Rise and decline of states.
\r\n\t
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He completed his thesis in electromechanics in September 1991 and received his Ph.D. in July 2001. Dr. Lamchich is currently a Professor at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia at Marrakech (Morocco). He has published over fifty technical papers in reviews and international conferences. His main activity is based on short-circuit mechanical effects.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"21932",title:"Prof.",name:"Moulay Tahar",middleName:null,surname:"Lamchich",slug:"moulay-tahar-lamchich",fullName:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21932/images/system/21932.png",biography:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich is a Professor at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University at Marrakech (Morocco). He completed his thesis in electromechanics in September 1991 and received his Ph.D. in July 2001. His main activity is based on short-circuit mechanical effects in substation structures, control of different types of machine drives, static converters, active power filters. For more than tweenty years, his research interests have included renewable energies, particularly the control and supervision of hybrid and multiple source systems for decentralized energy production, and intelligent management of energy. He has published more than fifty technical papers in reviews and international conferences. With IntechOpen, he has published two chapters and was editor of the books 'Torque Control” and 'Harmonic Analysis”. 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The umbilical orifice permits the passage of the umbilical cord, being this characteristic a natural defect [1].
The majority of mammals have an umbilical cord and eventually an umbilicus, but sea shellfish, the whole animals, looks like an umbilicus [1].
The umbilical cord was originated from the embryonic stem which connects the bladder of both yolk sac and amniotic. This is discarded after birth in all species of mammals [2]. The umbilical cord forms a connection between placenta and the fetus. This structure is responsible for exchange of nutrients during the gestation. The main characteristic that umbilical cord shows is a specific gross morphology of vein and arteries surrounded of mucous connective tissue. It is known that fetus-mother nutrients exchange is very delicate and difficult to maintain; however, many morphological and functional alterations may produce changes in this mechanism of exchange easily.
In relation to the hematopoietic cells, these have been widely studied functionally, molecularly and structurally, but there are few studies about ultrastructural characterization [3]. The use of stem cells obtained from umbilical cord have originated a lot of expectative for use it in cell therapy and regeneration of organs [4]. Furthermore, it is known that the umbilical cord cells have been studied only in preclinical approaches [5].
The scarcity of bibliographic information about studies of optical microscopy of the umbilical cord in mammals and lack researches about these topics in mammalian species have motivated to execution of this type of reviews that reveal main characteristics in relation to the histology of umbilical cord and comparative aspects between different species of mammals of interest.
The umbilical cord is a structure discarded after the birth and the transplant of their cells may present less risks of causing reactions, resulting immune reactions, resulting in minimum for the recipient of its cells [4]. This structure has amniotic and allantoic segments. The amniotic segment of the umbilical cord contains two arteries and a vein that arborize into the amnion. These segments continue as multiple vessels in the allantoic segment of the cord with mainly two arteries and two veins with branches (Figure 1) [6]. The urachus courses within the cord from the fetus and empties into the allantoic cavity [6].
Photograph of umbilical cord of alpaca (
The umbilical cord is a unique mammalian fetal attachment and was attached to the center of the placental disk [7, 8]. This structure plays an important role in the transport of maternal nutrients for developing of fetus during gestation [1]. The umbilical cord shows distinct types of composition with respect to the number of blood vessels. There are many morphological changes that appear at the birth into local anatomical structures around the umbilical cord form a complex device to help the organism to severe relation with the placenta. The relation between anatomical structures that form the umbilical cord arrows the morphological support as basis of contraction to eliminate remnants that was inside the abdominal cavity [1, 6].
As has already been mentioned, this structure has a main function of making the connection between the fetus and placenta, ensuring its viability mainly during the later stages of pregnancy [9]. In relation to the umbilical vessels, these are not supplied by
This structure is coated by amniotic epithelium (simple squamous epithelium) and the conjunctive layer is adhered closely to the fundamental substance of the umbilical cord majority known as fetal mesenchyme, which is constituted of mesenchymal connective tissue with stellate cells and amorphous ground substance which contains abundant glycogen. This gelatinous composition also called Wharton’s jelly or mucous connective tissue has been of great interest and potential impact due to research about tissue repair and differentiation [10]. However, many of the investigations have not been able to continue due to the lack of an animal model that can be used in the preclinical studies [11]. This mucous connective tissue (Wharton’s jelly) is an active metabolically tissue involved in fluid exchange between umbilical vessels and amniotic fluid [12].
In the majority of domestic species, two arteries and two veins wound spirally being immersed in a mucous connective tissue appears [13, 14]; however, it is known that in some species, appear the formation of anastomosis of arteries in middle third and proximal to the maternal part of the placenta appears [15].
