The ionization equations and pKa value in magnesium ammonium phosphate solution at 25° [30, 31].
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-232-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"babca2dea1c80719111734cc57a21a4c",bookSignature:"Dr. Amin Talei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10404.jpg",keywords:"Water Budget, Ground Measurement, Satellite Data, Empirical Models, Physical Models, Data-Driven Models, Artificial Neural Network, Neuro-Fuzzy Systems, Genetic Programming, Irrigation Management, Drought, Aquifer Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in developing hydrological models using adaptive neuro-fuzzy systems, a pioneering researcher in tropical biofiltration systems, appointed head of the Civil Engineering Discipline in Monash University Malaysia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"335732",title:"Dr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Talei",slug:"amin-talei",fullName:"Amin Talei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335732/images/system/335732.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amin Talei joined Monash University Malaysia in January 2013 and currently is the head of Civil Engineering discipline. His previous appointment was as researcher in School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of Nanyang Technological University of Singapore where he studied for his PhD during 2008-2011. His research is predominantly focused on hydrological modeling and flood forecasting using artificial intelligence techniques. Most recently, he has been also involved in research projects dealing with sustainable urban water management. To date, he has published over 50 articles in reputable journals and international conference proceedings. He has supervised several PhD and Master students and won the Supervisor of the Year Award in Monash University Malaysia in 2017. He has absorbed over AUD370,000 research funding from industry and international/national funding agencies since 2014 and is a chartered professional engineer of the Engineers Australia.",institutionString:"Monash University Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54320",title:"Phosphorus Recovery by Struvite Crystallization from Livestock Wastewater and Reuse as Fertilizer: A Review",doi:"10.5772/65692",slug:"phosphorus-recovery-by-struvite-crystallization-from-livestock-wastewater-and-reuse-as-fertilizer-a-",body:'\nPhosphorus is a key factor causing water eutrophication, on the other hand, it is also a nonrecyclable, nonrenewable, and quite valuable resource. According to the Mineral Commodity Summaries 2015 [1] from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the reserve of phosphate rock in China is 3.7 billion tons in 2014, which is in second place in the world. However, with a total of 43–48% of the world’s phosphate rock production over the last 3 years [2], the phosphate rock might run out in less than 40 years. So phosphate rock has been one of the 20 minerals that could not meet the demand of the national economy development after 2010 as reported by the Ministry of Land and Resources in China.
\nOn the other side, the intensive livestock farming is a pillar industry in agricultural economy and an important way to increase rural incomes in China [3]. However, it usually produces large amount of livestock wastewater containing high concentration of phosphorus [4]. If this wastewater was not treated reasonably, it would not only lead to the pollution of water eutrophication, but also waste nonrenewable resources and would become one of the major contributors to phosphorus loss [5]. According to the first national sources of pollution survey [6] in China in 2008, nonpoint source pollution in agriculture is a major cause of eutrophication. It accounts for 34.24% of the total phosphorus emission amount, including the livestock and poultry industry. Therefore, it is quite valuable to combine nutrient recycling with environmental pollution control to recover losing phosphorus from livestock wastewater [7].
\nNumerous phosphorus recovery technologies have been developed, such as biological phosphorus removal, chemical precipitation, electrolysis, adsorption, and crystallization. Biological phosphorus removal utilizes polyphosphate-accumulating organisms to capture phosphorus in their cells. However, this method is limited by the lack of carbon sources and the difficulty of culturing pure bacteria [8]. Chemical precipitation process may consume expensive chemicals and produce large amounts of chemical sludge [9]. Electrolysis is restricted by the small capacity of handling wastewater and the frequent renewal of electrodes [10, 11]. Recovering phosphorus from wastewater using chemical adsorbents is expensive, so cheaper and more efficient adsorbents are necessary for research [12].
\nRecovering phosphorus by crystallization, by contrast, is a more economical and efficient way. As long as the crystallization conditions are suitable, the struvite crystal would be generated just by adding magnesium (Mg2+) in the raw wastewater which has high concentrations of HnPO4n−3 and NH4+-N. This technology can remove nitrogen at the same time and its production can be used as fertilizer. So it had been studied in many kinds of wastewater, such as multiple wastewater [13], industrial wastewater [14, 15], municipal landfill leachate [16], biogas slurry [17], and effluent of sewage sludge [18], and livestock wastewater is no exception.
Magnesium ammonium phosphate, also known as struvite, is a white crystal generated in neural or mild alkali condition, for which the chemical formula is Mg(NH4)PO4⋅6H2O. Struvite consists of one molecule of magnesium(Mg2+), one molecule of ammonium (NH4+), one molecule of phosphate (PO43−), and six molecules of water (H2O), whose relative molar mass is 245.43 g/mol. It is only slightly soluble in water but soluble in acid solution [19]. Struvite is a light crystal with low relative density of 1.65–1.7. It is not easy to be rush off by rainfall [20]. Pure struvite belongs to orthorhombic crystals which consists of regular PO43− octahedron, distorted Mg(H2O)62+ octahedron, and groups of NH4+ connected by hydrogen bonding [21], but shows rod-like structure [22] or irregular structure [23] sometimes (Figure 1). And struvite of rod-like structure is of low purity, because of the coprecipitation with foreign ions.
The SEM figure of magnesium ammonium phosphate crystal.
Actually, struvite had been widely studied as early as 1937 for the congestion in the pipes of the sludge anaerobic digester [24]. The general struvite forming reaction equation is shown below:
\nWhen Mg2+, NH4+, and HnPO4n−3 (n = 0, 1, or 2) exist in the solution and the product of their concentrations are bigger than the solubility product constant (Ksp) of struvite, the crystal would be generated spontaneously. And the calculation formula of struvite\'s Kspis shown below:
\nwhere [Mg2+], [NH4+], and [PO43−] are concentrations of Mg2+, NH4+, and PO43− in the solution, respectively. As the molar ratio of Mg2+, NH4+, and PO43− is 1:1:1 in struvite, so C* is used to present the same concentration of these three ions, which means C* = [Mg2+] = [NH4+] = [PO43−]. So the calculation formula of struvite’s Kspalso can be shown as:
\nSnoeyink et al. [25] got the Ksp of struvite is 10−12.6 as early as 1980. Ohlinger et al. [26] corrected it to 10−13.26 in 1999. And then Bhuiyan et al. [27] corrected it again to 10−13.36 in 2007, which is widely used now. However, Ksp of struvite is hard to get in the real wastewater for the negative impact of the soluble coexisting ions. Therefore, in the estimation of the saturability of the real wastewater, ionic activity coefficient (Kso) is more widely useful than Ksp. Considering the impact of ionic strength (I) and the ionic activity (Ai) in estimating the Kso, the value of Kso is bigger than Ksp. And the calculation formula of struvite’s Ksois shown below:
\nwhere αi presents the ionic activity (Ai), γi presents the activity coefficient of the ionic strength (I), and [Ci] presents the concentration of the ion. Only when the value of γi is 1, Ksp is able to represent Kso. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate the interruptions of the soluble coexisting ions (like Ca2+, CO32−, and SO42−) and clear of the ionic activities of Mg2+, NH4+, and PO43− in the specific pH condition. Table 1 shows the ionization equations and pKa value in magnesium ammonium phosphate solution at 25°C, which is helpful to estimate the distribution of these ions and predict the probability to generate struvite under such environment of solution.
