIF‐8 shell, while magnetite core only acts as a magnetic device to remove the contaminant in a facile and efficient way. Alternatively, magnetite particles encapsulated with calcium alginate were tested as an adsorbent for inorganic and organic As(V) species [159]. The authors found that inorganic species are better adsorbed than monomethyl arsenate. Based on IR and XPS measurements, they suggested that arsenic incorporation likely occurs through the partial reduction of As(V) to As(III) species and the oxidation of both alginate and magnetite. However, spectroscopic studies were not conclusive.
A recent report from Penke et al. [161] deals with As(III) and As(V) adsorption onto 20–30 nm Al‐substituted NiFe2O4 NPs. Based on Raman, FTIR and XPS studies, the authors proposed that both species are adsorbed onto the ternary oxide surface through inner‐sphere complexes. In addition, redox reactions between the spinel and arsenic species were claimed. However, this report does not clarify either the geometry of the formed surface complexes or the nature of the implicated redox reactions, although it showed that the replacement of Fe(III) cations by Al(III) cations enhances the adsorption properties of the oxide due to an increase in the number of surface hydroxyl groups. Similar conclusions were drawn from the work of Peng et al. [162]. In this case, Fe3O4@Cu(OH)2 core‐shell nanostructures were tested as adsorbents for As(V). They stressed the key role of surface hydroxyl groups of the copper shell and suggested that arsenate complexes are formed at the surface. However, the proposed complex structure is not rigorously justified.
The use of metal hydroxides can be extended to other elements of group V like phosphorus. Thus, Lai et al. [125] employed a shell of hydrous lanthanum oxide incorporated into Fe3O4@SiO2 NPs to drive the removal of phosphate anions from the water medium. The adsorption was fast and efficient given the high affinity of La(III) species toward phosphate ligands. This methodology overcomes the use of bare Fe3O4. Fe3O4/polypyrrole nanocomposites were employed for removing fluoride anions without interference effects [163]. Based on thermodynamic and kinetic data, authors postulated an ion exchange mechanism.
6.1.3. Dyes
Extensive use of organic dyes has become a serious environmental problem since this family of organic compounds is difficult to decompose and transforms to carcinogenic amines. A series of ferrite MFe2O4/rGO (M = Mn2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Co2+) nanocomposites were tested as combined magnetic materials for adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of Methylene Blue (MB) and Rhodamine B (RhB) under visible light [81] (see Section 6.2). Authors devoted the high adsorption capacity and fast removal rate to the large surface area of the material. For this system, though electrostatic interactions cannot be ruled out, dye retention is mainly caused by the rGO sheets, comprising π‐π stacking interactions between the aromatic moieties of the dyes and the extended π‐conjugated regions in the graphene structure. The same mechanism was claimed earlier using Fe3O4/rGO nanocomposites for MB adsorption [164]; this report also tested other materials like activated carbon and multi‐walled carbon nanotubes (MWCN).
Cobalt ferrites covered by PEG chains were shown to be good adsorbents for several dyes such as methyl orange (MO), MB and Congo red (CR) [75]. Adsorption data indicate that electrostatic interactions are not the prominent cause for adsorption; instead, H‐bonding interactions between –OH groups of PEG and functional groups in the dyes seem to be the responsible cause. The interactions are depicted in Figure 9. H‐bonding has also been claimed as the main interaction of several dyes with naked MnFe2O4 NPs [43].
In a recent work, Dolatkhah and Wilson [114] functionalized Fe3O4 NPs with chitosan grafted with PAA and poly(itaconic) acid (PIA) chains. This polymeric material displays reversible pH‐responsive behavior, which was tested for MB adsorption. As the pH increases, the ionization of the chitosan‐grafted acid groups also increases, favoring the expansion of the grafted chains and the ionic interactions with MB, since this dye is cationic. Hence, adsorption is favored. Afterward, the desorption of MB is accomplished simply by acidification until dye‐sorbent interactions become very weak and the polymeric chains no longer stabilize the colloid, leading to the collapse of the dye‐free NPs. The process is represented in Figure 10.
6.1.4. Aromatic compounds and other organic pollutants
Rodovalho et al. [98] employed mixed Mn and Co ferrite functionalized with carboxyl‐terminated polydimethylsiloxane brushes for the adsorption of toluene in water. Significant hydrophobic interactions between toluene and polymeric chains lead to high adsorption capacity of the NPs. Moreover, authors exploited the suitable magnetic characteristic of this mixed ferrite for fast and efficient toluene desorption through hyperthermia treatment of the toluene‐loaded nanoadsorbent. McCormick and Adriaens [86] employed ultra‐small biogenic magnetite in the reductive transformation of CCl4, stressing the key role of octahedral Fe(II) cations and the importance of the electron hopping between Fe(II) and Fe(III) cations in the B sites, which enables a good electron mobility for the surface reduction of CCl4. Efficient adsorption of tetracycline and diclofenac by proper functionalization of magnetic nanostructures has also been reported [165, 166].
Figure 6.
Surface ion imprinting technique for selective adsorption of Pb(II) ions onto magnetic NPs (Adapted from Ref. [154] with permission of Elsevier).
Figure 7.
Top: Likely distribution of Au atoms during adsorption onto Fe3O4@DMSA NPs; different colors correspond to distinctive Au 4f XPS signals. Bottom: Likely distribution of Pb(II) and Cd(II) cations during adsorption onto the thiol‐ and carboxyl‐containing Fe3O4 NPs; note the preponderance of metal‐thiol interactions over metal‐carboxylate ones (Adapted from Ref. [34] with permission of Elsevier).
6.2. Advanced oxidation technology
Advanced oxidation technologies consist of the assisted degradation of a given pollutant by using a source of highly oxidizing transient species. Such species are generally activated by the action of another substance that acts as a catalyst. Since the removal, reuse and toxicity of catalysts are major concerns, investigations have focused on the development of heterogeneous magnetic materials that can activate efficiently the oxidative degradation of the pollutants and at the same time minimize secondary contamination events. Taking into account these requirements, it is not surprising that the growing interest in ferrite NPs is due to the following reasons: (i) large surface area enhances the catalytic activity; (ii) the onset of superparamagnetism enables facile removal of the catalyst; (iii) versatility of ferrite compositions makes feasible the tuning of the optical band gap of the material enabling photo‐degradation approaches and (iv) chemical stability of the ferrite structure avoids metal leaking to the environment.
Nanostructured CoFe2O4 is shown to be a promising material for heterogeneous peroximonosulfate (HSO5−) activation in order to generate sulfate radicals (SO4−•) that promote the oxidative decomposition of organic pollutants like 2,4‐dichlorophenol [167]. The convenience of this ferrite over other cobalt oxides stems from the fact that Fe(III) cations easily cause the hydrolysis of water, leading to surface Fe(III)‐OH species that can be further converted into surface Co(II)‐OH complexes. In turn, such complexes are the key for the reaction of HSO5− to yield the SO4−• radicals that promote pollutant decomposition. Besides, CoFe2O4 NPs present other advantages such as no Co(II) leaching and suitable magnetic properties for the easy recovery of the catalyst. CuFe2O4 NPs have also been employed for the HSO5− activation in the catalytic degradation of atrazine [168] and tetrabromobisphenol [82]. In both cases, the HSO5− decomposition was claimed to be triggered by the cycle Cu2+/Cu+ [168]. This is in disagreement with the report of Zhang et al. [169], which assigned the main role to the redox pair Cu2+/Cu3+. Other oxidation technologies with the aid of ferrite NPs entail the persulfate (S2O82−) [170] and H2O2 [12, 44, 81] heterogeneous activation for the decomposition of a wide range of organic pollutants.
An improvement in the catalytic properties of ferrites can be assessed by using composites with rGO [53, 54, 81] and MWCNs [83]. Such a synergic effect is attributed to the large surface area of the composites and to the electronic properties of these carbon‐based functional materials. The proposed mechanism is outlined below [171]. It comprises the initial formation of the electron‐hole pair in the ferrite phase by photon absorption (I), followed by the rapid electron transfer reaction from the ferrite conduction band to the rGO sheets (II). H2O2 is then decomposed in the vicinity of the rGO producing highly oxidative •OH radicals (III), which are also formed from the remaining holes in the ferrite (IV). As can be seen, step (II) is crucial for the efficient separation of photo‐generated carriers, which is facilitated by the high electron conductivity of the conjugated π structure of the rGO sheets, which inhibits electron‐hole recombination [172]. Moreover, •OH radicals are generated close to the rGO‐adsorbed target organic pollutants, thus enhancing the decomposition rate.