There are important changes evidenced in the structure of umbilical cord in different animal species. It is indicated that from the beginning, vessels of umbilical cord are represented by two umbilical veins and arteries in species such as bovines and small ruminants [16], zebu-crossed bovines [17], buffaloes [18, 19, 20], pigs [21], African lions and gazelles [22], and Bactrian camels and dromedaries [23, 24] (Figure 2); however, it is known that in some species the disintegration of right umbilical vein appears without have a strong explanation about this feature [25] (Figure 3). Among these species are carnivores, horses, guinea pigs, nutrias, chinchillas, cavies and rock cavies [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32].
Schematic representation of structure of umbilical cord in cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, alpaca, canine and feline showing two arteries and two veins. Furthermore, this figure shows the localization of allantoic duct and their relation with blood vessels.
Schematic representation of structure of umbilical cord in horses, pigs and humans showing two arteries and only one vein. Furthermore, this figure shows the localization of allantoic duct and their relation with blood vessels.
Finally, as the stages of gestation, the tunica adventitia is becoming thicker in relationship to the tunica intima in both arteries and veins [23].
At parturition the umbilical arteries retract into the abdomen and close by smooth muscle contraction. This process appears in response to the increased partial pressure of oxygen in the blood [33].
There are some characteristics that differ between lumens of umbilical arteries in different mammalian species. In the majority of mammals, umbilical arteries show a very large lumen and irregular shape. In some species such as buffaloes, bovines and zebu cows, the umbilical arteries show a lumen of star-shaped lumen [17, 18, 34, 35, 36]; however, in species as South American Camelids, the animals present a lumen of slightly star-shaped [37]. In mammals, the umbilical artery is constituted by tunicas intima, media and external/adventitia (Figure 4).
Umbilical artery, light microscopy, H-E stain. The tunica intima is constituted by endothelium and a small endothelial space. The tunica media is formed mainly by smooth muscle and has double size of tunica adventitia. The abundant collagen and elastic fibers of the tunica adventitia contrasts with muscular tissue and collagen fibers of the tunica media. 40 x.
The intima layer consists of elongated endothelium to the long axis of the blood vessel. The endothelium of tunica intima corresponds to the thinnest layer comprised of simple squamous epithelium. Most animals, the internal elastic lamina is discontinuous and thin [17, 18, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] with exception of humans and camels which the umbilical arteries possess no internal elastic lamina [10, 23]. In some species as alpacas is possible to observe a very small sub endothelial space which consisted of muscular fibers (non-differentiated muscular cells) cross and cut diagonally (circular disposition), and connective tissue fibers [37] (Figure 5).
Umbilical artery, light microscopy, H-E stain. The tunica intima is comprised of a simple squamous epithelium (E) and a small endothelial space (SE) characterized by elastic and reticular fibers. Note that the internal elastic lamina is not well-defined. TM: Tunica muscular. 400 x.
The media layer is located below to the sub endothelial space and the thickness of this layer is double the size of the external/adventitia. The tunica media is constituted by a double layered muscular of smooth muscle bundles, characterized for inner circular muscular layer (collagen and reticular fibers) and outer longitudinal layer (Figure 6). Another characteristic of the media layer is absence of elastic lamina, a presence of reticular fibers and both collagen and elastic fibers and presence of capillaries [10, 17, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
Umbilical artery, light microscopy, van Gieson stain. The tunica media is constituted by a double layered muscular of smooth muscle bundles, characterized for inner circular (IC) and outer longitudinal muscular (OL) layers. 100 x.
The tunica adventitia is the most outer layer that forms the umbilical cord wall in all mammals. The tunica adventitia consists of collagen, smooth muscle and elastic fibers. This layer is constituted by smooth muscular fibers which invade part of tunica media and muscle fibers cross-sectional [10, 17, 18, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38].
Unlike other mammals, in alpacas, the inner layer is not well defined [37]. In alpacas, the concentration of collagen fibers is increased towards longitudinally oriented muscular fibers and towards periphery. The elastic fibers are abundant between the tunicas media and adventitia. Finally, the tunica adventitia is constituted by small blood vessels denominated
Umbilical artery, light microscopy, Masson’s trichrome stain. The tunica adventitia/external is the most external layer of umbilical cord and is constituted by small blood vessels denominated
At parturition the umbilical vein and urachus remain outside the abdomen. In relation to the vein, this structure closes soon by smooth muscle contraction and the urachus shrinks and dries within a day [1].
Similar to the umbilical artery, there are some characteristics that differ between lumen of umbilical arteries in different mammalian species. In some mammals such as buffaloes, carnivores, horses, guinea pigs, nutrias, chinchillas, cavies and rock cavies, umbilical vein shows a lumen in elliptic shape with wall thinner than umbilical artery [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]; however, in species as South American Camelids and horses, the umbilical vein displays a lumen obliterated into star-shaped [29, 37, 38]. In mammals, umbilical vein is constituted of tunicas intima, media and external/adventitia (Figure 8).