No. | Ionization equation | pKa |
---|---|---|
1 | NH4+ ⇌ NH3 (aq) + H+ | 9.26 |
2 | H3PO4 ⇌ H2PO4− + H+ | 2.12 |
3 | H2PO4− ⇌ HPO42− + H+ | 7.20 |
4 | HPO42− ⇌ PO43− + H+ | 12.36 |
5 | MgNH4PO4⋅6H2O ⇌ Mg2+ + NH4++ PO43− + 6H2O | 12.70 |
6 | MgOH+ ⇌ Mg2+ + OH− | 2.56 |
7 | MgH2PO4+ ⇌ H2PO4− + Mg2+ | 0.45 |
8 | MgHPO4 ⇌ HPO42− + Mg2+ | 2.91 |
9 | MgPO4− ⇌ PO43− + Mg2+ | 4.80 |
Nucleation and crystal growth are two classical steps in the process of struvite crystallization from generation to development. As shown in Figure 2, nucleation is the first step of the struvite crystallization. When Mg2+, NH4+, and PO43− meet under the proper pH value, nucleation occurs. And the nucleation time is the time required to form a saturated solution to the beginning of the nucleation. It is mainly influenced by the pH of solution, mixing energy, coexisting ions, and saturation index (SI). The ion activity affected by the value of pH significantly leads to differentiation of combine speed of free ions [28]. Weak ion activity means slow combine speed and longer nucleation time indirectly. When the rate of struvite nucleation and growth is greater than or equal to the rate of mixing magnesium to the solution, there needs additional mixing energy. Kim et al. [15] emphasized that mixing energy could influence the quantity and size of struvite strongly. However, the greatest impaction of struvite nucleation is saturation index (SI) of solution which decides the development of crystal to homogeneous or heterogeneous directly [26]. SI is used to describe the saturation state of the reaction system of struvite. And the SI calculation of struvite is shown as follows:
The crystal nucleation, growth and aggregation mechanism of magnesium ammonium phosphate.
where IAP and Ksp represent ionic activity product and the thermodynamic solubility product of struvite, respectively [29]. The homogeneous crystallization that we want happens on metastable region in the solution. In this region, nucleation is not spontaneous, which differentiated between the process of crystallization and precipitation, and avoids the occurrence of undesirable spontaneous nucleation to a great extent [28]. However, mestastable state of solution is very difficult to control. Therefore, SI, as the indicator for metastable state, is very important. Bonurophoulos et al. [30] found that the threshold between homogeneous and heterogeneous precipitation is the condition where SI ≈ 2.0 and the nucleation rate of 1 nucleus/(cm3⋅s). When the SI is less than 1.716, the struvite crystals are in heterogeneous precipitation and vice versa. Bhuiyan et al. [31] and Mehta et al. [32] also got the threshold at SI = 1.83 and SI = 1.7 at the special nucleation rate, respectively. In addition, Durrant et al. [33] emphasized the great influence of SI on the shape of struvite as early as 1999. And it also has a SI threshold between rhombic structure and rod-like structure of struvite.
\nAfter the crystal nucleus generates, the ions in the solution used to form the crystal begin to deposit on the crystal nucleus and the nucleus grow to the settling particles. During that time, there are two trends for the development of particles. One is orientation growth, which means the ions sequence in the crystal is arranged according to a certain lattice. The other one is nonorientation growth, which means these ions are too late to arrange in order. It is the fast growth rate that causes disorder. And two types of the crystal growth mechanisms lead to different trends. One is the integration mechanism, and the other is the mass transfer mechanism. The former is the integration of solute molecules into the surface; the latter is the transfer (by diffusion or convection) of solute molecules from the bulk solution to the crystal surface. When the effect of mass transfer is greater than the effect of integration, the crystal growth mainly depends on the diffusion effect and the growth of crystal would be orientable. However, if the effect of integration is greater, the integration on the surface of solute decides the crystal growth. And the relative sizes of the nucleation rate, aggregation rate, and directional array rate also decide the trend of crystal growth, which can be changed by precipitation conditions [31]. Abe et al. [34] showed that the growth rate of struvite was very slow. In the high concentration of phosphate (greater than 200 mg/L), the daily growth rate of struvite was 0.173 mm. In the low concentration of phosphate (30–100 mg/L), the daily growth rate of struvite was 0.061 mm. Therefore, increasing crystal growth rate and crystal size of struvite is not only beneficial to further removing phosphorus from livestock wastewater, but also to recycling phosphorus with a bigger size struvite. There is a metastable zone in industrial crystallization to make the crystal bigger and more even. The metastable zone is defined as a region bounded by the solubility curve in which the solution is supersaturated but the spontaneous nucleation cannot occur in such a short time [35]. In the metastable zone, the solute condenses on the nucleus as constantly as possible. As we known, the process of struvite constant growth is also the further recovery of phosphorus from livestock wastewater. So it is meaningful to study the metastable zone of struvite for the industrialized application.
Generally speaking, livestock wastewater is rich in ammonium and phosphorus. So it is needed to add extra magnesium to form struvite. Therefore, the addition amount of magnesium affects the solubility product constant (Ksp) directly, which further affects the quantity of struvite crystal and the recovery rate of phosphorus in livestock wastewater. So the molar ratio of phosphate and magnesium is the key factor to control the yield of phosphorus recovery. The molar ratio of phosphate and magnesium is 1:1 in theory. However, the real molar of the added magnesium is larger than the total amount of phosphorus in the real livestock wastewater. As shown in Table 2, for a higher phosphorus removal rate, the molar ratio of phosphate and magnesium is about 1:1–1.2 from livestock wastewater, 1:1.4 from synthetic livestock wastewater, and 1:1–1.4 from anaerobic digesters of livestock wastewater. It is mainly based on the effect of coexisting ions in the livestock wastewater. The coexisting ions, such as OH− and CO32−, are apt to coprecipitate with Mg2+, which prevent the Mg2+ from touching with the NH4+ and PO43−, so more magnesium is needed. Marit et al. [36] indicated that there would be many other kinds of magnesium phosphate precipitates except for struvite at different value of pH, such as Mg3(PO4)2, MgHPO4, and Mg(H2PO4)2. So it does not mean that more magnesium means more struvite. Excessive amounts of magnesium would increase the pH value of the solution as well as the degree of saturation of the magnesium salts, resulting in the formation of other kinds of magnesium phosphate precipitates mentioned.
Samples | Initial concentration of phosphate (mg/L) | Molar ratio of N, P, and Mg | pH | Reaction time | Removal rate of phosphate (%) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Animal manure wastewater | 145 | 16.4:1:1.05 | 8 | 30 min | 67 | [40] |
Animal manure wastewater | 189.9 | 1:1:0.8–1 | 8.35 | 4 h | 96 | [41] |
Animal manure wastewater | 60.01 | 63.5:1:1 | 8.09 | 4 h | 92.82 | [42] |
Animal manure wastewater | 128 ± 13 | 1:1:1.2 | 9 | 1 h | 98 | [43] |
Synthetic animal manure wastewater | 80 | 8:1:1.4 | 9.5–10.5 | 2 h | 97 | [44] |
Synthetic animal manure wastewater | 130.2 | 1:1:5 | 7.9 | – | 92 | [45] |
Anaerobic digesters of manure wastewater | 51.1 | 30.7:1:1.4 | 8.0–10.0 | 1 h | 74–95 | [46] |
Anaerobic digesters of manure wastewater | 55.4 | 9.6:1:1.2 | 9.0 | 20 min | 85 | [47] |
Anaerobic digesters of manure wastewater | 64.2 | 1:1.2:1.2 | 9.0 | 15 h | 97.2 | [48] |
The summary of parameters on magnesium ammonium phosphate crystallization.
The value of pH of livestock wastewater is an important parameter to the formation of struvite. It affects the quality and the purity of struvite at the same time. As shown in Table 2, the best value of pH to form struvite is between 8 and 10, while 8.0–9.0 is the best for livestock wastewater. However, Hao et al. [37] indicated that struvite could get the highest purity at pH = 7.0, and the purity seemed to have fallen with the increasing of the pH value of wastewater. When the value of pH is higher than 10, the formed precipitate mainly consists of Mg3(PO4)2 (Ksp= 9.8 × 10−25). Song et al. [38] also found that the precipitate of Mg(OH)2 would form at the pH of 11. It does not mean that it is better to form struvite at a lower value of pH. However, considering the phosphorous recovery, as long as the productions of phosphorus salts are harmless and nontoxic, the aim of recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater is reached. Anyway, the pH value of livestock wastewater is generally between 7.5 and 8.5, which is more convenient to recover phosphorus without the need for adjusting the pH value. It is helpful to simplify the technology and reduce the cost of livestock wastewater treatment.
There are many kinds of coexisting ions interfering with the crystallization of struvite in livestock wastewater, such as calcium ion (Ca2+), carbonate ion (CO32−), suspended solids (SS), and heavy metal ions (HMI). Moerman et al. [39] found that Ca2+ could enhance the phosphorus removal with forming the precipitate of Ca3(PO4)2. However, it reduces the size of struvite. Meanwhile, lots of Ca3(PO4)2 powder flows out with effluent easily, declining the effluent water quality. Le Corre et al. [40] also declared that Ca2+ would compete with Mg2+ and form the precipitates of Ca3(PO4)2 (Ksp = 2.1 × 10−33) and CaHPO4 (Ksp = 1.8 × 10−7) at the pH value of 9. By performing batch experiments, Zhang et al. [41] found that the degree of the supersaturation would decrease with the increase of the concentration of CO32−. The CO32−, easily combining with Mg2+, increases the ion saturation in the solution and decreases the concentration of Mg2+ forming struvite. Suzuki et al. [42] showed that negatively charged SS adsorbed NH4+ and Mg2+ easily in the alkaline environment, which retarded the struvite crystalline rate. And Muryanto et al. [43] studied on the influence of copper ions (Cu2+) and zinc ions (Zn2+) in struvite crystallization and showed that the existence of Cu2+ and Zn2+ would delay the nucleation rate and the growth rate of struvite. Although they had little impact on the crystal shape, the crystal would have some cracks on the surface.