MFe2O4 + hν → MFe2O4 (h + e) (I)
MFe2O4 (e) + rGO → MFe2O4 + rGO (e) (II)
rGO (e) + H2O2 → rGO + •OH + OH− (III)
MFe2O4 (h) + OH− → MFe2O4 + •OH (IV)
Along the same lines, Fu et al. [172] noted that in the case of CoFe2O4/rGO nanocomposites with 40% of GO, there is no need for H2O2 to achieve efficient catalytic degradation of several dyes. Other materials for dye degradation involving ferrites are CoFe2O4/TiO2 nanocomposites [173].
Figure 8.
Left: Geometry of surface complexes during As(V) and As(III) adsorption onto magnetite surface in anaerobic aqueous medium. Right: possible redox reactions occurring at the As‐Fe3O4 interface when exposed to air (Reproduced from Ref. [157] with permission of the American Chemical Society).
Figure 9.
Proposed mechanism for CR adsorption onto PEG‐functionalized MFe2O4 NPs (Adapted from Ref. [75] with permission of Elsevier).
Figure 10.
Mechanism of reversible pH‐responsive behavior (Adapted from Ref. [114] with permission of the American Chemical Society).
7. Concluding remarks and perspectives
Synthesis techniques for nanostructured spinel ferrites are available to tune their magnetic properties.
The nanoparticle surface is able to bind a wide variety of molecules with distinct functional groups that not only contribute to colloidal stabilization but also serve as the starting point for further conjugation steps. Many organic and inorganic reactions can be driven at the surface of ferrites, which allow for the tailoring of specific ligands with the desired binding affinity.
The combination of these two advantages—tuning of magnetic properties and surface versatility—makes ferrites useful and promising materials for applications where superparamagnetic behavior is required.
Functionalized ferrite NPs, especially Fe3O4, are useful for removing a wide variety of heavy metals. In the case of cations, amino, carboxyl and thiol functional groups prevail as preferred candidates for metal uptake, although phosphonic and hydroxamic acids constitute promising ligands. Multifunctional ligands (synthetic and natural polymers) contribute to increase the stability and the adsorption capacity of the sorbent. At intermediate pH values, the tendency between metal‐ligand affinities shows that for carboxyl and amino groups, the NPs are more selective toward hard Lewis acids, while for softer ligands like sulfur groups, the tendency is inverted.
For removing arsenic, additional studies are warranted since controversy exists about the structure of the inner‐sphere complexes and the nature of redox reactions at the interface. Also, the use of organic ligands to drive arsenic removal has not been exhausted yet.
Most adsorption studies are limited to thermodynamic and kinetic analysis and the investigations of metal‐binding interactions are supported by phenomenological models. But the mode of coordination and the geometry of the surface complexes are not clear and so detailed spectroscopic studies are still needed. Since this is a tough task due to the inherent difficulties for the achievement of a rigorous surface picture, the use of theoretical calculations could help in this regard.
Organic dyes are preferentially adsorbed by ligand‐decorated magnetic NPs. Composites with functional carbonaceous materials and grafting of smart polymers are promising lines of development.
Spinel ferrites are useful materials for different advanced oxidation technologies, especially as composites with graphene‐based materials due to the electronic and adsorptive properties of these carbon‐based functional materials, which enhance the overall efficiency of the process.
Acknowledgments
The preparation of this chapter was partially supported by the CONACyT (Mexico) Projects 2013‐05‐231461, CB‐2014‐01‐235840 and 2015‐270810.
\n',keywords:"spinel ferrites, superparamagnetism, surface complexes, heavy metals, dyes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54133.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54133.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54133",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54133",totalDownloads:2282,totalViews:791,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 19th 2016",dateReviewed:"January 18th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 8th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nanostructured spinel ferrites have gained a great deal of attention. It comes from the possibility of tuning their magnetic properties by careful manipulation of the synthetic conditions. At the same time, since the nanoparticle (NP) surface is reactive toward many chemical groups, it provides great versatility for further functionalization of the nanosystems. Such characteristics make ferrite nanoparticles excellent candidates for environmental applications. First, the chapter deals with the basics of the synthetic methodologies, functionalization strategies and magnetic properties of nanoparticles, with emphasis on how surface manipulation is reflected in the properties of the materials. Next, we review some of the applications of ferrites as magnetic sorbents for several hazardous substances in aqueous medium and try to systematize the adsorption mechanism as a function of the coating material. Finally, a short summary concerning the main uses of ferrites as magnetic catalysts in oxidation technologies is included.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54133",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54133",book:{slug:"magnetic-spinels-synthesis-properties-and-applications"},signatures:"Oscar F. Odio and Edilso Reguera",authors:[{id:"192032",title:"Prof.",name:"Edilso",middleName:null,surname:"Reguera",fullName:"Edilso Reguera",slug:"edilso-reguera",email:"edilso.reguera@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Structural and magnetic properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Nanomagnetism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. Single‐domain limit",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2. Superparamagnetism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3. Surface effects",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4. Magnetic interparticle interactions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Synthesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1. Co‐precipitation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Thermal decomposition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3. Polyol method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.4. Hydrothermal and solvothermal synthesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Functionalization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Coordination chemistry at the surface",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Environmental applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.1. Adsorption technologies for removal of inorganic and organic contaminants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"6.1.1. Heavy metal cations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"6.1.1.1. Amine‐functionalized nanosystems",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"6.1.1.2. Carboxyl‐functionalized nanosystems",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"6.1.1.3. Thiol and other sulfur‐containing compounds functionalized nanosystems",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_4",title:"6.1.1.4. Other functional groups and particles with a bare surface",level:"4"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"6.1.2. Arsenic, phosphorous and fluoride",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"6.1.3. Dyes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"6.1.4. 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Universidad de La Habana, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Materiales, La Habana, Cuba
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada‐Unidad Legaria, México
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada‐Unidad Legaria, México
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\n
1. Introduction
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There is no doubt that for a couple who are having difficulties in conceiving, having a child is an objective boon. In an attempt to achieve this goal, many will avail assisted reproductive technology (ART) or natural family planning methods [1, 2, 3].
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ART refers to a number of techniques, primarily: (a) in vitro fertilisation (IVF), in which the fertilisation of an egg by sperm takes place in a laboratory setting; (b) intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), in which a single sperm is introduced into the egg to be fertilised, also in a laboratory setting; (c) artificial insemination, which involves artificially delivering semen to the female genital tract—the semen may be from the woman’s own partner or a donor; and (d) gamete intrafallopian tube transfer (GIFT), which involves removing eggs laparoscopically after controlled ovarian hyperstimulation, followed by introduction of the mixture of the couple’s eggs and sperm into the fallopian tube so that fertilisation occurs in the body, unlike IVF and ICSI, in which it takes place ‘in vitro’ although several modifications of these techniques have been proposed [4].
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\n
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2. Efficacy of ART
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One important aspect to consider is the efficacy of these techniques, which is generally calculated based on two parameters: the pregnancy rate (PR) and the live birth rate (LBR) per ovarian stimulation cycle.
\n
Based on data published by the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE) in 2014 [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18], the PR and LBR following IVF in Europe between 1997 and 2010 varied between 22.28 and 29.2% for the PR, with a mean rate of 26.41%, and between 13.07 and 22.4% for the LBR, with a mean rate of 18.81%.
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When ICSI was used, these same rates varied between 23.37 and 29.9% for the PR, with a mean rate of 27.22%, and between 12.68 and 21.10% for the LBR, with a mean rate of 18.31% [6].
\n
ARTs have wide social acceptance today. Following the birth of the first girl, Louise Brown, by IVF in 1978, more than 200,000 children are now born annually worldwide using these techniques [19], i.e. more than 3% of all children born [14], with the total number of births estimated at over 5 million [20].
\n
\n
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3. Ethical assessment of ARTs
\n
Nevertheless, regardless of the medical and social benefits they offer, it is also a reality that ARTs may present bioethical issues that are worth considering. These may be moral or ethical. Moral implications are related with the fact that they involve the instrumental manipulation of fertilisation, disregarding its natural environment, the sexual act, and the implications that may arise from this. Ethical implications entail the bioethical problems related to the medical aspects of these techniques, which are the concerns that we shall analyse in this chapter.
\n
These ethical concerns include those related to:
Children born by these techniques.
Couples who use IVF.
The surplus human embryos that are frozen, as well as the problems that may arise from the treatment given to such embryos.
The loss of embryos that occurs in IVF.
The embryo selection that is carried out using preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) to transfer only the best quality embryos.
Gamete donation, especially the right to privacy of donors and of children to know their parents.
The production of saviour siblings.
The possible use of these techniques for social purposes, unrelated to the woman’s own fertility, such as ‘gestational surrogacy’ and ‘social freezing’.