Umbilical vein, light microscopy, H-E stain. The tunica intima is constituted by endothelium and a very small endothelial space. The tunica media is formed mainly by smooth muscle and has a thickness similar to the tunica adventitia. The abundant collagen and elastic fibers of the tunica adventitia is slightly invaded by muscular tissue and collagen fibers of the tunica media. 40 x.
The tunica intima consists of endothelium but lack of external elastic lamina with less organization line compared to the umbilical artery. However, in general, endothelium showed similar characteristics as observed in the umbilical artery.
There are several studies that confirm this conformation of the tunica intima which is thin and lack internal elastic lamina [10, 17, 23, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. Similar to alpacas, is possible to observe a small sub endothelial space which consist of muscular fibers (non-differentiated muscular cells) cross and cut diagonally (circular disposition), and connective tissue fibers [37] (Figure 9).
Umbilical vein, light microscopy, H-E stain. The tunica intima is comprised of a simple squamous epithelium (E) and a small endothelial space (SE). TM: Tunica muscular. 400 x.
The media layer is located below to the sub endothelial space and the thickness of this layer is variable in relation to the external/adventitia in different mammalian species. Most animals display a tunica media which is smaller than tunica adventitia including species such as buffaloes, carnivores, horses, guinea pigs, nutrias, chinchillas, cavies and rock cavies [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Additionally, the South American camelids present a tunica media which is larger in dimension than the tunica adventitia [37], however, the cause of this morphologic evidence is not known.
This tunica is constituted by a double layered muscular of smooth muscle bundles, characterized for inner circular muscular layer (collagen and reticular fibers) and outer longitudinal layer (Figure 10). The tunica media comprises the inner circular and outer longitudinal muscular layers, with an absence of outer elastic lamina and presence of reticular fibers. Also, it presented a small amount of collagen and elastic fibers [10, 17, 23, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. Furthermore, in alpacas is known that smooth, cross-sectional muscle fibers invade part of the tunic adventitia consisting in muscular fibers cross-transverse, abundant collagen fibers, collagen and muscular fibers arranged longitudinally [37].
Umbilical vein, light microscopy, H-E stain. The tunica media is constituted by abundant muscular fibers separated by elastic and fibrous tissue. 400 x.
In the majority of mammalian species, the tunica adventitia is larger than the tunica media [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32] and this layer consists of collagen and elastic fibers, and small blood vessels called
Umbilical vein, light microscopy, Masson’s trichrome stain. The tunica adventitia/external is constituted by small blood vessels denominated
The mucous connective tissue surrounding the umbilical artery is almost the same in thickness and share histological features with that of umbilical vein region except that smaller blood vessels and blood capillaries are more numerous towards periphery (Figure 12). Moreover, small nerve bundles cut in different profiles (and some structures resembling to ganglion) have been also observed towards periphery of the mucous connective tissue [10, 17, 18, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
Mucous connective tissue, light microscopy, Masson’s trichrome stain. In the most periphery part is observed great number of blood vessels that alternate with abundant reticular, elastic and collagen fibers. 400 x.
In alpacas has been observed some larger cells that had triangular or star-shaped with less basophilic nuclei and strongly eosinophilic cytoplasm, probably mesenchymal stem cells. A few round cells with differently stained nuclei were also observed which showed similar features to lymphoid cells [37].
The allantoic duct present irregular lumen and is comprised by simple cuboidal to columnar epithelium [10, 17, 18, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. In alpacas has been recognized some characteristics such as the less basophilic nuclei of varying shapes that are oriented in mid portion of the epithelium, and eosinophilic dense and finely granular cytoplasm [37].
Most animals display the outer layer consisting of band of smooth muscle bundles arranged in different directions; oblique, circular and longitudinal [10, 17, 18, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
In alpacas, this structure presents abundant fine blood vessels between arterioles, venules and capillaries which have been reduced to adjacent portion of the mucous connective tissue (Figure 13) [37].
Allantoic duct, light microscopy, Masson’s trichrome stain. Note the irregular shape lumen with plane epithelium and presence of abundant small blood vessels located near to this structure immersed in abundant connective tissue. 100 x.
Umbilical cord is covered by simple squamous epithelium in all mammalian species [10, 17, 18, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
Histology plays an important role in the characterization of umbilical cord in mammals. There are many structures which enable to be recognized through of this method and furthermore, allow compares and differentiate among different animal species. According with the presence of certain structures and characteristics that comprise the wall of arteries and veins is possible a well-characterized description of the umbilical cord in mammals.
The present chapter contains several details obtained of article entitled “Histological characterization of umbilical in alpaca (
Contrary to the grammar definition of globalization according to the Oxford Dictionary (“the process by which business or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale”), to treat this topic we will take the first move from the well-known source Wikipedia, which more properly describes globalization as follows: “the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide.”