\nAll in all, in the process of recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater, some pretreatments are necessary to implement for removing these coexisting ions before forming the struvite. Laridi et al. [44] tried to reduce the negative impacts of organics and SS by adding ferric chloride and flocculants into the livestock wastewater, and it worked with a higher phosphorus removal rate at the same time. Suzuki et al. [42] tried to separate the struvite from suspended solids containing heavy metals by the differences of their settlement characteristics. It improved the purity of struvite and reduced the negative impact of SS and heavy metal ions.
Seed crystals have positive influence in the struvite growth. Adding seed crystals can reduce the saturation of struvite crystallization in need, shorten the nucleation time, and increase the rate of crystal growth. What is more, struvite crystallizes on the surface of seed crystals, which enhances the separation of crystals and water, prevents the tiny crystals from flowing out with the effluent, and improves the phosphorus removal efficiency. Ariyanto et al. [45] showed that the smaller the added crystal nucleus is, the faster is the rate of crystal growth. Kim et al. [18] emphasized that the excessive amount of seed crystals added could not improve the phosphorus removal efficiency, and the pH value of wastewater also influenced the efficiency at the same dosage of seed crystals. The phosphorus removal efficiency is more significant at the pH value of 9. So only adding proper amount of seed crystals with a proper average size can the phosphorus removal efficiency be higher.
It is important to realize the phosphorus recycling in crystallizer, as the struvite crystallization equipment. The pros and cons of its design decide the shape and size of the struvite and the phosphorus removal efficiency from livestock wastewater. A series of struvite crystallizers had been developed and put into production successfully abroad previously, which had obtained environmental and economic benefits simultaneously. According to the mode of agitation, these crystallizers can be divided into air agitation type, water agitation type, and mechanical agitation type.
\nThe air agitation type crystallizer is a kind of crystallizer that is studied widely. The special aerate system can not only mix the solution more efficiently, improving the collision chance of crystal forming ions, but also vent the gas carbon dioxide and insoluble ammonium from the solution, increasing the pH value of the solution, the ammonium removal efficiency, and the effluent water quality at the same time. The crystallizer used by the British slough sewage treatment plant (Figure 3a) reached the soluble phosphorus removal rate of 94% and the total phosphorus removal rate of 87.5% with drumming into air under the inner reaction zone [46]. Le Corre et al. designed two concentric meshes made of stainless steel as a substrate to grow struvite in the crystallizer, which can trap and then accumulate the struvite in the reactor as an adhesive (Figure 3b). With the help of crystallizers, the phosphorus removal rate can increase from 81 to 86%. However, because of the limitations of volume and growth time, the struvite crystal cannot grow large enough in the air agitation type crystallizer, which causes the loss of phosphorus recovery. Moreover, some kinds of air agitation type crystallizer have the problem of replacing padding or membranes frequently. What is more, the congestion problem becomes serious once the crystallizer broke down for some reasons, and it is hard to restart.
Different kinds of crystallizers forming struvite. (a) The air agitation crystallizer from the British slough sewage treatment plant. (b) The air agitation crystallizer from Le Corre et al. (c) The water agitation crystallizer from Guadia et al. (d) The water agitation crystallizer from Rahaman et al. (e) The MSMPR type crystallizer with 1—internal circulation of suspension, 2—thermostat, 3—computer, 4—rural wastewater (including aqueous solution of MgCl2), 5—pump, 6—alkalinity agent tank: aqueous solution of NaOH, 7 and 8—pump, 9—storage tank of a product crystal suspension, 10, 11, and 12—electronic balances, M—stirrer speed control, T—temperature control, and pH—acid/alkaline reaction control.
The water agitation type crystallizer realizes uniform mixing by changing the solution flow direction, speed, or gravity changed the flow rate by increasing the diameters of the equipment from the bottom to the top, inserted cone-shape structures at an angle of 45° between every diameter-changed parts to reduce unwanted crystal loss at each junction, and recycled finer particles with the effluent through the external recycler (Figure 3c). This crystallizer can remove 92% phosphate, and the purity of struvite goes up to 99%. Rahaman et al. [47] designed four distinct zones at the same principle, added a settling zone (also called seed hopper) at the top, getting the phosphate removal rate of up to 90% and the size of particles up to 3.5 mm. Seed crystals are added into the crystallizer from the seed hopper and allowed the finer crystals to continue to grow up in the upper supersaturated solution.
\nThe mechanical agitation type crystallizer, mixing solution by impellers, is simple in design and easy to operate. However, it causes greater energy consumption and uneven size of crystals distribution. Recently, a new crystallizer called mixed suspension, mixed product removal crystallizer (MSMPR for short) can solve the problem of uneven crystal size distribution (Figure 3e). With the mechanical agitation centered and the water agitation assisted, MSMPR can uniform the suspension density and particle size of the crystals, and remove productions evenly by controlling the speed and time of mixing. Hutnik et al. [48] and Kozik et al. [49] both got the phosphate removal rate up to 99% from industrial wastewater and wastewater with low concentration of phosphorus. And both of them confirmed that MSMPR could increase the size of crystals, improve the crystallization rate of the struvite, and enhance the phosphorus recovery rate.
It is reckoned that 100 m3 wastewater could form 1 kg of struvite. If all the wastewater in the world is treated by struvite crystallization, 63,000 tons of P2O5 could be recovered, equaling to 16% of the phosphate rock production of the world [50]. And 171 g struvite can be recovered from livestock wastewater per square meter at most and the purity as high as 95% without washing. Therefore, recovery of struvite returning to the farmland is a developmental trend of struvite crystallization technology. Struvite, as a slightly soluble crystal, for containing the equal molar concentrations of magnesium (Mg), ammonium, and phosphate, has been successfully used on herbages [51], vegetables [14, 52], and grain crops [53] as a fertilizer, especially on the magnesium-fond crops, like sugar beet [54]. Especially, the presence of Mg in struvite makes it more attractive as an alternative to contemporary fertilizers for a few crops, which require magnesium [55]. Ryu et al. [52] found that the struvite source provided the essential crop nutrients of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg for Chinese cabbage as much as other commercial fertilizers. Moreover, it has a lasting positive function to roots and does not burn the seeding or roots due to its slow release characteristics. Besides, compared with other highly soluble fertilizers, struvite is more suitable for use in the vast areas of forest. Since the area of forest is too large to fertilize frequently, the use of struvite can decrease the frequency of fertilization and reduce the loss of nutrients [54]. However, as livestock wastewater is full of impurities, especially the heavy metal ions, the struvite recovered from livestock wastewater still contain more or less heavy metal ions. From livestock-based struvite, toxic substances may diffuse into the aquatic environment or accumulate in soils and have an adverse effect on the human health and environment [56, 57]. Although currently no specific threshold values are available for micropollutants in fertilizers, the introduction of potential hazardous substances into the environment should be avoided. The accumulation of heavy metal ions will be a serious concern for sustainability [58]. Ryu et al. [52] made a security evaluation for struvite as a fertilizer used in the soil. They affirmed the fertilizer efficiency of struvite and emphasized the negative effect of higher concentrations of copper and cadmium in struvite at the same time. Because copper and cadmium were tested in the cabbage fertilized by the struvite used as fertilizer, the struvite, especially recovered from livestock wastewater, needs to tested for the amount of toxic or harmful substances, followed by the security evaluation as a fertilizer.
Struvite crystallization represents a promising tool for recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater. Based on this study, the conclusions are as follows.
\nStruvite is a white crystal which is formed in neural or mild alkali conditions. Nucleation and crystal growth are two steps for struvite crystallization from generation to growth. The molar ratio of magnesium and phosphate, and solution pH are the key factors to control. The coexisting substances, such as calcium, carbonate, suspended solids, and heavy metals, interfere the crystallization of struvite. Seed crystals have positive influence on struvite growth. Adding seed crystals can reduce the saturation of struvite crystallization, shorten the nucleation time, and improve the rate of crystal growth.
\nCrystallizer, its design decides the shape and size of struvite, is important to realize the phosphorus recycling. According to the agitation mode, it can be divided into air agitation, water agitation, and mechanical agitation.
\nThe recovered struvite can be used on herbages, vegetables, and grain crops as a fertilizer, especially on the magnesium-fond crops, like sugar beet.