The possible hyperinflated success rates in advertisement of assisted reproduction clinics may present to attract customers.
\n\n
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4. Medical problems in children born by ART
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Children born by ART have a higher percentage of adverse medical effects than those conceived naturally [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29], which gives rise to unanswered bioethical questions.
\n
Thus, these children have higher rates of prematurity and low birth weight [30] as well as an increased risk of birth defects [31, 32, 33], especially cardiac malformations [34, 35] and chromosomal abnormalities [36], than children conceived naturally. Another study nonetheless failed to confirm these differences when children were stratified according to the age of their mothers, parity and gestational age [37].
\n
Although some evidence has suggested that these types of medical disorders extend to early childhood [38] and even longer term [30], a recent article assessing whether the negative side effects are maintained until 25–30 years after birth found that these abnormalities are not detected in adulthood [39].
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In addition to the disorders mentioned above, children born by ART may also show an increase in acquired medical problems, such as: impaired psychomotor development, cerebral palsy, autism and even asthma [38, 40, 41].
\n
Another issue that has also arisen is whether the increased risk of these negative side effects occurs equally in children born by IVF or by ICSI. Most researchers’ opinions are that there seem to be no differences between both techniques [42, 43, 44, 45], although others have found a greater number of problems when ICSI is used as compared to IVF [25].
\n
With respect to the cause of the problems in children born by ART, this seems to be multifactorial, and it may basically be due to the technique itself (the manipulation of gametes, the practice of PGD, the culture medium and the time that embryos have been frozen), ovarian hyperstimulation of the mother [46, 47] and also due to paternal subfertility [21]. In particular, it may be related to the greater number of multiple pregnancies that occur in ART [48, 49, 50, 51, 52], since multiple pregnancies are known to be accompanied by more foetal congenital abnormalities [49, 53, 54, 55], although these are also found in singleton pregnancies using ART [21, 23, 28, 47, 56].
\n
It has recently been suggested that the medical problems found in children born by ART could also be related to epigenetic modifications, which may occur during maturation of the gametes, fertilisation or in the early stages of embryonic development [21, 22, 28, 30, 57, 58].
\n
\n
\n
5. Medical problems in mothers who use ART
\n
A majority of adverse medical events that occur in women who use ART seem due to the greater number of multiple pregnancies that occur in them [49, 50, 51, 52, 59] since, as has already been mentioned, obstetric problems are known to be more common in multiple compared to singleton pregnancies [49, 53, 54, 55].
\n
Nevertheless, ART-conceived singleton pregnancies also present a higher risk of adverse events in mothers, such as antepartum haemorrhage, hypertension during pregnancy, premature rupture of membranes or gestational diabetes, than naturally conceived singleton pregnancies [60].
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6. Ethical problems related to frozen surplus embryos from ART and how their untoward situation can be resolved
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As already mentioned, the efficacy of IVF is low. In order to improve this, a large number of embryos are typically produced, usually between 10 and 12, of which 1 or 2 are transferred and the rest frozen. This practice inevitably means that the number of frozen human embryos is gradually increasing.
\n
Knowing what to do with these frozen embryos raises objective bioethical problems. In our view, there are four solutions for these embryos: (a) leave them frozen indefinitely; (b) use them for biomedical experimentation; (c) thaw them and let them die; and (d) adoption.
\n
Of these four solutions, the most widely employed is the second—using them for biomedical experiments—but this solution clearly poses obvious bioethical problems, since it entails the inevitable destruction of the embryos used.
\n
The solution that presents least ethical problems is the adoption of such embryos by the biological parents, but this is not always possible. What occurs most frequently is the adoption by a couple biologically unrelated to the embryo in question.
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The ethics of this type of adoption can be considered from three aspects: (a) from moral philosophy; (b) from secular ethics; and (c) from the point of view of the morality of the monotheistic religions [61].
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6.1 Frozen embryo adoption in the light of moral philosophy
\n
They are very few studies that address the moral licitness or illicitness of frozen human embryo adoption in the light of moral philosophy. In our view, this has been addressed in most depth by Antonio Pessina [62].
\n
In his opinion, ‘two lines of argument can be raised when evaluating frozen embryo adoption. In the first, it is assumed that human life is an absolute value, immeasurable, and as such is not comparable to any other. In the second, it is recognized that human life is a basic value, because it is a necessary condition to uphold other human goods, but not sufficient to achieve the specific ends of man, which means that the value of human life can be deferred to other values, for example, by giving one’s life for another’.
\n
If we accept the first principle, ‘there would be no objection to the adoption of frozen embryos; it could even be presented as morally positive and not only licit’. If the second line of argument is accepted, ‘the life of the human embryo should be defended only by proportionate, ordinary and morally legitimate means, in this sense the only possibility being to invite the biological mother to have her child’s frozen embryo implanted and to carry the pregnancy to term. Other options could be considered disproportionate and extraordinary, which could lead to the violation of other fundamental values related to the dignity of the human person and of human procreation’.
\n
In conclusion, Pessina declares himself morally opposed to frozen embryo adoption.
\n
\n
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6.2 Frozen embryo adoption from the perspective of secular ethics
\n
From secular ethics, there does not appear to be any difficulty for frozen embryo adoption. In fact, it is even considered to be a positive solution for these embryos, since, according to it, if the embryos are not used by the parents for reproductive purposes, their adoption is ethically more defensible than any other fate that may be given them. Undertaking a reproductive process to try to have a child born is in their opinion the best solution, since the aim is to help build families, i.e. to help infertile couples to have a child, and also to protect a primary good of the embryo, its life. Consequently, many experts or lay institutions see in frozen embryo adoption an alternative for the fate of such embryos that is ethically better than using them for biomedical research, destroying them or leaving them stored indefinitely [61].
\n
\n
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6.3 Frozen embryo adoption from the perspective of the monotheistic religions
\n
In relation to Islam, Sunni Muslims are not in favour of considering third-party gamete donation as morally acceptable nor, by analogy, frozen embryo adoption; however, Shiite Muslims are more agreeable to morally accepting this practice [61].
\n
In relation to Judaism, it is difficult to find specific texts that refer to the moral assessment of frozen embryo adoption [61]. There are, however, texts on third-party gamete donation [63] so, again by analogy, that assessment could be extrapolated to frozen embryo adoption. In practice, though, most Orthodox rabbis are hesitant about the moral licitness of frozen embryo adoption [61].
\n
Evangelists consider frozen embryo adoption as analogous to gestational surrogacy [64].
\n
In relation to Catholicism [65], there are two documents in the Magisterium of the Catholic Church that address the issue of embryo adoption: the Instruction Donum Vitae, published by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in 1978 [66], and Dignitas Personae, published on 8 September 2008, by the same Congregation [67]. The Instruction Dignitas Personae is the last document of the Magisterium of the Catholic Church in which the topic of embryo adoption is explicitly addressed. Proposals to use these embryos for research or for the treatment of disease are obviously unacceptable because they treat the embryos as mere ‘biological material’ and result in their destruction. The proposal that these embryos could be put at the disposal of infertile couples as a treatment for infertility is also ethically unacceptable for the same reasons that make artificial heterologous procreation and any form of surrogacy illicit [67].
\n
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7. Human embryo loss in IVF
\n
Among the negative bioethical aspects of IVF, possibly the most significant is the high number of embryos—human lives—that are lost.
\n
We have attempted to calculate this figure [68] based on previous data from a published article [61]. This study in question evaluated 572 ovarian stimulation cycles that yielded 7213 oocytes, i.e. 12.6 oocytes per cycle. A total of 2252 embryos were produced and 326 live babies were born (226 from fresh embryos and 64 from frozen embryos). Based on these figures, the number of live babies born for every 100 embryos was 14.47; or to put it another way, for every 100 embryos produced, 85.53 embryos were lost, i.e. 6.9 embryos were lost for every live baby born.
\n
Another more recent study by the same group [69] analysed 191 ovarian stimulation cycles performed on 53 female donors. The donors were classified into two groups: 28 were highly successful donors, and 23 were classified as standard. The highly successful donor group yielded a total of 2470 oocytes from 130 ovarian stimulation cycles. This produced 779 embryos; 342 were transferred as fresh embryos and 437 were cryopreserved. A total of 125 live babies were born. The standard donor group yielded 1044 oocytes from 61 ovarian stimulation cycles. This produced 336 embryos; 131 embryos were transferred and 205 were cryopreserved. The total number of live babies born was 26. Based on these figures, a total of 1115 embryos were produced and a total of 151 live babies were born. Consequently, the number of live babies born per 100 embryos was 13.54; in other words, the number of embryos lost for every 100 embryos produced was 86.46. Thus, for every live baby born, 7.38 embryos were lost.