Once this working start could be accepted, we could rely on the following basic points, anyway to be analytically discussed:
political interaction,
stable economic relationships,
cultural exchanges, included linguistic ones.
These processes are antique ones from the origins of the civilized word or so, dating back (just to synthetically exemplify) to Etruscan and Romans relationships, to Phoenician maritime trade, to inter-African economic exchanges, and—skipping some 1000 years due to common knowledge—to Marco Polo and Euro-Asian commercial traditions along the silk way, as well as to Euro-American ones after Colombo discovering the New Lands.
In every such cases, i) new political interactions immediately started, driving in rare cases to relationships on equality base but, more frequently, to the domination of a nation over other entities, this being the origin of colonial empires from Portugal onward; ii) stable and (rapidly) growing economic relationships on the basis either of mutual agreement or of widespread embezzlement, plunder, and sack, for example, Spain started a huge gold import from South America so as to give life to her cultural
In any case, not to say always, these processes brought about i) a dominant political authority, ii) its government, bureaucracies, laws, iii) its language, and iv) its money.
Every political domination, in fact, was of close lands or far ones, in every case accompanied by the following unifying processes, some of which are highly relevant both in those times and today, as still surviving ones:
the unity of political and bureaucratic direction, the new official language included;
the subdual to the same civil, penal, and fiscal laws (anyway with current local adjustments case by case);
the direct connections between new motherlands and colonies from the point of view of transport routes, trade, and financial agreements or even impositions and monetary regimes (in some cases special ones, as the African French Franc).
This way, reflecting back to the political
the (sub)continental equalizations of a)1) the Roman Empire, especially at its climax, a)2) the Sacred Roman Empire of Charlemagne, a)3) the Persian empire of prince Babur from Saudi Arabia to Iran to India, and a)4) the <Great China> of the Quing dynasty, especially under Kangxi, Yong-zen, Quian-long Emperors;
the three early colonial empires of Holland, Portugal, and especially Spain;
the intercontinental empires deriving from the second colonization conquests, giving life to French Empire and moreover to the British one, as at the end of the nineteenth-century Great Britain dominated 1/3 of world lands.
The above distinction offers us, as a matter of fact, the chance to quote a relevant, well-known interpretative category, the Gerschenkron model referred to the
These international dynamics can be summarized in Table 1.
Relevant phases | Geopolitical orders |
---|---|
Mediterranean economy | Venetian domain and Maritime Republics |
Northern and Western Europe | Northern European and Franco-German economies |
Age of ocean navigation and discovery | Spain and Portugal |
Dominance of Imperial China | Golden years of the Qing dynasty under Kangxi (1654–1722) |
Replacement of maritime powers | Dominance of England until 1914 |
Scramble for Africa | European claims on African territories |
US dominance | United States of America as dominant superpowers after 1944 |
Rise of Imperial Japan | Following the Meiji revolution (1852–1941) and then 1948–1990 (or 2000 according to others) |
World expansion of China | The “Four Modernizations” after 1982 |
Rise and decline of states.
Source: authors’ elaboration.
At the same time, the abovementioned distinction, once generally interpreted, allows us to recall to memory one more well-known distinction, that is, the difference between i) land powers and ii) see powers. As a matter of fact as, Babur (and China) apart, in every remaining case the intercontinental domination was the fruit of naval strength and the military fleet to conquer, to preserve, and to secure commercial routes.
Moving first to the industrial revolution, thanks to its technical advances as well as the capitals accumulated by privateer war, England succeeded both in establishing a world domination and in impeding the existence in Europe of any leading country (or even alliance) able to jeopardize its supremacy, from Napoleon onward. Later, this natural behavior was theorized by relevant Anglo-Saxon admirals and scholars, Alfred T. Mahan, Halford J. Mackinder, Nicholas J. Spykman, among others. The supremacy we remember here declined anyway in favor of the USA, after the World War II (1941), Bretton Woods (1944), the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945), the Marshall Plan (1948). This way, the supremacy of the pound sterling disappeared in favor of the US dollar, and similarly for the rest, beginning by the India independency (1949).
Not so curiously anyway—that’s why we recall this theory here as globalization is regarded—in both cases these maritime superpowers realized (or tried, and the USA still try) the following realities: i) a unique country dominating the world, ii) a country isolated by the sea (or Oceans) but ready to intervene by the army in other countries or even continents, iii) under such political principles as
This rough overview of well-known century-old dynamics teaches us anyway some peculiar hints, judged relevant here with reference to the topic under discussion as in so many cases still surviving today. These suggestions respectively regarding the role of legal systems and its special regulations, the role of the (imposed) monetary regime, are still to create new currency (and financial) areas, the not-so-peaceful rotation of sovereign powers, a political struggle, which can be interpreted as the oligopoly competition, frequently leading to wars in their different forms.