\nHowever, there are still some problems. Livestock wastewater belongs to the organic wastewater with high concentrations of ammonium, phosphorus, organics, and suspend solids. And the existing forms are complex, such as simple monoester phosphorus, phytate-like phosphorus, and polynucleotide-like phosphoric. So it is necessary to use some physical or chemical measures to transform different kinds of phosphorus to phosphate, as many as possible, before removing phosphorus from livestock wastewater.
\nThe design for struvite crystallizer is still a key to struvite crystallization technology. Although enhancing the phosphorus removal rate has got a big breakthrough by the current crystallizer, the crystals are still too small to recover and block the crystallizer easily. It is the influence of negative zeta potential on the surface of crystals that makes further aggregating hard for small crystals. So finding a way to change the zeta potential on the surface of the crystals, enhancing the aggregation capability, and increasing the size of the crystals is required.
\nStruvite, a fertilizer with high concentrations of nutrients, might be difficult in application for the influence of other toxic or harmful impurities. Therefore, to reduce the environmental risk at source, it is necessary that estimating the potential effects of struvite on the ecosystem before use.
The work was supported by a grant from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31401944), the National key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2016YFD0501404), the Beijing Municipal Natural Science Foundation (No. 6144026), China Agricultural University Education Foundation “Da Bei Nong Group Education Foundation” (No. 1031-2415005), and the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of China (No. 20120008120013).
“Black Lives Matter” became a popular mantra among Black Americans after George Floyd died on May 25 this year. This dramatic scene resorted to rallies, looting, and destruction of properties that resulted in violence despite COVID-19 protocols [1]. This racial clamor of assertion reawakens a historical struggle of a cultural divide between the Blacks and the Whites in American history. Racism is crucial to unity, progress, and sustainable development not only in the United States of America but to other countries as well. Come to think of it, are the lives of the whites, the Asians, the Indigenous Peoples, and other races do not matter only because of this mantra? This question challenges racial dominance against racial equality that jeopardizes peace, unity, and sustainable development across the globe during this COVID-19 pandemic. Regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, culture, and religions, all lives matter for sustainable development. It is through education that this cultural divide polarizes to an end and continuously creates a better world for humanity, guided by the democratic principles of freedom, equality, and the pursuit of human happiness.
\nHow can the institution of education achieve this humanitarian goal? Education can start recognizing the country’s most important resource – the human population. It is through education, training, mentoring, seminars, conferences, and workshops that make the human population acquire knowledge [2]. Thomas Malthus in his essay once said: “as the human population multiplies geometrically, food supply increases arithmetically” [3]. This quote may result in a disequilibrium of supply and demand in the market that impacts demographic studies. This demographic situation threatens humanity’s existence that touches environmental, public health, socioeconomic, and political concerns vital to sustainable development. Curbing the rising number of human populations by the government is insufficient to provide enough opportunities for a sustainable future.
\nHistorically, during the trying times of war (World Wars I and II), terrorism (religious, state, international) [4], and pandemic (Black Death, Spanish Flu, and now COVID-19), the world has been unprepared to manage sustainability, despite its efforts to maintain peace and order, alleviate hunger, and lighten the people’s burdens. Natural upheavals and other forms of disturbances produce tensions to humanity’s existence; the chain of poverty and hunger continues, undermining people’s safety. Abuse, use of power and competition for supremacy and global dominance is obvious. Struggle for hegemony in global politics and the world market becomes one of the visible culprits on why these upheavals happen, setting back the essence of sustainable development.
\nOne of the ‘antidotes’ in responding to these disturbing challenges is Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) mandates 17 goals for ESD. Among these goals, this chapter limits its discussion to goal number four on quality education that ensures inclusiveness and equitability of quality education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities for all [5]. This is one of the targets of ESD by 2030, with an emphasis on cultural contributions [6]. However, the broadness of this goal allows the author to pick ‘world heritage sites and local cultural properties’ as one of ESD’s eight themes, using the principles of tolerance and cultural relativism in the educational system. There is a potential for the Philippines to support this mandate in consonance with the finding of National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) that education ranked 4th in the executive survey on Filipino values with the essential capacity to ensure a brighter future, learn values, promote human rights, challenge values education, and improve its delivery [7].
\nThis chosen ESD theme narrows down to specific aspects of the cultural properties of a Cebuano worldview that juxtaposes to secret knowledge, collective values and behavior, festivals, and reverence to the natural environment. In these contexts, this paper explores how ESD intertwines a juxtaposition to create culturally-responsive model and theory in the Philippines that may promote inclusive quality education and national identity in the ASEAN region. This goal desires to promote reduction, if not elimination, of racism, prejudice, and other forms of intolerance that creates bigotry and stronger stigma than the effects of COVID-19 pandemic in many parts of the globe. This happens when there is a lack of cultural knowledge, mastery, understanding, and reflections in cultural contexts that hamper creative cultural innovations for sustainable development, as the four important quintains or case conditions of this paper.
\nDuring this time of pandemic where it is impossible to conduct face-to-face interviews and observations to gather data, document reviews of literature in referred journals served the primary methods of this paper. A recollection of past experiences and travel observations in some parts of Cebu, before the onset of the pandemic, provided sufficient grounding of the paper. A multiple case analysis of selected document reviews of culture studies and culture-based ESD was used as the primary method in this paper. A multiple case analysis is a comparative method of research that deals with a small number of observations, interviews, and document reviews in a selected quintain or a target collection [8]. Literature scanning in the previous works on culture studies and culture-based innovation in education was archived, analyzed, and contextualized to provide a thorough analysis of this paper. The quintain focused on the paper was a condition studied on how a local culture can be used in enhancing ESD based on NCCA’s survey on 19 values of a Filipino.
\nNed Hermann’s Brain Dominance Theory served as the fundamental framework in the presentation and analysis of the paper. This theory suggested that students can benefit from the teacher’s delivery of instruction if lessons effectively stimulate both the thinking (cerebral) and feeling (limbic) parts of the brain [9]. Hence, to observe a vivid contextualization of this theory in the investigated quintain of the paper, Figure 1 shows the four elements of a culture-based ESD framework.
\nElements of culture-based ESD.
The first element of the culture-based ESD framework is cultural knowledge (CK). This element refers to the knowledge of facts, concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories on local cultures, which are essential in ESD. The second element is cultural mastery (CM). CM is the repetition of the learned competencies. This is classified into cognitive, fine and gross motor, and appreciation skills. Both the first and second elements emphasize convergent, linear, and objective analysis of cultural quintains. When learners’ CK and CM are in place, they are ready to hurdle the third and fourth elements in the framework. The third element is the cultural reflections (CR), which utilizes the understanding and decision-making for further actions. This includes the process of doing integration, collaboration, and revision of what has been learned in the CK and CM. This collaboration requires participation by stakeholders [10]. The framework completes with cultural innovations (CI) as its fourth element. CI includes cultural innovations in the contexts of the languages, traditions, mores, folkways, and other cultural elements and properties in the community. Unlike the CK and CM, the CR and CI emphasize the divergent, cyclical, and creative synthesis of cultural orientations in a specific locality.
\nThe dynamics of human society depends on the culture of its people. Issues on gender, race, religion, and diet are avoided when society has an awareness of cultural knowledge. Cultural knowledge (CK) does not only include how people behave and act, but this also includes secret knowledge which is often regarded as taboos in other societies. CK also includes the people’s worldviews on how they look at their social environment and the way they respond to it [11]. Concepts of cultural relativism, tolerance, justice, and peace may dispel a wrong understanding of cultural diversity and distorted worldviews when there is a vibrant interplay of education for sustainable development in the community, with the support of other social institutions as well.
\nThe indigenous knowledge of panambal or healing allows the people of the community to use folkloric modalities and become responsive in using medicinal plants available in the natural environment to heal their illnesses [12, 13, 14, 15]. This local culture of healing allows the community to become sustainable and be relieved from expensive medicines in drugstores and hospital services [16]. It also opens various studies on these medicinal plants that exhibit a potential value for laboratory trials by pharmaceutical companies [17], to contribute to the production of medicine and increase business and employment opportunities for community members.
\nThis also promotes tourism development to showcase the culture of panambal in the Philippines. Figure 2 shows the 12 common cultural practices of panambal in Cebu, Philippines [16]. Hilot is a body massage commonly used by old folks in rural areas. The advent of the spa for stressed individuals promotes hilot in most urban areas that make masseurs’ life sustainable. Palina is fumigation commonly used by faith healers for patients to smell the aromatic smoke of burnt herbs, myrrh, frankincense to relieve pain; and to drive out evil spirits. Vendors earn an income of these materials for palina, provide relief on middle-income earners’ sickness, and supply Catholic churches for use during masses.