\n
Accordingly, based on the above data, if approximately 6 or 7 embryos are lost for every child born by IVF, and since 1978, the year in which Louise Brown was born, around 5 million children have been born [20], we can estimate that, so far, around 30 million human lives may have been lost worldwide as a result of the use of IVF [68]. This leads one to say—while admitting that it is a very strong assertion—that IVF is a medical practice that, for the time being, generates more death than life. The natural cycle itself is associated with follicle recruitment followed by dominance and selection, while the nondominant follicles undergo atresia in the same cycle. The controlled ovarian stimulation has an advantage of opening the follicular window and rescuing this cohort of follicles who would have undergone atresia if the FSH window was not kept open and multiple follicles salvaged. The current scenario is practical nonavailability of embryos for embryo donation to aspiring couples where female partners are undergoing endometrial preparation for transfer for Donor embryos. Though there are concerns for discarded embryos, the fertility clinics are in practise at a deficiency of embryos that can be transferred. The ethics of embryo transfer should be discussed in a clinically practical rational scenario.
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\n
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8. Use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis in IVF: ethical assessment
\n
PGD is a laboratory method especially directed to the genetic study of embryos before they are transferred and, therefore, before implantation in the uterus. The aim of this procedure is to determine if the embryos have a genetic or chromosomal abnormality, or if they are carriers of a genetic risk factor of disease, especially in those couples in which at least one of the partners presents a high risk of having a genetic condition that they could transmit to their offspring [70]. Another common indication in the field of assisted reproduction is aneuploidy screening to ensure the implantation of euploid embryos [70]. Similarly, PGD is currently and increasingly often being used to try to prevent diseases that can appear in adulthood [71]. In general, it may be said that PGD is used in IVF to improve its efficacy.
\n
The technique essentially involves in vitro culture of the embryos to be examined, so that when these reach an adequate number of cells, a single cell can then be extracted for study.
\n
There different biopsy methods are used for PGD at present [72]. The most common is the biopsy of one or two blastomeres on Day 3 of embryonic development, during the screening or cell segmentation phase. However, the ESHRE recommends extracting six or more cells in the embryos [72, 73], because more cells can be biopsied in this phase with less risk of damaging the embryo [72].
\n
As regards its use for improving IVF outcomes, this seems controversial, since many authors obtain positive outcomes using it, while others have been unable to detect such an improvement. Furthermore, Mastenbroek concludes that, not only does it fail to improve IVF outcomes, but it lowers the LBR in women of advanced maternal age, with no beneficial effects in the rest of the women [74].
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When assessing this practice bioethically, the main difficulties are: (1) that it treats the human embryo as experimental material, objectifying it, which is absolutely incompatible with its intrinsic dignity, and (2) practising embryo selection for health reasons is a clearly eugenic practice.
\n
Nevertheless, there are authors who not only are not opposed to the use of PGD, but also encourage its use, due to the benefit that it may bring for children by trying to prevent them from being born with a genetic or chromosomal disease or who have the risk of having one of these diseases in the future. In fact, some even advocate the positive duty of parents to use PGD when they consider that its use may be beneficial for their children [75, 76].
\n
To circumvent the ethical difficulties of the use of PGD, and to maintain its hypothetical advantages, it has been proposed to analyse one of the two polar bodies of the oocyte, to thus determine whether said oocyte is a carrier of its mother’s disease before the zygote is formed. In this way, only the healthy eggs would be fertilised [72, 77, 78], although this technique has the limitation that it could only be used in women.
\n
It is also known that the oocyte is surrounded by several cell layers and that those layers play a key role in its normal function, ovulation, fertilisation and embryo development. However, the study of gene expression of these cell layers could be the basis of a non-invasive method for predicting oocyte quality, serving as a biomarker for selecting oocytes and embryos, as an alternative to the use of PGD [79]. Another alternative constitutes trophectoderm biopsy in human blastocysts, where extraembryonic material can be obtained by this technique for preimplantation diagnosis of genetic disorders [80].
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\n
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9. Ethical problems arising from donor gametes in IVF, especially the right to privacy of donors and of children to know their parents
\n
From a bioethical point of view, in our opinion, there are a number of issues with respect to whether the donation of gametes, both eggs and sperm, should be anonymous or not. We consider these four the most important: (a) to know whether the good of the child should prevail in the overall assessment of the process, as we believe it should; (b) to determine whether the privacy of the donors should be ensured; (c) to assess whether the interests of assisted reproduction clinics should be safeguarded; and (d) to establish whether even the good of society should be ensured.
\n
\n
9.1 Good of the child
\n
With regard to children, it seems obvious that they have the right to know their biological origin, i.e. to know who their parents are. This is not only for emotional reasons, which must also be considered, but mainly for medical ones, since it cannot be ruled out that it may be necessary during the child’s life to know who his parents are, if he has a genetic disease that needs to be identified, in order to be diagnosed and treated.
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Moreover, this policy is in accordance with the first major document developed by the United Nations in 1989, on the ‘Rights of the Child’, which, in Article 7, defines that one of those rights is the right of the child to know his or her parents.
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9.2 Good of the donors
\n
In relation to donors, there is a trend towards suppressing anonymity in gamete donation, which may be a negative factor for donors. This is because, if the parent-child relationship can be established, it could lead to parental obligations for the donors that they may not want to assume. This is especially so if we also take into account that there are websites specialising in genetic matters that can match people who were born through gamete donation, so it can be determined if they have a genetic relationship [81].
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9.3 Good of the assisted reproduction clinics
\n
There is no doubt that suppressing anonymity in gamete donation can dramatically reduce the number of donors who attend those clinics, as has already happened in the United Kingdom, which is undoubtedly an added difficulty for these practices. In addition, it is also possible that if anonymity is suppressed, it will particularly affect younger donors, which could be detrimental to IVF procedures, since gametes from older donors are usually of lower quality.
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\n
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9.4 Good of society
\n
One risk of anonymous donation is that a donor can make a donation repeatedly and in different places, in the absence of real control over the process. This could facilitate marital consanguinity, which is certainly a not insignificant public health problem.
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It has also been argued that in a society immersed in a clear demographic winter, reducing births by IVF (given the high number of these) could negatively impact it.
\n
To prevent any difficulties that anonymous donation might have, the creation of an ‘Assisted Human Reproduction Information System’ (SIRHA) has been proposed. This would collect data on all donations made, identifying donors through a European code, and thus avoiding the problems posed by multiple donations from the same donor.
\n
Certainly, the solution to this problem is controversial, so it would probably be positive to consider the one already proposed by Penningsin 1997 with his ‘double track’ policy, an option that would allow donors to participate in an anonymous or non-anonymous programme. However, and also in our opinion, while this proposal could guarantee the hypothetical rights of assisted reproduction clinics, donors and the couples who use these techniques, does it guarantee the right of children to know their parents if the latter choose the option of anonymous donor? [82].
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10. Use of IVF for the production of saviour siblings
\n
Saviour siblings are children produced by IVF who are used as donors of haematopoietic material to treat a sick sibling. Their use entails objective medical, social and ethical issues.
\n
A first ethical aspect to consider is the low efficacy of use. Thus, initial studies by Verlinsky found that 33 embryos were used to produce only one saviour sibling, i.e. its efficacy was 3% [83]. In another paper by the same group, the percentage was 2.5% [84] and in another, approximately 1% [85]. Even in a larger study, in which data were collected from the Reproductive Genetics Institute in Chicago itself and other leading assisted reproduction centres in Australia, Belgium, Turkey and the United States, the efficacy was 1.15% [86].
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Obviously, the low efficacy of this technique overshadows the bioethical judgement it merits. But in addition, in order to establish such a judgement, it must also be considered that: (1) with the production of saviour siblings, the child produced is being instrumentalised; (2) to achieve this end requires the use of means that inevitably necessitate the destruction of human embryos, in part, as a consequence of the technique itself and, in part, due to the eugenic selection by PGD to find a ‘histocompatible sibling’ who is suitable as a donor; and (3) there are alternative techniques to obtain the desired good ethically: the use of umbilical cord blood stored in public or private banks may be an alternative in the near future, from both a medical and bioethical point of view, to treat children who require transplantation of haematopoietic material and who do not have an immunologically compatible family member who can act as a donor. That is to say, in all likelihood, saviour siblings will have ceased to be useful before their production becomes widespread.