The historical dynamics are so poorly recalled here in memory because of common knowledge, brought about, along centuries and decades, a dramatic increase of international exchanges of economic goods, financial and monetary resources, capital and investments, knowledge, cultures, and ideas. At the same time, they generated the parallel increase of international trade, this happening with the Industrial Revolution of England and the further ones (Table 2), from the United States of America to Belgium, and to France (once she overcame the troubles of the revolution) and to the following ones of Germany, Italy, and other countries.
Features | The first | The second | The third |
---|---|---|---|
Year | 1750 and following | 1870 and following | 1970 and following |
Energy | Coal | Electricity, petroleum | Alternative energies |
Production outcomes | Iron | Steel, chemistry | Informatics |
Innovation | Steam engine | Internal combustion engine | Finance services and communications |
Basic sectors | Textile industry | Mechanical industry | Financial and High-tech sectors |
The three “industrial revolutions.”
Source: authors’ elaboration.
In particular, the Congress of Wien marked the beginning of a long period of peace for Europe—a century—till the World War I, with the French-German war of 1870–71 being there an
A century of peace meant, in addition, a century of technological progress (Table 3), this fuelling production, exchanges, communications, in such a way and in hurry we find it difficult to understand, and only comparable to the present Web revolution.
Invention | Year | Invention | Year |
---|---|---|---|
Battery | 1800 | Tyre | 1887 |
Typewriter | 1829 | Diesel engine | 1892 |
Dynamo | 1831 | Radioactivity | 1901 |
Refrigerator | 1834 | Airplane | 1903 |
Telegraph | 1837 | Cellophane | 1908 |
Phone | 1864–76 | Penicillin | 1928 |
Dynamite | 1867 | Television | 1929 |
Phonograph | 1877 | Helicopter | 1930 |
Internal combustion car | 1885 | Jet plane | 1939 |
The main inventions 1827–1939.
Source: authors’ elaboration.
The technical progress obviously influenced also public and private bureaucracies, work organization, labor relationships, these elements being constituting a relevant (and under-esteemed) factor in accompanying or even guiding the globalization process. On one side, new investments and the search for working (labor) resources oriented in fact internal and international immigrations; moreover, they contributed—in colonial Empires—to international investments, which, on their turn, further contributed to the globalization itself. On the other side, the new organizational techniques (e.g., Frederick W. Taylor) allowed to increase productivity, productions, salaries, profits, this fuelling once more offer, demand, and investments. Taylor’s suggestions had been practically anticipated and largely applied in Krupp factories before 1910, and were later utilized for large-scale consumer goods by Henry Ford from 1923 onward.
Technological advances of those days fuelled since then inter-continental integration, giving life to larger international communications, higher import-export, more trade agreements, and widespread international investments (Gualino, a tycoon ruler of Italian finance end-nineteenth-early twentieth centuries largely invested in St. Petersburg, unfortunately before 1917, Pirelli & Co. vertically integrated acquiring rubber plantations in Malaysia). All the same, on a larger scale, is happening in today world, especially after 1948 (Marshall Plan), 1976 (China’s Four Modernizations), 1991 (crumbling away of Soviet Russia), WTO, and WEB revolution.
With regard to the Four Modernizations, their purpose was to make China one great economic power, and the results are evident if we consider the evolution of the national shares of world production from 2000 to 2018 (Table 4).
Nation | 2000 | 2007 | 2009 | 2014 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
China | 8.2 | 15.4 | 21.5 | 32.8 | 28.4 |
USA | 24.8 | 17.4 | 15.1 | 14.1 | 16.6 |
Japan | 15.8 | 8.9 | 8.5 | 6.2 | 7.2 |
Germany | 6.6 | 7.5 | 6.5 | 5.3 | 5.8 |
Italy | 4.1 | 4.5 | 3.9 | 2.5 | 2.3 |
France | 4 | 3.9 | 3.6 | 2.5 | 1.9 |
South Korea | 3.1 | 3.9 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 3.3 |
India | 1.8 | 2.7 | 2.9 | n.d. | 3 |
Brazil | 2 | 2.6 | 2.7 | n.d. | n.d. |
Great Britain | 3.5 | 3 | 2.3 | n.d. | 1.8 |
National percentage share of world production 2000–2018.
Source: authors’ elaboration.
A further driver that oriented the globalization process after the World War II was trade openness [1], to which a set of factors contributed, such as [2]:
the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the liberalization of international trade;
the end of the Bretton Woods agreements (1971) and the resumption of international capital mobility;
the development of new information and communications technologies (ICT) and the reduction or cancelation of distances, almost at no cost;
the growing role of foreign direct investment (FDI) [3], which in the 1990s mobilized large amounts of capital, mainly from Europe and North America.
The above factors, together with others specifically referable to the individual geographical areas, led to a significant reduction in post-war trade barriers among the major industrialized countries, as well as a notable increase in capital movements [4].