\nTraditional healing practices in Cebu [16].
\nHimolso is a pulse-checking of patients to determine the blood pressure and diagnose ailments so that the albularyo (faith healers) can find the necessary herbs and plants to treat them. Palakaw is a petition for healing used by the albularyo to implore the spirits to heal patients. Pasubay is a diagnosis of ailments and its possible means for cure [16], utilizing himolso, viewing crystals, card reading, rituals, and psychic powers. Tutho is a saliva-blowing at the head of the patient; while the tayhopis a gentle-blow of the affected part of the patient’s body to experience relief of pain. Tuob is a steam inhalation commonly used in rural areas to treat colds, cough, fever, and influenza using herbs, spices, and salt in a boiling pot. Pangalap is the searching of the medicinal herbs and plants for the intended palina. Albularyo uses the roots, leaves, bark, and juices of these medicinal flora for healing. Pabukal is a decoction of herbal plants [12], which will be served as a traditional tea that provides a catharsis of pain. Orasyon is the mystical prayers of the albularyo with God or with the spirits of the underworld to grant healing.
\n\nHikay is a feast to please the spirits of nature or offer thanksgiving to the souls of the departed ancestors to protect family members from harm. Hikay is also used to heal one’s ailment after having offended with any spirit of nature in a form of hikayan (a ritual celebration) such as harang (ancestor worship); huhat silung (ritual for good fortune and thanksgiving for abundant harvest); tigpo (atonement of sins of the spirits of the underworld); sagangsang (ritual for abundant wine); damit (ritual for abundant harvest); balangkisaw (ritual for atonement after having offended with the spirits of the water gods); and bug-os or pamisa (offering for the souls of the departed) using puso (cooked rice in pouches) [18]. Figure 3 shows the six designs of puso used during the hikay celebration [18, 19, 20, 21].
\nSix Puso designs.
\nFigure 3 visualizes the six types of rice pouches used during the hikayan or offrenda celebration – an animistic ritual offering. Native animism is a belief that post-mortals being depended on sacrifices offered up by the living [22]; and the belief that the materialistic and the spiritual worlds remain inseparable [23]. These rice pouches are offered to the spirits of the underworld to provide farmers with an abundant harvest, safety from natural calamities, healing their sickness, achieving a healthy and abundant life, and fulfillment of their dreams. Binaki (froglike shape) and the Manan-aw (blooming phalaenopsis) represent a replication of the beauty of nature. These pouches are offered with great intentions of healing and for a successful harvest. Binosa (shot glass shape) and Tinigib (chisel-shape) symbolize the perceived utilitarianism in the ritual offering for the success of the hikayan. Badbaranay (wad-like shape) and the kinasing (heart-shape) are used for self-glorification in union with the spirits of nature. These pouches represent the intimacy of man, nature, and spirit. The recent NCCA survey that ranked 8th on health and wellness among the19 values of a Filipino [7] reflects the 12 traditional healing practices of a Cebuano.
\nAnother lens to look into cultural knowledge is examining how people behave and act in the community during good and bad times. Figure 4 mirrors this lens into five Cebuano cooperation practices known as TAYTU (tagay, alayon, yayong, tambayayong, and unong) [24]. The friendliness and gregariousness of everybody prove that they are not in isolation. As part of social culture, Cebuanos are sensitive and cooperative to other’s needs.
\nCebuano cooperation.
Either in good times or in bad times, tagay (social drinking) is a refuge of barkada (friends) to share their emotions either for comfort or for fun. This Cebuano culture survives with time and it is sustainable. Before, tangero (drinkers) used hungot (smoothened coco shell) as a local shot glass to be shared among the members of the spree on the porch or at the corner. As time evolves, bars provide several shot glasses, i.e. one glass for each drinker to use to prevent viral infection. Regardless of the time, drinkers share their successes, fears, pains, and failures to seek comfort and piece of advice over a bottle of beer or wine matched with a pulotan (appetizer) and a kantahan (singing).
\nTo speed up the task at hand, the Cebuano people engage with an alayon (working as a team). In rural areas, farmers do alayon on the farm among each member of the team. Their survival depends on the efforts of others [25]. They decide to participate in the alayon and work cooperatively on the farm for a week; take turns working on another farm for the succeeding weeks until they finish or decide to have another alayon cycle. Yayong is an act of helping each other by lifting a heavy object, fetching water, changing tires, and doing laundry. This act of kindness extends to help the person during the time of crises like the death of a loved one, loss of a job, and easing of someone’s burden.
\nWhen yayong is extended to several members of the family, friends, and members of the community, it becomes a tambayayong (a collective effort) to make the community more sustainable and achieve development. The fishermen in the coastal areas of Cebu use tambayayong in casting nets for fishing and by pulling these nets with heavy loads of catch on the shoreline. When yayong becomes well-established, an individual is ready to help others. This act of kindness is called unong. This unong is more than the act of sympathy, but empathy extended during wake and burial to the families of a departed loved one. Unong is extended to people who are victims of natural calamities and human atrocities in a form of donations and other humanitarian services to alleviate their suffering. Unong also includes the support extended to welfare homes for the aged, child-care centers, correctional centers, street families, street children, persons with disabilities (PWDs), and other minority groups. Generally, TAYTU is reflective with pakikipagkapwa (social relations) that ranked 3rd in the national survey of Filipino values, which includes Bayanihan (cooperation), empathy, reciprocity, and hospitality [7].
\nIn the NCCA survey of Filipino values, culture, arts, and sciences ranked 9th among the 19 Filipino values [7]. This means that the expressions of the Cebuano festivals shape their soul and identify as a Filipino. The province of Cebu is the most highly celebrated in the Philippines because of her 32 known festivals among the 44 towns and six component cities. A festival is a celebration of a particular event with the maximum participation of everybody in the community [26]. Figure 5 shows the distribution of the 32 celebrated festivals with five types: environmental (38%), socio-anthropological (25%), economic (22%), historical (9%), and religious (6%) reflect cultural gratitude and pride. Tables 1–5 present the origins of these festivals.
\nOrigins of cultural festivals.
Festivals of Cebu | \nTowns & component cities | \nLocation | \nOrigin | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sinulog | \nCebu City | \nEast | \nSulog (water current) | \n
Silmugi | \nBorbon | \nNortheast | \nSilmugi River | \n
Soli-soli | \nSan Francisco, Camotes | \nNortheast | \nSoli-soli (grass) | \n
Kabkaban | \nCarcar City | \nSoutheast | \nkabkab (native fern) | \n
Mantawi | \nMandaue City | \nEast | \nTawi (grass) | \n
Kinsan | \nAloguinsan | \nSouthwest | \nKinsan (a type of fish) | \n
Kaumahan | \nBarili | \nSouthwest | \nUma (farm) | \n
Dinagat | \nCordova | \nEast | \nDagat (sea) | \n
Siloy | \nAlcoy | \nSouthwest | \nSiloy (black shama) | \n
Bonga | \nSibonga | \nSoutheast | \nBunga (fruit) | \n
Bolho | \nBoljoon | \nSoutheast | \nBolho (water sprout) | \n
Kawayan | \nAlegria | \nSouthwest | \nKawayan (bamboo) | \n
Festivals with environmental origins.
Festivals of Cebu | \nTowns and component cities | \nLocation | \nOrigin | \n
---|---|---|---|
Toslob | \nOslob | \nSoutheast | \nToslob (plunging into the sea) | \n
Hinulawan | \nToledo City | \nWest | \nHinaguan (fruits of labor) | \n
Palawud | \nBantayan | \nNorthwest | \nLawud (deep sea fishing) | \n
Kabuhian | \nRonda | \nSouthwest | \nKabuhian (livelihood) | \n
Hinatdan | \nGinatilan | \nSouthwest | \nHatud (an act of good service) | \n
Karansa | \nDanao City | \nNortheast | \nKaransa (dancing in merrymaking) | \n
Sinanggiyaw | \nDumanjug | \nSouthwest | \nSinanggiyaw (planting & thanksgiving) | \n
Halad | \nTalisay City | \nSoutheast | \nHalad (offering for thanksgiving) | \n
Festivals with socio-anthropological origins.
Festivals of Cebu | \nTowns & component cities | \nLocation | \nOrigin | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sarok | \nConsolacion | \nNortheast | \nSarok (farmer’s hat) | \n
La Torta | \nArgao | \nSoutheast | \nTorta (sponge cake) | \n
Pintos | \nBogo City | \nNortheast | \nPintos (a local delicacy) | \n
Tagitab | \nNaga City | \nSoutheast | \nTagitab (electrical light) | \n
Budbod | \nCatmon | \nNortheast | \nBudbod (millet suman) | \n
Utanun | \nDalaguete | \nSoutheast | \nUtanun (vegetables) | \n
Tostado | \nSantander | \nSoutheast | \nTostado (local cookies) | \n
Festivals with economic origins.