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11. Possibility of using IVF for social purposes other than women’s fertility
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11.1 Gestational surrogacy
\n
‘Surrogate motherhood is an assisted procreation practice by which a woman gestates an embryo with which she has no biological relationship on behalf of a contracting couple or individual, having to relinquish the child to them after its birth. This practice normally entails a financial remuneration for the pregnant woman; when this is not the case, it is called altruistic surrogacy. From a medical perspective, potential problems for the surrogate and for children born through this practice should be taken into account, especially the existence of possible disabilities in the child. The bioethical aspects are of most interest because the practice of surrogacy objectifies the expectant mother, by using her body for a purpose other than her own good, treating her as a commodity, as a thing. The same is true for the child because it makes him a disposable object, something that can be instrumentalized, similarly objectifying him’ [87].
\n
However, it could be argued that acceptance of the pregnancy by the surrogate could be justified as an expression of their personal autonomy, although in the vast majority of cases, it is reasonable to admit that their autonomy is expressed against a background of desperation and vulnerability, so it is difficult to accept this practice uncritically.
\n
This practice, however, presents objective bioethical difficulties for the surrogate. First of all, commercial surrogacy objectifies the woman, by using her body for an end other than her own good, by treating her as a commodity, as something that can be bought and sold, like a thing, which is incompatible with the dignity of women and their rights.
\n
Secondly, it is not ethically admissible because of the social injustice that non-altruistic surrogacy entails, given that only those contracting parents or individuals who are financially well off can benefit from it, i.e. it could become exploitation of economically weak women by economically strong couples or individuals.
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Third, surrogacy ruptures what has come to be called the ‘mother-child bond’, which can be defined as the emotional relationship developed by the mother towards her child during pregnancy. This emotional and biological relationship between mother and child strengthens throughout pregnancy and is important for the normal development of the child [88]. It seems that this ‘bond’ is largely biological [89], so it also affects altruistic surrogacy.
\n
Fourth, in our ethical assessment of surrogacy there is a further difficulty, due to the selection processes to which potential surrogates are often subjected. These clearly and directly undermine their dignity, since very strict personal requirements are commonly insisted upon to guarantee the quality of the ‘product’ that the woman may gestate.
\n
Fifth, it should also be taken into account whether future surrogate mothers are always informed of the problems that their pregnancy may entail, i.e. if they are guaranteed to sign an informed consent, which, it seems, is not always the case [90].
\n
It also presents objective bioethical issues related to the children, because a child is always a gift that is given to parents, never a right of parents to acquire it. If this right to a child were prioritised, he or she would be denied the consideration of absolute good in and of himself. He would become a disposable object, something instrumentalisable, i.e. he would be treated as an object. Not all that one wishes acquires the category of right. Desires for parenthood have as their limits the dignity of children and the protection of their fundamental rights. Defending the right of parents to have a child—with no ethical limitations whatsoever—could violate the rights of the child, although it should be established that the right to a child should not be confused with the right to parenthood, because no one can prevent the autonomous decision to have children.
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Whatever the reasons put forward to defend the right of parents to a child, no action justifies violation of the fundamental right of children not to be treated as an object. If children were an object of desire of parents, their life would have no more value than that which the parents wished to give it, which is clearly unacceptable.
\n
A further bioethical issue that arises in relation to gestational surrogacy is the consideration that it is not ethically acceptable whenever it is paid, but it is acceptable when it is altruistic surrogacy. In our view, the latter is not admissible either, because it also objectifies the child by demanding quality standards, which if they are not met may affect their fundamental rights, and even their life.
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11.2 Social freezing
\n
As we discussed in a previously published paper [91], ‘when eggs or ovarian tissue are not frozen for medical causes, the process is called “social freezing”. In this case, there are two fundamental reasons why a woman might choose to undergo this procedure: the first is that she has not found a partner who she considers suitable for a matter as important as creating a family, and the second is for professional reasons. In the latter case, the woman considers that becoming pregnant at a young age—usually before age 35—could harm her professional career, prompting her to freeze her eggs for use at a later date. The biological reasons that underlie social freezing are that women’s fertility declines with age, especially due to a decrease in ovarian function, owing to a reduction in the number of eggs’.
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11.3 Ethical assessment
\n
Aside from the aforementioned biomedical and social problems, social freezing unquestionably presents ethical concerns. In our opinion [91], ‘the main one is that, although not explicit, it implicitly objectifies the woman by prompting her to make a decision that is disguised a good for her when, as reported, this practice entails objective negative medical consequences for the user and also for her child’. According to Martinelli et al., ‘“Social egg freezing” is a paradigmatic demonstration of how the medicalization of women’s bodies can be used to mask social and cultural anxieties about aging’.
\n
However, ‘we believe there is another ethical difficulty, derived from the fact that it is hard to guarantee the autonomy of women to make such a decision if they are not provided with adequate information on the risks and benefits entailed in social freezing, something that is not always easily verifiable, as previously mentioned’ [91].
\n
‘Another ethical problem that social freezing may pose is the possible social inequality between groups of women who work in economically powerful companies, which can bear the costs of social freezing for their employees and those who work in companies that cannot do so. Another question therefore arises: to avoid social injustice, should social freezing be supported with public funds? We believe the answer should be that, given the myriad of objective medical problems that exist—some of vital importance—and that have to be treated with these funds, would it not be creating a problem of distributive justice? Finally, it should also be pointed out that social freezing implies that fertile women, capable of conceiving and carrying a child naturally, renounce this, substituting natural conception for IVF.
\n
This not only reduces the possibilities of eventually becoming pregnant but also, as mentioned, increases the health risks for mother and child. It must be carefully considered whether the advantage of using young eggs compensates for the risks derived from the processes required in social freezing’ [91].
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12. Possible misleading advertising that assisted reproduction clinics may present to attract clients
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The main vehicle used by assisted reproduction clinics to attract new customers is to advertise their efficacy, expressed in terms of pregnancy rates and live births achieved per ovarian stimulation cycle.
\n
However, an ethical issue that may occur is if the data presented by these clinics are correct or are manipulated to improve their efficacy, i.e. whether there is ‘misleading advertising’ aimed at bringing in more clients.
\n
We evaluated this issue in a recent paper [92], the most relevant aspects of which are presented below.
\n
Based on data published by the ESHRE in 2014, the PR and LBR following IVF in Europe between 1997 and 2010 varied between 22.28 and 29.2% for the PR, with a mean rate of 26.41%, and between 13.07 and 22.4% for the LBR, with a mean rate of 18.81%.
\n
When ICSI was used, these same rates varied between 23.37 and 29.9% for the PR, with a mean rate of 27.22%, and between 12.68 and 21.10% for the LBR, with a mean rate of 18.31%.
\n
The aforementioned data refer to the PR and LBR per ovarian stimulation cycle. However, these data do not seem to be the most appropriate to evaluate the efficacy of assisted reproduction clinics, because normally women who attend them undergo more than one cycle (usually three) to increase the efficacy of the technique, in terms of having the desired child. We therefore feel that it is better to use the ‘cumulative pregnancy rate’ (CPR) or the ‘cumulative live birth rate’ (CLBR), understood as the success rates that are achieved after all ovarian stimulation cycles that the woman undergoes.
\n
After analysing data from the 13 studies that we consider most representative, the mean CLBR is 26.6%, after one cycle; 38.3% after two cycles; 57.4% after three cycles and 66.0% in cases of more than three cycles, with a mean rate of 56.3% [92].
\n
The CLBR varies by country of course, and thus the lowest in Europe is Italy, with 18.3% and the highest in Poland, with 36.5%. This rate is 24.7% in Russia, 38.1% in Canada and 41.8% in the United States, the country with the highest rate in the world.
\n
To compare the data referred to above with the data published by private assisted reproduction clinics on their websites, we analysed the data presented by 123 private clinics [92]. Surprisingly, none of the clinics we looked at provides data on the CLBR. These rates ranged between 28.0 and 72.2%, with a mean of 47.2%. The same rates for women under 35 years of age varied between 39.0 and 82.4%, with a mean of 59.0%; for women between the ages of 35 and 39 years of age, it ranged from 27.0 to 77.8%, with a mean of 47.4%; and for women older than 40 years of age, it varied between 12.0 and 48.6%, with a mean rate of 30.7%.
\n
When the data provided by the 169 assisted reproduction clinics on their websites were compared with the data reported by the same clinics to various scientific societies, it was found that the mean PR per stimulation cycle was 47.2% when autologous oocytes were used and 65.0% with donor oocytes, according to their websites. However, the rates per ovarian stimulation cycle of these same clinics presented by the Fertility Society were 30.55% for IVF and 32.59% for ICSI, which means that the figures provided by the 169 assisted reproduction clinics on their websites are 49.5% higher than reported by the same clinics to the relevant scientific societies when autologous oocytes are used and 108.9% higher when donor oocytes are used.
\n
Another rather startling aspect is that 16 of these clinics claim on their websites to guarantee that a pregnancy will be achieved in 100% of cases.