In this regard, in addition to the GATT (1947), it is important to recall the creation of the European Common Market (1958 Treaty of Rome and 1968 customs union); the Canada US Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA) of 1987; the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1992; the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) Agreement of 1992; the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) of 1995; and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of 1995.
We mentioned above only a few among a number of trade agreements signed between the ‘40s and ‘90s of the last century. Also considering the 2000s, the increase in the number of regional trade agreements (RTAs) has been continuous and rapid (Figure 1).
RTAs currently in force (by year of entry into force), 1948–2022. Source: WTO OMC, regional trade agreements database.
As pointed out by Urata [5], regional trade agreements (RTAs) remove trade barriers and significantly contribute to the quantitative and geographical expansion of international trade.
This expansion is clearly visible if we consider the evolution of the worldwide trade in the decade immediately following the signing of GATT (Table 5).
1948 | 1953 | 1963 | 1973 | 1983 | 1993 | 1999 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exports | 58 | 83 | 157 | 578 | 1835 | 3639 | 5473 |
Imports | 66 | 84 | 163 | 589 | 1880 | 3752 | 5729 |
Worldwide trade 1948–1990 (billion dollars).
Source: World Trade Organization,
In terms of percentage change, the growth of the world merchandise trade by selected region, which took place between 1990 and 1999, is presented in Table 6.
World | North America | Latin America | European Union | Asia | Japan | Six East Asian traders | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exports | 6.5 | 7.0 | 8.5 | 6.0 | 7.5 | 2.5 | 10.0 |
Imports | 6.5 | 8.5 | 10.5 | 5.5 | 7.0 | 4.5 | 7.0 |
Percentage change in the volume of world merchandise trade 1990–1999.
Source: World Trade Organization,
The positive effects of the trade agreements continued throughout the following decade, in which global trade growth remained sustained (Table 7). If we disregard the distributional consequences [6] and limit the analysis to the values exchanged, world exports continued to increase (Table 7).
2000 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exports | 6452 | 10,503 | 12,128 | 14,021 | 16,149 |
Global export value of trade in goods 2000–2008 (billion dollars).
Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/264682/worldwide-export-volume-in-the-trade-since-1950/ (accessed 6 May 2022).
The above data show the bivalence of globalization: On one hand, they reveal its positive effects on international trade; on the other hand, they show that the negative influences of crises of local origin (US), such as the 2008 financial 0ne, spread with equal speed and magnitude, especially at the expense of weaker economies.
As a matter of fact, within economic integration—be it commercial or financial—the less-developed countries are generally dependent on the industrialized ones, with the consequent increase of their net indebtedness toward stronger economies. The subprime crisis caused profound effects and imbalances, to cast doubts on the real benefits of world integration in the absence of domestic growths [7].
In this latter respect, it is nevertheless relevant to consider that globalization, while not sufficient to reduce poverty on a large scale, anyway favors internal growth. According to Dreher [8], China was the country with the highest increase in the level of globalization from 1975 to 2000. Thanks to its increased integration with the rest of the world, the growth rate of its economy in 2000 was 2.33 percentage points higher than in 1975.
To treat the strategic problems of firms, it is maybe opportune to start by pointing out some basic differences between internationalization and globalization. The former was dominant from early twentieth century until the end of its ‘70ies, but the changes that occurred in the early ‘80ies produced a completely new type of phenomena, later on called—and not by a chance—
Undoubtedly, globalization changed the nature of competition as it was known before, when the number of international players was limited to firms possessing since decades, capital, knowledge, and the international culture to behave that way. Today, this number has gradually become larger and larger, a widespread one in every market and many (most?) industries of the world.
The main factors making globalization dominate since the ‘80s on are well-known ones: i) deregulation on one side and ii) the impact of new information and communication technology, the latter one maybe stronger than the former. Their interaction deeply changed the nature of markets and competition as well as the strategic behavior of companies, but also deeply influenced countries concerning international trade agreements, FDI, company law, that is, economic policies in one world [9, 10, 11, 12].
Deregulation enabled on one side companies to work more freely, especially as regards capital movements, international investments, mergers, and acquisitions, while information and communication technology on the other played a key role in accelerating global business transactions and deals, as they still do every day in a deeper way [13, 14].
Once transformed from international to global, competition showed largely new patterns of behavior, not to say completely renewed ones. Today, international players are in fact (and in particular they feel) more free than ever at every level (trade in goods and services, transfer of knowledge and technology, and FDI—Foreign direct investments and divestments), the latter ones representing one of the central nerves of restructuring global competition.
This way, passing to firms’ behavior within this largely new context, we could remember that, since its appearing, the enlarging of economic competition across continents was generally recognized by firms as a fruitful opportunity to grow. Anyway, this immediate feeling maybe undervalued at first sight its problems, challenges, and in some cases threats.