Festivals of Cebu | \nTowns & components cities | \nLocation | \nOrigin | \n
---|---|---|---|
Tag-anito | \nTudela | \nNortheast | \nAnito (spirits) | \n
Kabanhawan | \nMinglanilla | \nNortheast | \nBanhaw (resurrection) | \n
Festivals with religious origins.
Festivals of Cebu | \nTowns and component cities | \nLocation | \nOrigin | \n
---|---|---|---|
Haladaya | \nDaan Bantayan | \nNortheast | \nHaladaya (victory offering) | \n
Kadaugan | \nLapu-lapu City | \nEast | \nDaug (winning for victory) | \n
Tagbo | \nPoro, Camotes | \nNortheast | \nTagbo (to meet) | \n
Festivals with historical origins.
The cultural knowledge of festival celebrations in Cebu is reflective of the experiences, stories, and folklore of the 32 towns and cities covered in the study. As shown in Table 1, the festivals with environmental origins have greater convergence in the south and eastern part of the province, which constitutes 38% among the over-all festivals celebrated annually. This implies that Cebuano festivals in the studied locations have greater animistic beliefs and traditions, reflective of their experiences and interaction with the environment. This connection between man and nature creates a profound intimacy that promotes Cebuano cultural identity and pride. For instance, the Siloy Festival of Alcoy is a depiction of pride of the town’s locally known siloy or a songbird Black Shama (Copsychus cebuensis Steere), as an avian species found only in Cebu, Philippines. Cebuanos in the southern part of Cebu exhibit their profound dependency and cultural gratitude with nature. The various bolho (water spouts) of the town of Boljoon provides an abundant supply of freshwater from springs and falls for domestic use. The bounty of nature from the harvest of the umahan (farm) and bunga (fruits) from orchards makes the towns of Barili and Sibonga one of the ‘vegetable and fruit baskets’ in the province. Cebu is not only known for farm abundance, but the dagat (sea) also provides Cebuanos with rich marine resources like the bakasi (eel); and kinsan (fish) in the towns of Cordova and Aloguinsan [27].
\nTrees and grasses shape the identity of the cities of Mandaue and Carcar and the towns of San Francisco and Alegria. The name Mandaue is derived from tawi, a Banyan tree from a Ficus family. This tree provides shades for fisherfolks to trade with their catch with farm products on the coast. Carcar is also derived from kabkabor kabankaban (Drynaria quercifolia Linn), an epiphyte that grows within the branches and trunks of trees [28]. Kabkab enhances natural beauty and provides lush canopies to shade farmers and fisherfolks in trading their products. The importance of soli-soli (Typha latifolia) in San Francisco [29], and kawayan (Bambusa vulgaris) in Alegria recognizes the importance of these grasses, as primary materials for the weaving of bags, baskets, mats, hats, and pouches for local industries.
\nRecognizing the importance of rivers for trading is unquestionable in history. The Silmugi River of Borbon and the Rivers of Guadalupe and Pahina Central remind the residents of the place of the importance of these rivers to agriculture and trade. The vibrance of the economic life of the Cebuano reflects the sulog (current) of water, as they perform annually the grandest celebration of the country – the Sinulog Festival in honor of the Señor Santo Niño de Cebu, for bequeathing His abundant blessings [30].
\n\nTable 2 shows the festivals in southwestern and northeastern Cebu with socio-anthropological origins. The Cebuano in these towns and cities exhibit reliance on the bounty of nature. The bounty of marine life makes the fisherfolks of Oslob engage in tuslob, plunging into the waters either to catch fish or to swim. This is a similar version to the fisherfolks’ mundane life on the island of Bantayan as they perform the palawud, sailing to the lawud (deep seas), looking for a bountiful catch. To meet both ends, the residents of Ronda find ways to survive by relying on their kabuhian (livelihood) through farming, fishing, and craft industries. Success in these endeavors is celebrated by the residents of Dumanjug in their sinanggiyaw, a celebration of good planting and copious harvesting. The sinanggiyaw proves the feasting celebrations of the early Filipinos during planting and harvesting seasons [31, 32].
\nThe resilience of the Cebuano mirrors their hinaguan, the golden achievement of success as the residents of Toledo City perform their Hinulawan Festival. The jovial celebration equates to the cheerful celebration of halad (offering) by the residents of Talisay City as they showcase their annual Halad Festival. With a joyful mood, the residents of Danao City dance the karansa (thrilled dancing) to celebrate the success of the city’s local industries. The residents of Ginatilan celebrate a remarkable value of hatud (an act of good service) by which hinatdan (being given) the town got its name [33]. This is a festival of cultural gratitude and service without cost during times of need.
\n\nTable 3 shows 22% of Cebu’s festivals with an economic origin. A greater slice of this percentage related to cuisines. Pastries represent a very important aspect of food culture. “Recognizing the story of native foods is a story about history, ecology, and culture that extends well beyond the dining table [34].” This quote reflects how Argao, Santander, and Catmon become proud of their origin as a town. Food becomes the ethnicity marker of a place i.e. used to express affection and demonstrate power and authority [35]. The delicious torta (sponge cake) of Argao marks the town’s identity in the South. Santander’s tostado (local cookies) marks the town’s reputation as one of its local brands. Native delicacies of the north attract locals and tourists alike too, as Catmon showcases the traditional bubod (suman) made of kabog (millet) wrapped and cooked with banana leaves. Few kilometers away from Catmon is the city of Bogo, where pintos (a local delicacy) made of grated young corn, mix with milk, and sugar, wrap with flesh inner pericarp of corn.
\nPart of earning income by the residents of Consolacion is the weaving of a traditional farm hat known as sarok. This industry reflects the ingenuity of the townsfolks to use dry leaves of bananas and bamboo strips [36, 37]. Farm yields are indicators of sustainable development. The town of Dalaguete showcases its utanun or vegetables as a ‘vegetable basket’ in the south. Naga City, one of the industrial zones in Cebu, recognizes dagitab (electrical lights) as these continue to shine through the years symbolizes the existence of the National Power Corporation (NPC) plant in the city for more than two decades, giving its dedicated service to the Cebuano people.
\n\nTable 4 shows 6% of Cebu’s festival with religious origins. The intimate connection and reverence of Cebuano to nature before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores reflects a renaissance of the Tag-anito Festival of Tudela. Cultural gratitude of all the favors granted by the spirits of nature (anitos), the residents of Tudela perform the tag-anito, a prayer of thanksgiving in festive dancing, and rejoicing. One Castillan heritage that Cebuano Catholics of Minglanilla practice during the Easter celebration is the kabanhawan. This festival celebrates the resurrection of the crucified Christ meeting His mother, Mary. This festivity symbolizes the renewal of Cebuano from the bondage of sins.
\n\nTable 5 shows the Cebuano festivals with the historical origin. During the pre-colonial times, the residents of Poro, Camotes practiced tagbo, which means to meet. This scene manifests the value of reconciliation to settle the tribes’ differences on the island. The celebration of victories for defending the territories against the enemies and colonizers is one of the traits of a Cebuano. The haladaya (celebration of victory) of Daanbantayan from pirates and the kadaugan (victory) of the island of Mactan by chieftain Lapu-lapu in 1521 demonstrate the heroic acts of the Cebuano.
\nBefore the arrival of the Spaniards in 1521, the ancestors of modern Filipinos named their towns and villages with names of everything in the natural environment. Five cities and nine towns in Cebu named after the names of endemic flora and fauna; six named after specific water bodies and its characteristics [38]. This worldview implies a Filipino intimacy and reverence with nature, closely similar to other Southeast Asian neighbors. Early Cebuano adored spirits of nature, worshipped the sun, the moon, and the stars [39]. A 37% of the 51 towns and cities of Cebu derived their names from the bounty of nature. A presumption that 63% of these towns and cities changed their names during the Spanish occupation in the province either by force or consent with the Spanish authorities under the bastion of Christianity.