\n
In conclusion, it may be said that many countries, assisted reproduction clinics present data on their websites that are not consistent with those obtained from the scientific societies. It is also notable that those clinics do not present data on LBRs, which is the rate that best matches the real likelihood that assisted reproduction treatments will eventually lead to the goal of parenthood [92].
\n
\n
\n
13. Final conclusion
\n
As we mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, having a child for a couple who wishes to have one and has difficulty in doing so, turning to assisted reproduction, is certainly an objective good, which has contributed to the wide social acceptance of such techniques.
\n
Nevertheless, this good should be balanced by the bioethical difficulties these techniques present, and that we have analysed in depth in this chapter.
\n
We therefore believe that it should be an important bioethical objective that in assisted reproduction clinics, prospective clients are informed of the risks and adverse effects of ARTs, as well as providing reasonable accurate data on the chances of success of the techniques we have analysed here. Thus, having been well informed, they can make a well-founded, well-informed personal or couple’s decision, because ultimately, personal freedom is what should decide the option taken. Respect for the bioethical principle of patient autonomy requires it and counselling needs to be informative and nondirective.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"assisted reproduction, in vitro fertilisation, ICSI, bioethical considerations, loss of human embryos",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70764.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70764.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70764",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70764",totalDownloads:329,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 24th 2019",dateReviewed:"December 2nd 2019",datePrePublished:"January 8th 2020",datePublished:"May 6th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"There is no doubt that for a couple who are having difficulties in conceiving, having a child is an objective good. However, it is also indisputable that assisted reproduction techniques raise clear ethical issues. In order to begin this bioethical reflection, it should be clearly established that the early embryo, which can be manipulated or destroyed using these techniques, is a living being of our species. We believe this is unquestionable from a biological point of view, and it therefore deserves our full respect. The bioethical assessment of assisted reproduction techniques includes analysis of the embryo losses caused by their selection and manipulation through preimplantation genetic diagnosis, ‘social freezing’ or the possible lack of rigour in the information provided by the clinics involved, to which must be added the higher morbidity reported in babies born as a result of these procedures.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70764",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70764",signatures:"Justo Aznar and Julio Tudela",book:{id:"7725",title:"Innovations In Assisted Reproduction Technology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Innovations In Assisted Reproduction Technology",slug:"innovations-in-assisted-reproduction-technology",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",bookSignature:"Nidhi Sharma, Sudakshina Chakrabarti, Yona Barak and Adrian Ellenbogen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7725.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220214",title:"Prof.",name:"Nidhi",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"nidhi-sharma",fullName:"Nidhi Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"312437",title:"Dr.",name:"Justo",middleName:null,surname:"Aznar Lucea",fullName:"Justo Aznar Lucea",slug:"justo-aznar-lucea",email:"justo.aznar@ucv.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"312692",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Tudela",fullName:"Julio Tudela",slug:"julio-tudela",email:"julio.tudela@ucv.es",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Efficacy of ART",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Ethical assessment of ARTs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Medical problems in children born by ART",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Medical problems in mothers who use ART",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Ethical problems related to frozen surplus embryos from ART and how their untoward situation can be resolved",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1 Frozen embryo adoption in the light of moral philosophy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2 Frozen embryo adoption from the perspective of secular ethics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3 Frozen embryo adoption from the perspective of the monotheistic religions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Human embryo loss in IVF",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"8. Use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis in IVF: ethical assessment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"9. Ethical problems arising from donor gametes in IVF, especially the right to privacy of donors and of children to know their parents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"9.1 Good of the child",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"9.2 Good of the donors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"9.3 Good of the assisted reproduction clinics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"9.4 Good of society",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"10. Use of IVF for the production of saviour siblings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"11. Possibility of using IVF for social purposes other than women’s fertility",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"11.1 Gestational surrogacy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"11.2 Social freezing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"11.3 Ethical assessment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"12. Possible misleading advertising that assisted reproduction clinics may present to attract clients",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"13. Final conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nAznar J, Tudela J. The Biological Status of the Early Human Embryo: When Does Human Life Begin? In Etheredge F. Conception: An Icon of the Beginnning. EnRoute: St. Louis; 2019\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nAznar J. Respect for human life in assisted procreation techniques. Medicina e Morale. 2013;5:935-945\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nAznar J, Tudela J, Aznar J. Analysis of the truth advertising on the efficacy provided by assisted reproduction techniques. Acta Bioethica. 2017;23:311-325\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nNiederberger C, Pellicer A, Simón C, Kathrins M, Goldstein M, Sigman M, et al. 25 historic papers: An ASRM 75th birthday gift from fertility and sterility. Fertility and Sterility. 2019;112:e2-e27\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nNygren KG, Andersen AN. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 1997. Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2001;16:384-391\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nNygren KG. Andersen AN, European IVF-monitoring programme (EIM). Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 1998. Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2001;16:2459-2471\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nNygren KG, Andersen AN. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 1999. Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2002;17:3260-3274\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nNyboe Andersen A, Gianaroli L, Nygren KG, European IVF-monitoring programme; European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2000. Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2004;19:490-403\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nAndersen AN, Gianaroli L, Felberbaum R, de Mouzon J, Nygren KG, European IVF-Monitoring Programme (EIM). Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2001. Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2005;20:1158-1176\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nEuropean IVF-monitoring programme (EIM) for the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE), Andersen AN, Gianaroli L, Felberbaum R, de Mouzon J, Nygren KG. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2002. Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2006;21:1680-1697\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nAndersen A, Goossens V, Gianaroli L, Felberbaum R, De Mouzon J, Nygren K. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2003. Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2007;22:1513-1525\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nAndersen A, Goossens V, Ferraretti A, Bhattacharya S, Felberbaum R, de Mouzon J, et al. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2004: Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2008;23:756-771\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nAndersen A, Goossens V, Bhattacharya S, Ferraretti A, Kupka M, de Mouzon J, et al. Assisted reproductive technology and intrauterine inseminations in Europe, 2005: Results generated from European registers by ESHRE: ESHRE. The European IVF monitoring Programme (EIM), for the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE). Human Reproduction. 2009;24:1267-1212\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nDe Mouzon J, Goossens V, Bhattacharya S, Castilla J, Ferraretti A, Korsak V, et al. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2006: Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2010;25:1851-1862\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nDe Mouzon J, Goossens V, Bhattacharya S, Castilla J, Ferraretti A, Korsak V, et al. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2007: Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2012;27:954-966\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nFerraretti A, Goossens V, De Mouzon J, Bhattacharya S, Castilla J, Korsak V, et al. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2008: Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2012;27:2571-2584\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nFerraretti A, Goossens V, Kupka M, Bhattacharya S, de Mouzon J, Castilla J, et al. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2009: Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2013;28:2318-2331\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nKupka MS, Ferraretti AP, de Mouzon J, Erb K, D’Hooghe T, Castilla JA, et al. Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2010: Results generated from European registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction. 2014;29:2099-2113\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nNygren KG, Sullivan E, Zegers-Hochschild F, Mansour R, Ishihara O, Adamson G, et al. International Committee for Monitoring assisted Reproductive Technology (ICMART) world report: Assisted reproductive technology 2003. Fertility and Sterility. 2011;95:2209-2222\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nKissin DM, Jamieson DJ, Barfield WD. Monitoring health outcomes of assisted reproductive technology. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2014;371:91-93\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nPinborg A, Wennerholm UB, Romundstad LB, Loft A, Aittomaki K, Söderström-Anttila V, et al. Why do singletons conceived after assisted reproduction technology have adverse perinatal outcome? Systematic review and meta-analysis. Human Reproduction Update. 2013;19:87-104\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nHenningsen AK, Pinborg A, Lidegaard O, Vestergaard C, Forman JL, Andersen AN. Perinatal outcome of singleton siblings born after assisted reproductive technology and spontaneous conception: Danish national sibling cohort study. Fertility and Sterility. 