Globalization imposes in fact to big firms (but gradually also to mid-sized ones and to firms in general) a continuously growing confrontation with new competitors, a fierce one in some cases, which makes them suffer from the hardest competitive challenges.
As a result, companies must achieve a set of entirely new competences, among them i) to learn to make use of global resources (capitals, raw materials, finance, technology, labor, and others), ii) to make global their own products, and iii) to expand their own “local” competitiveness connecting it to new economic spaces, at the same time defending it from the challenges of other globalized firms.
In substance, companies must implement a global competitive strategy, expanding their markets but protecting at the same time their previous ones in case they can be now offended, as competitors too can individuate some competitive weakness to attack them, in spite of the fact they are (were?) locally dominated.
So, as all international firms are trying to put into action overlapping strategies, marketing techniques, products, services to customers, and tactics, this exacerbates the problem as such and drives to the need of implementing a
Does this mean that it is difficult for a company to become global in this era, and in case to remain such? This question brings with itself a former, fundamental one: How does a company compete in an unstable, difficult environment, establishing itself in this globalized world?
As a matter of fact, the term
The pure cost competition, once intended as pure labor or raw material cost-reduction, is generally speaking a dated choice, a no-longer adopted one, due to the higher complexity of products, markets, and consumer needs at present. This problem is anyway a twofold one.
From the point of view of old industrialized countries, firms tend to transplant, that is, to relocate in other countries (and continents in case) paying today attention to geo-politics, closeness to final demand, transportation costs. Cost reduction keeps its own role for sure, but either related to the newest technologies together with highly skilled personnel (e.g., at present, Pirelli Tyres largely producing in Rumania) or connected only to segments of the whole production-cycle (e.g., Brooks Brothers in Tunisia, China, or even Indonesia).
From the point of view of the so-called third world countries, on their turn, also cost competitiveness entered into a wholly new dimension with globalization. As a matter of fact, thanks to the same globalization, those countries are not compelled to duplicate step by step for every technological stage from the beginning to present (as Rostov presumed) [24], as they can land on (very) recent technological stages—and in some cases on the more recent ones—this way being able to join modern technologies together with relatively lower salaries. The very example of this strategy is China, which rapidly joined this way the most advanced countries of the world and then overcame them in most cases, and the same China in recent years invested (and relocating) in South-East Asia, Africa, and elsewhere to be permitted to go on the same way.
During the ‘60ies of the twentieth century, the microeconomic literature (and technical one as well) firmly suggested for firms the pursuing of “economies of scale,” these ones mainly intended as large-scale plants and very large in case. The underpinnings of the proposal were rooted in the less proportional growth of some costs (energy, warehouse, internal connections, and surveillance) at the growing of the plant. With respect to pure theory as well as contrary to reality in its general terms, those merely technical suggestions ignored the true firms’ dynamics: ups and downs of sales, plant and equipment rigidity, transportation costs, large or even impressive depreciation, and last but not the least, the local gathering of thousands of workers in a unique plant as a socioeconomic (and urbanistic) problem.
On this point, it is relevant to leave once for all the optimizing principles of early marginalists of the Walras-type, today unfortunately still widespread in most microeconomics text and since then constraining empirical phenomena into anti-realistic mechanical models.
Some of the most important scholars in the same field of economics are in fact teaching us since the last century how to cancel the very bases of those models:
firms maximize /minimize/optimize in
big firms are more interested in sales than profits, as in oligopolistic markets, it is more relevant to maintain and increase market shares, planning in case to make larger profits in future [31, 32];
the whole firm-system is a complex organizational world, where special technicalities from the mathematical or statistical field must be applied uniquely to solve special technical problems of financial, productive, or commercial in nature.
After some decades of understandable oblivion due to the abovementioned imperfections and risks, also economies of scale took a quite different meaning with globalization. They are now no longer intended from the merely plant-scale and/or manufacturing point of view, but from the standpoint of general firms’ costs. The new goals of firms pursuing “economies of scale” regard now, better than ever, the general optimization of i) purchasing, ii) R&D, iii) advertising costs, and iv) transportation ones as well.
The relevance today of such optimizations needs not to be underlined here, due to the increase of raw materials costs in the last decades on one side and the larger and larger amount of expenses implied by technological advances (high R&D within electronics, informatics, aerospace, military appliances), modern marketing techniques (especially for luxury goods, fashion, jewels, food, and drink), and farer and farer world deliveries in addition to energy and labor costs.
The convenience of large-scale plants tends to remain for industries—or branches of them—where firms actuate the fully integrated cycle (oil refining, basic chemicals, basic iron, and steel), where the same output in large amounts favors the scale of operations, this way taking profit from the efficiency of processes together with the reduction of logistic costs1.