\nThe changes of these names of the 63% of towns and cities in Cebu were obvious replications of the names of some provinces in Spain like Asturias, Compostela, Toledo, Santander, Cordova, Tudela or naming these places based on names of saints like San Francisco and San Fernando with a historic and religious sense [38]. However, the remaining 37% retained their old names as shown in Figure 6 either because the Spanish officials never had the interest of changing it or the Cebuano fought for its retention because of its anthropologic value, the pride of place, and sentimentality. Figure 7 shows the three classifications of the origins of towns and cities in Cebu. Five cities and seven towns have 63% origin with endemic flora. Bogo City is derived from a bogo (Garuda floribunda) tree, which served as a trading center with traders coming from the islands of Bantayan and Masbate. Carcar City got its name from kabkab or kaban-kaban, a local fern found abundant in the lush vegetation of tropical Cebu [28]. This epiphyte grows within trunks and branches of trees. Naga City is derived from naga or narra (Pterocarpus indicus) tree [40]. The town folks name the place because of the available narra tree in the early times. The characteristics of this hardwood are essential in the production of durable pieces of furniture.
\nNatural origins of towns and cities in Cebu.
As mentioned in the Mantawi Festival, the name of Mandaue city is also derived from a tawi tree that commonly grows in the coastal area. The magtalisay (Terminalia catappa) is a very important tree where the City of Talisay’s name is taken [41]. The abundance of this tree that grows on the coast provides shade for fishermen to trade their catch, and for the residents who spend time swimming during holidays and other special occasions. The town of Argao comes from sali-abgaw (Premma vestilla) [42], which is known to have a curative element for healing. The town of Badian comes from badyang (Alocasia macrorrhizos) [43], which large leaves resemble like a heart-shape commonly used to wrap leafy vegetables and flower harvests from the farm.
\nBarili is derived from balli (Echinochloa stagnina Retz) [44], a grass that is used to feed cattle in the fields. Catmon is derived from a catmon (Dilleniaccaea philippinensis) tree [45], one of the endemic rare species of trees in the Philippines. Dalaguete is taken from a dalakit (Ficus benjamin linn) tree [46], i.e. often mentioned in Cebuano folklore. The towns of Pinamungahan and Sibonga derived their names from a betel palm (Areca catechu) [47, 48]. Wrapped with the leaves of buyo (Piper betel L.), the nut of this palm is an essential element to ancient rituals like in the hikayan celebration.
\nOrigins of towns and cities of Cebu.
The only town named after an endemic fauna in Aloguinsan. As mentioned in the Kinsan Festival, the name of the town is derived from ulo (head) and kinsan (big fish) [27]. Freshwater is one of the very important resources for survival. The towns of Boljoon, Moal-boal, and Tuburan got their names from abundant springs and water spouts like in Boljoon from bolho (water spout) [49], Moal-boal from mual (spring or well) and bual (bubbling water) [50], and Tuburan from tubod (spring) [51]. Residents of these towns use springs for household consumption and agricultural use. The City of Danao got its name from danaw or danawan (a marsh pond) [38], which is used by farmers for their water buffalos to plunge after the day’s toil of plowing. Lilo-an got its name from lilo (whirlpool) [38], which is risky for fishermen’s fishing expeditions. The old name of the City of Cebu was Sugbu that got its name from sug (current) of the river or stream adjoining the Mactan Channel, which is a busy waterway for maritime trade and harbor. With the NCCA survey, Filipino values related to the environment ranked 13th [7]. This finding intertwines a connection on how Cebuano values the environment is indicative of the socio-anthropological nostalgia of the natural origins of towns and cities. This connection represents a cultural ecology that man, nature, and spirit are closely related [23].
\nWhat is central in the study of culture is a shared knowledge [11]. This is the way how to make a culture of a place sustainable, by mastering and sharing it for dissemination. There are different ways on how to engage in cultural mastery. First is by embracing and appreciating its worldviews and the essential benefits these bring to community life. Second is by engaging it through constant practice to learn the culture. The third is by supporting cultural advocacies and foundations to achieve the real essence of culturally responsive sustainable development. Fourth is by monitoring and regulating people’s cultural competence through ESD cultural frameworks. The fifth is by evaluating cultural programs to ensure sustainability.
\nFor poor and middle-income families who cannot afford to seek hospital help during the COVID-19 pandemic use tuob (steam inhalation) as home remedies; despite the disapproval of the Department of Health because of lack of scientific studies. Pabukal (decoction) is also used as another remedy to enhance the immune system during this time of COVID-19 pandemic. In the decoction, pulverized dried leaves of kamunggay (Moringa oleifera) and kamias (Averrhoa bilimbi) or ginger powder with lemon juice, and crushed garlic are boiled for 15 minutes. Some use pabukal with salt to experience comfort. The Department of Health (DOH) in the Philippines encourages the public to eat moringa to help protect from the COVID-19 virus because nutritionist Salina Teo explains that moringa contains vitamins C and E, calcium, potassium, and iron to boost the immune system [52]. Hilot is integrated into health and wellness in spa services. The promotion of herbal medicine and the propagation of herbal plants through the creation of herbal gardens for home remedies [53]. The recognition and production of virgin coconut for medicinal use by some pharmaceutical companies is another example of cultural mastery [17]. Along this vein, the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) in the Philippines through the Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD) prepares a set of policies that welcome traditional healing practices into the mainstream of medical science [14].
\nHow is the culture of collective behavior and acts of kindness mastered? The willingness to help is a prime value of a Cebuano to sympathize with by extending their donations during the times of calamities either in cash or in kind. Unong or empathy is an act of kindness in times of someone’s grief of a loss of someone. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Philippine government has created the Inter-Agency Task Force (IATF) to manage cases of COVID −19 infections. As deputized by the government under the Bayanihan to Heal Act, IATF functions as a tamabayayong unit with members from other government agencies. This initiative of the government recognizes cultural knowledge of the Filipino collective behavior of Bayanihan. The term Bayanihan is a derivative word of bayani, which means hero. Hence, Bayanihan is a heroic act of kindness. A successful marriage of a couple succeeded because they do yayong (partnership) in building a family. Successful cooperatives in Cebu are living witnesses of tambayayong (cooperation) efforts of its members. Following the protocols of staying home, wearing masks, washing of hands, and observing a meter of social distancing during community quarantines exemplify a tambayayong spirit with the government, to reduce contagion.
\nThe celebration of annual festivals has been a part of Cebuano’s cultural life. The grandest Sinulog Festival is supported by the Sinulog Foundation, Inc., the Cebu City government, the private sectors, and the faithful. Festivals with economic origins promote the products of towns and cities through the government’s One Town One Product (OTOP) policy by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). Festivals with environmental origin are used to promote the preservation of the endemic species of flora and fauna. The Dinagat Festival recognizes the bakasi (Anguilla japonica) as the popular exotic street food of the town of Cordova that promotes tourism attraction of the town. The Siloy Festival of Alcoy becomes a grand slam winner in Sinulog competition because of its message to conserve the endemic Black Shama. In 2012, BirdLife International, the Official Red List Authority for Birds for International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified the Black Shama endangered [54]. The local communities know the existence of the Black Shama and recognize the efforts of the government through the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for its preservation. However, there is still the need for a concerted effort for both government and non-government organization programs to inform, educate, and communicate these conservation policies and programs [54], for sustainable development.
\nHow can the natural origins of towns and cities impact cultural practice? In the case of the local governments of Bogo City and Catmon, Cebu. They initiated the planting of the bogo and the catmon trees in their locality to remind the residents of the nostalgia in the socio-anthropological origins of their town and cities. Nurseries run by government and non-government organizations propagate these species for the pride of place and historical sense. With the origins of the towns of Boljoon, Malabuyoc, and Tuburan derived from bodies of water, domestic and farming life is made possible. The pristine waters of these towns promote local tourism development. These mastery efforts reconnect the profound intimacy, love, and reverence of nature by the Cebuano folks during the pre-colonial periods, which are vital in shaping, cultural and ecological gratitude, Cebuano identity, and pride of place.
\nIn understanding cultural contexts, reflection is a common tool to process a person’s ideas, feelings, and actions. Figure 8 shows the types of cultural reflections. Reflections On refers to someone’s insights on the cultural contexts, in a form of positive or negative impressions, positive or negative observations, and comments. Reflections In refers to someone’s feelings or emotions about his or her experiences, gut feeling, and affirmation for acceptance or rejection of a specific cultural context. Reflections About refer to someone’s right decisions and right actions in a specific cultural context.
\nTypes of cultural reflections.