2011;95:959-963\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nPandey S, Shetty A, Hamilton M, Bhattacharya S, Maheshwari A. Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in singleton pregnancies resulting from IVF/ICSI: A systematic review and meta-analyses. Human Reproduction Update. 2012;18:485-503\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nHelmerhorst FM, Perquin DA, Donker E, Keirse MJ. Perinatal outcome of singletons and twins after assisted conception: A systematic review of controlled studies. British Medical Journal. 2004;328:261\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nDavies MJ, Moore VM, Willson KJ, Van Essen P, Priest K, Scott H, et al. Reproductive technologies and the risk of birth defects. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2012;366:1803-1813\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nMcDonald SD, Han Z, Mulla S, Murphy KE, Beyene J, Ohlsson A, et al. Preterm birth and low birth weight among in vitro fertilization singletons: A systematic review and meta-analyses. The European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology. 2009;146:13\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nBuckett WM, Chian RC, Holzer H, Dean N, Usher R, Tan SL, et al. Obstetric outcomes and congenital abnormalities after in vitro maturation, in vitro fertilization, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2007;110:885-891\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nCheng M, Heilbronn LK. The health outcomes of human ofspring conceived by assisted reproductive technologies (ART). Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease. 2017;8:388-302\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nGoisis A, Remes H, Martikainene P, Klemetti R, Myrskylä M. Medically assisted reproduction and birth outcomes: A within-family analysis using Finnish population registers. Lancet. 2019;393:1225-1232\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nBerntsen S, Söderström-Anttila V, Wennerholm UB, Laivuori H, Loft A, Oldereid NB, et al. The health of children conceived by ART: ‘The chicken or the egg?’. Human Reproduction Update. 2019;25:137-158\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nKelley-Quon LI, Tseng C, Janzen C, Shew SB. Congenital malformations associated with assisted reproductive technology: A California statewide analysis. Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 2013;48:1218-1224\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nSeggers J, de Walle H, Bergman J, Groen H, Hadderd-Algra M, Bos M, et al. Congenital anomalies in offspring of subfertile couples: A registry-based study in the northern Netherlands. Fertility and Sterility. 2015;103:1001-1010\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nMozafari Kermani R, Farhangniya M, Shahzadeh Fazeli S, Bagheri P, Ashrafi M, Vosough Taqi Dizaj A. Congenital malformations in singleton infants infants conceived by assisted reproductive technologies and singleton infants by natural conception in Tehran, Iran. International Journal of Fertility & Sterility. 2018;11:304-308\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nOlson CK, Keppler-Noreuil K, Romitti P, Budelier W, Ryan G, Sparks A, et al. In vitro fertilization is associated with an increase in major birth defects. Fertility and Sterility. 2005;84:1308-1315\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nGiorgione V, Parazzini F, Fesslova V, Cipriani S, Candiani M, Inversetti A, et al. Congenital heart defects in IVF/ICSI pregnancy: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2018;51:33-32\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nZheng Z, Chen L, Yang T, Yu H, Wang H, Qin J. Multiple pregnancies achieved with IVF/ICSI and risk of specific congenital malformations: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 2018;36:472-482\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nAnthony S, Buitendijk SE, Dorrepaal CA, Lindner K, Braat DD, den Ouden AL. Congenital malformations in 4224 children conceived after IVF. Human Reproduction. 2002;17:2089-2095\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nKlemetti R, Sevón T, Gissler M, Hemminki E. Health of children born after ovulation induction. Fertility and Sterility. 2010;93:1157-1168\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nNovakovic B, Lewis S, Halliday J, Kennedy J, Burgner DP, Czajko A, et al. Assisted reproductive technologies are associated with limited epigenetic variation at birth that largely resolves by adulthood. Nature Communications. 2019;10(1):3922\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nHvidtjørn D, Schieve L, Schendel D, Jacobsson B, Svaerke C, Thorsen P. Cerebral palsy, autism spectrum disorders, and developmental delay in children born after assisted conception: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2009;163:72-83\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nSandin S, Nygren KG, Iliadou A, Hultman CM, Reichenberg A. Autism and mental retardation among offspring born after in vitro fertilization. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2013;310:75-84\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nBonduelle M, Liebaers I, Deketelaere V, Derde MP, Camus M, Devroey P, et al. Neonatal data on a cohort of 2889 infants born after ICSI (1991-1999) and of 2995 infants born after IVF (1983-1999). Human Reproduction. 2002;17:671-694\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nWen J, Jiang J, Ding C, Dai J, Liu Y, Xia Y, et al. Birth defects in children conceived by in vitro fertilization and intracytoplasmic sperm injection: A meta-analysis. Fertility and Sterility. 2012;97:1331-1337.e1-4\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nHansen M, Kurinczuk JJ, Milne E, de Klerk N, Bower C. Assisted reproductive technology and birth defects: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Human Reproduction Update. 2013;19:330-353\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nHoorsan H, Mirmiran P, Chaichian S, Moradi Y, Hoorsan R, Jesmi F. Congenital malformations in infants of mothers undergoing assisted reproductive technologies: A systematic review and meta-analysis study. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health. 2017;50:347-360\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nNakashima A, Araki R, Tani H, Ishihara O, Kuwahara A, Irahara M, et al. Implications of assisted reproductive technologies on term singleton birth weight: An analysis of 25,777 children in the national assisted reproduction registry of Japan. Fertility and Sterility. 2013;99:450-455\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nKamath MS, Kirubakaran R, Mascarenhas M, Sunkara SK. Perinatal outcomes after stimulated versus natural cycle IVF: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 2018;36:94-101\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nLand JA, Evers JL. Risks and complications in assisted reproduction techniques: Report of an ESHRE consensus meeting. Human Reproduction. 2003;18:455-457\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nMoini A, Shiva M, Arabipoor A, Hosseini R, Chehrazi M, Sadeghi M. Obstetric and neonatal outcomes of twin pregnancies conceived by assisted reproductive technology compared with twin pregnancies conceived spontaneously: A prospective follow-up study. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology. 2012;165:29-32\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nVasario E, Borgarello V, Bossotti C, Libanori E, Biolcati M, Arduino S, et al. IVF twins have similar obstetric and neonatal outcome as spontaneously conceived twins: A prospective follow-up study. Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 2010;21:422-428\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nPinborg A, Lidegaard Ø, la Cour Freiesleben N, Andersen AN. Consequences of vanishing twins in IVF/ICSI pregnancies. Human Reproduction. 2005;20:2821-2829\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nPinborg A, Lidegaard O, Nl F, Andersen AN. Vanishing twins: A predictor of small-for-gestational age in IVF singletons. Human Reproduction. 2007;22:2707-2714\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Contribution of assisted reproductive technology and ovulation-inducing drugs to triplet and higher-order multiple births—United States, 1980-1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2000;49:535-538\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nHenningsen AA, Gissler M, Skjaerven R, Bergh C, Tiitinen A, Romundstad LB, et al. Trends in perinatal health after assisted reproduction: A Nordic study from the CoNARTaS group. Human Reproduction. 2015;30:710-716\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nFarhi A, Reichman B, Boyko V, Hourvitz A, Ron-El R, Lerner-Geva L. Maternal and neonatal health outcomes following assisted reproduction. Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 2013;26:454-461\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nMcDonald SD, Han Z, Mulla S, Murphy KE, Beyene J, Ohlsson A, et al. Preterm birth and low birth weignt among in vitro fertilization singletons: A systematic review and meta-analyses. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology. 2009;146:138-148\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nJiang Z, Wang Y, Lin J, Xu J, Ding G, Huang H. Genetic and epigenetic risks of assisted reproduction. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 2017;44:90-04\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nSutcliffe AG, Ludwig M. Outcome of assisted reproduction. Lancet. 2007;370:351-359\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nQin J, Wang H, Sheng X, Liang D, Tan H, Xia J. Pregnancy-related complications and adverse pregnancy outcomes in multiple pregnancies resulting from assisted reproductive technology: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Fertility and Sterility. 2015;103:1492-1495\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nPastore LM, Williams CD. Perinatal outcomes in singletons following in vitro fertilization: A meta-analysis. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2004;104:411\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nAznar J, Martínez M, Navarro P. Valoración de la adopción de embriones humanos congelados desde el punto de vista de la filosofía moral, la ética laica y dos religiones monoteístas. Acta Bioethica. 2016;22:187-194\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nPessina A. La cosiddetta adozione pre natale. Questione etiche. (Texto pro-manuscripto. Per concessione dell’autore)\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nKlein JU. Religious Views: The Impact of Traditional Theological Opinion on the Practice of Third-Party Reproduction. In Sauer MV. Principles of Oocyte and Embryo Donation. London: Springer-Verlag; 2013\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nRae SB, Cox PM. Bioethics: A Christian Approach in a Pluralistic Age Grand Rapids. Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company; 1999\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nAznar J, Martínez M, Navarro P. Moral assessment of frozen human embryo adoption in the light of the magisterium of the Catholic Church. Acta Bioethica. 2017;23:137-149\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nCongregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Instruction Donum Vitae. 1987\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nCongregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Instruction Dignitas Personae on certain Bioethical questions. 2008\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nAznar J, Mínguez JA. Loss of human embryos secondary to in vitro fertilization. Medicina e Morale. 2012;4:613-616\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nMartin JR, Bromer JG, Sakkas D, Patrizio P. Live babies born per oocyte retrieved in a subpopulation of oocyte donors with repetitive reproductive success. Fertility and Sterility. 2010;94:2064-2068\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nCoco R. Reprogenetics: Preimplantational genetics diagnosis. Genetics and Molecular Biology. 2014;37:271-274\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nEthics Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis for serious adult onset conditions: A committee opinion. Fertility and Sterility. 2013;100:54-57\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nCollins SC. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis: Technical advances and expanding applications. Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2013;25:201-206\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nHarton GL, Magli MC, Lundin K, Montag M, Lemmen J, Harper JC, et al. ESHRE PGD consortium/embryology special interest group--best practice guidelines for polar body and embryo biopsy for preimplantation genetic diagnosis/screening (PGD/PGS). Human Reproduction. 2011;26:41-46\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nMastenbroek S, Twisk M, van Echten-Arends J, Sikkema-Raddatz B, Korevaar JC, Verhoeve HR, et al. In vitro fertilization with preimplantation genetic screening. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2007;357:9-17\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nSavulescu J, Kahane G. The moral obligation to create children with the best chance of the best life. Bioethics. 2009;23:274-290\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nMalek J, Daar J. The case for a parental duty to use preimplantation genetic diagnosis for medical benefit. The American Journal of Bioethics. 2012;12:3-11\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nVerlinsky Y, Ginsberg N, Lifchez A, Valle J, Moise J, Strom CM. Analysis of the first polar body: Preconception genetic diagnosis. Human Reproduction. 1990;5:826-829\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nMontag M, van der Ven K, Rösing B, van der Ven H. Polar body biopsy: A viable alternative to preimplantation genetic diagnosis and screening. Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 2009;18(Suppl 1):6-11\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nHamamah S, I26 Alternatives to PGD. Non-invasive assessment of oocytes and embryos. Reproductive BioMedicine Online. 2013;26(Suppl 1):S10-S11\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nDokras A, Sargent I, Ross C, Gardner R, Barlow D. Trophectoderm biopsy in human blastocysts. Human Reproduction. 1900;5(7):821-825\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nPennings G. Genetic databases and the future of donor anonymity. Human Reproduction. 2019;34:786-790\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nPennings G. The ‘double track’ policy for donor anonymity. Human Reproduction. 1997;12:2839-2844\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nValerio M. Sólo cinco ‘bebés salvadores’ han nacido en España desde 2006. El Mundo Salud. Nov 2, 2015\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nVerlinsky Y, Rechitsky S, Sharapova T, et al. Preimplantation HLA testing. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2004;291:2079-2085\n'},{id:"B85",body:'\nKuliev A, Rechitsky S, Verlinsky O, Tur-Kaspa I, Kalakoutis G, et al. Preimplantation diagnosis and HLA typing for haemoglobin disorders. Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 2005;11:362-370\n'},{id:"B86",body:'\nKuliev A, Rechitsky S, Tur-Kaspa I, Verlinsky Y. Preimplantation genetics: Improving access to stem cell therapy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2005;1054:223-227\n'},{id:"B87",body:'\nAznar J, Martínez PM. Gestational surrogacy: Current view. The Linacre Quarterly. 2019;86:56-57\n'},{id:"B88",body:'\nLorenceau ES, Mazzucca L, Tisseron S, Pizitz TD. A cross-cultural study on surrogate mother’s empathy and maternal-foetal attachment. Women and Birth. 2015;28:154-159\n'},{id:"B89",body:'\nVilella F, Moreno-Moya JM, Balaguer N, Grasso A, Herrero M, Martínez S, et al. Hsa-miR-30d, secreted by the human endometrium, is taken up by the pre-implantation embryo and might modify its transcriptome. Development. 2015;142:3210-3221\n'},{id:"B90",body:'\nTanderup M, Reddy S, Patel T, Nielsen BB. Informed consent in medical decision-making in commercial gestation surrogacy: A mixed methods study in New Dehli, India. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 2015;94:465-472\n'},{id:"B91",body:'\nAznar J, Tudela J. Social freezing: Analysis of an ethical dilema. The Ethics in Medicine. 2019;35:161-170\n'},{id:"B92",body:'\nAznar J, Tudela J, Aznar J. Analysis of the truth in advertising on the efficacy provided by assisted reproduction clinics. Acta Bioethica. 2017;23:311-325\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Justo Aznar",address:"justo.aznar@ucv.es",affiliation:'
Life Sciences Institute, Catholic University of Valencia, Spain
Life Sciences Institute, Catholic University of Valencia, Spain
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Spierings and Dustin Tran",authors:[{id:"82269",title:"Prof.",name:"Egilius",surname:"Spierings",fullName:"Egilius Spierings",slug:"egilius-spierings",email:"spierings@medvadis.com"},{id:"82336",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",surname:"Sprawls",fullName:"Kelly Sprawls",slug:"kelly-sprawls",email:"sprawls@medvadis.com"},{id:"137598",title:"Mr.",name:"Dustin",surname:"Tran",fullName:"Dustin Tran",slug:"dustin-tran",email:"dustinptran@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Constipation",slug:"constipation-causes-diagnosis-and-treatment",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"73418",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Breuer",slug:"christian-breuer",fullName:"Christian Breuer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"73533",title:"Mr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Dobson",slug:"brian-dobson",fullName:"Brian Dobson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"74624",title:"Prof.",name:"Caterina",surname:"Aurilio",slug:"caterina-aurilio",fullName:"Caterina Aurilio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"76780",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathleen",surname:"McGrath",slug:"kathleen-mcgrath",fullName:"Kathleen McGrath",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Royal Children's Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"76782",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrina",surname:"Caldwell",slug:"patrina-caldwell",fullName:"Patrina Caldwell",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"76906",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony G.",surname:"Catto-Smith",slug:"anthony-g.-catto-smith",fullName:"Anthony G. Catto-Smith",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76906/images/2287_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Tony G Catto-Smith is Director of the Department of Gastroenterology and Clinical Nutrition at the Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne. He qualified in medicine from St Bartholomew’s Hospital in London, trained in paediatrics in the UK and Australia, then in paediatric gastroenterology at the University of Calgary in Canada. \nAfter returning to Melbourne in 1990, he pioneered the introduction of clinical techniques for the measurement of gastrointestinal motility at RCH. He has continued a strong clinical interest in disorders of colorectal function and published extensively in this area. A major clinical achievement has been the introduction of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy placement for children in Australia. Other clinical and research interests include the pathogenesis and treatment of Crohn’s and Ulcerative Colitis. He is the author of over 100 journal articles.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Royal Children's Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"79424",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Gallelli",slug:"luca-gallelli",fullName:"Luca Gallelli",position:"Assistant Professor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79424/images/3640_n.jpg",biography:"Luca Gallelli obtained his first honour degree in Medicine and Surgery in 1997, Ph.D in Pharmacology and Toxicology (Chemotherapy) in 2001 and Specialization in Clinical Pharmacology in 2005. He obtained a SIF (Italian Society of Pharmacology) travel grant in 2000. Since 2007 he has been teaching Pharmacology to nursing and medical students, as well as those specializing in Pharmacology, Respiratory Medicine and Forensic Medicine.\nLuca Gallelli has published 60 original research articles in international journals. He has also presented several papers in national and international symposia. He is a member of Italian Society of Pharmacology, and the referee for several international journal.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"82269",title:"Prof.",name:"Egilius",surname:"Spierings",slug:"egilius-spierings",fullName:"Egilius Spierings",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Spierings is Associate Clinical Professor of Neurology at Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, and at Craniofacial Pain Center, Tufts University School of Dental Medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"MedVadis Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"82336",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",surname:"Sprawls",slug:"kelly-sprawls",fullName:"Kelly Sprawls",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"MedVadis Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"83496",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomoko",surname:"Fujiwara",slug:"tomoko-fujiwara",fullName:"Tomoko Fujiwara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ashiya College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"partnerships",title:"Partnerships",intro:"
IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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ALPSP
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The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
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\\n\\n
OASPA
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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\\n\\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
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\\n\\n
COPE
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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\\n\\n
Creative Commons
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\\n
\\n\\n
Crossref
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\\n\\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
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SPi Global
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SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\\n
\\n\\n
DHL
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
\n
\n\n
OASPA
\n\n
\n\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
\n
\n\n
STM
\n\n
\n\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\n
\n\n
COPE
\n\n
\n\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
\n
\n\n
Creative Commons
\n\n
\n\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Crossref
\n\n
\n\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
\n
\n\n
Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
\n\n
\n\t
Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
\n
\n\n
CLOCKSS
\n\n
\n\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\n
\n\n
Counter
\n\n
\n\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\n
\n\n
DORA
\n\n
\n\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
\n
\n\n
iThenticate
\n\n
\n\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
\n
\n\n
Enago
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\n\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
\n
\n\n
SPi Global
\n\n
\n\t
SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\n
\n\n
Amazon
\n\n
\n\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\n
\n\n
DHL
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
\n
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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