Despite the government’s response to COVID-19 pandemic, contact tracing of possible infected residents is difficult with no enough health workers to facilitate, hospital bed capacity exceeded, suspected COVID-19 patients have no choice to wait in a long queue to be swabbed or to hop from one hospital to another to find their luck and get admitted; the unlucky ones accept their fate to perish. These sad realities create fear and some of those who have insufficient income resort to traditional Cebuano healing as an alternative. The Cebu provincial government through its memorandum encourages the use of tuob as home remedies. Issues between culture and science on the efficacy of tuob crop up between health workers and the people who believe it. A reflection on this, the Department of Health (DOH) does not recommend it because of a lack of scientific studies to prove its claim. DOH officials further explain its danger that its heat can damage the patient’s lungs and eyes and can spread viral contamination within the family members by its liquid droplets or by its aerosol. A reflection in contextualizes this, while those who support Tuob claim for healing, the rest feel the ambivalence – whether to accept it or not. This ambivalence may result in mixed emotions and worries about their health conditions. A reflection about why a concrete action may not be initiated by the government and other private companies to provide further studies to investigate the efficacy of tuob or explore the other forms of Cebuano panambal (healing), instead of destroying a cultural practice like this. Doing it will eradicate the ethnocentric bias of a peripheral culture, who knows this is one way to support sustainable development in local public health in the future.
\nCollective behavior shapes people’s identity through their cultural knowledge and practices. In times of natural calamities and in trying times of need, a Cebuano can extend his or her helping hand as contextualized in the TAYTU. During this time of the pandemic, it is irreconcilable that an official of the country labels a Cebuano as gahi’g ulo (hard-headed) because of a lack of support or cooperation to prevent the rise of COVID-19 cases in Cebu. While it is true to some, there are some Cebuano who managed to stay home for four months of quarantine measures. A reflection on downplaying the extent and danger of COVID-19 by some local government officials, and their laxity to lead affect the rising cases of COVID-19. Residents can never be blamed as hard-headed because they simply go out to buy their provisions when aids of government remain insufficient for the longest duration of lockdown. Along with TAYTU, a reflection about retorts that Cebuano residents are compliant to cooperate with government protocols provided that the necessities of their families are provided. How can this be done when some of them work daily, some lost their jobs, some left with no savings? How can they survive? Being hard-headed is a risky decision for their loved ones because they have to go out and buy their provisions including medicines for the family. This concern validates the NCCA survey that Filipinos most highly valued the family [7]. They take risks in ‘meeting both ends meet’ for the security and safety of their families. A reflection about these questions. Where is the act of kindness when people are lining up under the heat of the sun claiming their financial assistance? How sure that social distancing and wearing of masks are strictly followed to prevent them from being infected? Why can the local government not request help from their constituents to help in the distribution of these food packs to the residents’ houses? When systems and good governance are observed, the potentials of a Cebuano alayon, yayong, tambayayong, and unong can never be underestimated. These collective behaviors can build successful cooperatives and merge partnerships to bigger corporations, which if these would succeed, a tagay celebration is possible to enjoy a lighter side of life.
\nA reflection on the tapestry of cultural festivals that speak the cultural, historical, and natural identity of the towns and cities of Cebu. Festival is a colorful pageantry for product promotion and tourism marketing strategies. A reflection narrows down the religious purpose of festival celebrations is overshadowed by business motives for marketing strategies, to gain profit, and to ensure economic sustainability. However, a reflection about the internalization of these festivals in the cultural fabric of the Cebuano souls for unity and harmony in the entire province.
\nThe naming of towns and cities in Cebu after an endemic flora and fauna and bodies of water is unique in the Philippines and perhaps the rest of the world. A reflection on upholds an ethos of Cebuano intimacy and reverence to nature – cultural and ecological gratitude given to Mother Nature – the source of everything that people need. A reflection makes the Cebuano proud about the origins of their towns and cities. Concern for conservation efforts of these endemic flora and fauna and the preservation of the bodies of water remain one of the important reflections about this quintain to improve sustainability.
\nAfter all the discussions on cultural knowledge, mastery, and reflections, the greatest challenge is how to innovate culture and integrate it with ESD. Cultural innovation is a process of integrating cultural knowledge, skills, and reflections into another concept, product, and system for development. The previous works of the author and company on culture-based pedagogies support cultural innovations [24, 37]. As contextualized in the culture of healing, a cultural knowledge about panambal (healing) using herbal medicine includes finding out the different herbal plants including its parts, and its processes of utilization for healing. Its cultural mastery includes the practice of using these herbal plants. Believing and sharing the testimonies and claims based on scientific studies on the efficacy of these herbal medicines presupposes cultural mastery. Cultural reflection is both the process of ‘doing things right’ (efficiency) and ‘doing the right things’ (effectiveness), to ensure public health safety. Thinking beyond about it to improve healing is a cultural innovation that includes: propagation of herbal plants, creation of traditional healing centers, the production of bottled herbal products approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for safe use, and the creation of the concept of panambal to education like making a panambal teaching strategies that would improve localized and contextualized learning. Therefore, there is a need to incorporate sustainable initiatives in innovative development [55]. Harmonizing these elements into a desired framework of action is known as the KRSP Model for a Culture-based ESD. How does this framework work for sustainable development?
\nTo make culture-based education sustainable and achieve its desired goals by 2030, KRSP (Knowledge of culture, Skills in cultural practice, Reflections to cultural contexts, and Performance in cultural innovations) Model facilitates the holistic ESD. Figure 9 shows 13 intricacies of the KSRP Model for a Culture-based ESD in four phases. The first phase is the quadrivium of knowledge (K), skills (S), reflections (R), and performance (P) in a seamless and nurturing delivery of instruction as shown in Figure 1.
\nKRSP model for a culture-based ESD.
This primary phase emphasizes the basic notion of learning from easy to difficult, i.e. from concrete to abstract or from specific to general in a linear and sequential form of instruction. The second phase is the blended quadrium of knowledge and skills (KS), knowledge and performance (KP), skills and reflections (SR), and reflections and performance (RP). The connection between knowledge and skills (KS) enhances individuals’ left-brain potentials for critical analysis such as comparing and contrasting, classifying, analyzing, inferring, supporting a statement, ordering and ranking, evaluating and critiquing, and decision-making, to become more rational [53]. The connection between reflections and performance (RP) nurtures individuals’ right-brain potentials for creativity such as originality, fluency, flexibility, elaboration, brainstorming web, and generating relationships for integration, to become more intuitive [53]. The linking of the skills and reflections (SR) provides opportunities for sensitivity to affect like feelings and emotions and become more instinctive. The connection between knowledge and performance (KP) promotes opportunities for action and experimentation to become more intellectual.
\nThe third phase is the trifocal trivium of knowledge, skills, and performance (KSP); the trifocal trivium of knowledge, skills, and reflections (KSR); the trifocal trivium of skills, reflections, and performance (SRP); and the trifocal trivium of knowledge, reflections, and performance (KRP). KSP indicates more left-brain dominance with creative results on cultural products and performance. KSR implies also with more left-brain dominance with concern for collaboration and team-building. SRP shows more right-brain dominance with an emphasis on self-regulation and competence. KRP projects the likelihood of right-brain dominance with emphasis on critical analysis and logical understanding. The last phase is the connection that integrates knowledge, skills, reflections, and performance (KSRP). The combined fulcrum of KSRP completes the holistic success of a culture-based ESD. KSRP promotes understanding, tolerance, respect, and harmony despite diverse perspectives and cultural orientations.
\nWith the KRSP Model as a lens, a Quadrium Theory of Culture Integration for ESD is generated as shown in Figure 10. To make education sustainable for 2030, first educational institutions need to conduct intensive research and archiving of cultural artifacts for curation to establish a cultural knowledge profile of a certain locale.
\nThe four elements in the ESD Quadrivium.
Second, making use of the curated culture profile, cultural mastery propels for practice according to the person’s skills and interest. Third, concerns and issues in the process need further reflections for better action that facilitate cultural innovations for the sustainability and development of ESD. Fourth, deciding for better action supports the eight standards of effective critical thinking such as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness [10]. Missing one of these elements in the quadrivium, as discussed in Figure 8, affects the quality of ESD implementation.
\nQuality and sustainable education underscore the fragments of culture such as knowledge, skills for practice, reflections, and the right actions for innovations. Recognizing Cebu’s knowledge of traditional healing, the people’s collective behavior, and the act of kindness, the origins of festivals, towns, and cities challenge modernity and science in the mastery and reflection process. This issue thwarts the essence of culture as a ‘soul of the nation’ to survive, preventing opportunities for creativity and innovation for sustainable development. The four elements of a culture-based ESD dovetails the creation of the KRSP Model that propels the generation of Quadrium Theory of Culture Integration for ESD.
\nDue acknowledgment to the Cebuano writers and scholars who wrote the history of different towns and cities of the province of Cebu that contributed to the scholarly impact of this chapter. Likewise, the same gratitude is given to the Cebu Provincial Government for the number of volumes of this history project given to our university library.
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\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
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\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
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\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
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\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
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\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
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\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
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\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
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\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
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\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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