This whole system, anyway, provided market demand is growing or constant, or taking the minimum possible variance at least [33], not to accumulate unsold stocks or even being compelled to slow or stop the production; those risks concur in explaining the large success in the last 50 years of the so-called
In other industrial sectors producing industrial goods, the most important problem is given on the contrary by the ratio
This basic difference was underlined by the same Alfred Marshall, to be true only
“The central task of the heavy steel industries is the handling of great volumes of homogeneous fluid steel, ready to be worked up into an infinite variety of products large and small. There is no other group of industries, in which the forces making for the increase of the business unit are promoted in like degree by the magnitude of the aggregate volume of the homogeneous fluid material which has to be produced.
The textile industries on the other hand offer the best instances of the coexistence of numerous establishments repeating one another; because the full technical economies of large scale production (…) can be obtained by an establishment of moderate size” (p. 218)2.
In every case, as a conclusion, the problems for firms in general, and for plant in particular, are to individuate their critical dimension in relation to i) industry, ii) served markets and market segments, and iii) competitors.
The abovementioned cross-world competition brought with itself large changes also as regards both technological and marketing primacies.
The need to be able today to sell all over the world emphasized the role i) of brands-innovation-advertising-distribution for high segments from electronics to information, to fashion and jewels, to cars to food-liqueurs-champagnes, and to armaments and weapons, ii) of brand and distribution for mid-level ones, and iii) of cost control and distribution for lower ones.
Innovation, performances, and in some cases uniqueness became relevant for luxury goods, price-quality relation for mid-quality ones, and price for lower ones.
In every case anyway, and much more frequently than before due to world communications and the WEB, brand recognizing became relevant for every market (the so-called world brands), but nevertheless also for specialized or “minor” segments, as these too got transformed from local-national to continental to world ones in some cases.
In addition, the larger economic resources expanded all over the world due to economic advances, to public and private debts, and to printing of money by States and privates (crypto-currencies), and increased both the quantity of demanded goods and the quest for quality by every group of consumers. Within industrialized countries, we face in fact today a large tendency to high tastes in every market and field, not to speak of such presences as advertising addicts /glamor influences/till the reckless passions by the so-called fashion victims. These factors concur to explain the transition of many global firms to superior-upper segments of demand, and consequently to new product-portfolio strategies.
In addition, we must keep in mind that a further result is the fierce competition now in action, which implies a relevant increase of costs for every type of firm in particular as far as R&D, advertising, and distribution are concerned, the very local ones being the only ones excluded from these commitments.
A further problem is also represented by the insufficiency of i) mass production, ii) new design of products, and iii) price/quality levels conform to the new international standards, to guarantee the success of companies in the new era of globalization, or to make
online trade, home consignments included,
higher volume and more efficient distributing networks,
express transportation logistics,
and, in particular for top segments,
exclusive advertising,
top class testimonials,
loyalty (“club members” and more).
Testimonials (and moreover
Quite a different story, on their side, for producers of industrial goods, technical appliances and machinery in general, it is well known that in these fields the critical factors of success are quite different ones, mentioning here four of them just to remember the most important ones:
technological advances,
(experimented) special technical innovations together with their reliability,
technical performance and performances /price ratio,
fast technical assistance, at inter-continental level in case.
All the abovementioned factors contribute to explain the gigantic growth of M&A, mergers, and acquisition as a rapid tool to achieve, case by case, some special goals, or a multiple set of them as well [35]. According to the renewed company goals of today
growing to reach the so-called
focusing on a different productive and segmental equilibrium, which means completing the company
Generally speaking, from the internal point of view we cannot forget that every competitive strategy by firms is closely related to system factors and the global organization as well, in particular concerning the following:
the tension to goals by top managers (
the nature and efficacy and efficiency of the internal structure,
its organizational culture and behavior,
the quality of coordination among strategic business units, together with the ability of the departments/units to join strategies choices and the global market [36].
Strategy is connected in fact to the quality and objectives of persons within every family, firm, institution, and country, but for firms in particular their growth is connected with the attempts of a particular group of human beings to do something [37]3.
As a matter of fact, some companies in the globalized world faced globalization in a courageous way with smart results later on, being able at the same time to take advantage of external opportunities and to adapt themselves to changes, and the dissemination of products and brands jointly being a goal and a result. They were able to anticipate competitors to nip at their heels taking into account i) the larger propensity of consumers to spend (not only in proportion to income but also recurring to debt), ii) the epochal changes in consumers’ culture and values, and iii) the fast dynamics of consumers’ tastes and needs, today from voluble to volatile ones.
As a result, these firms repositioned themselves, individuating innovative strategic directions to seize a competitive position among their (new) important competitors. They applied creative strategies in addition to previous ones—cooperation agreements, strategic alliances, M&A included—in line with their new
Some other firms, on their turn, followed the previous ones, which succeeded in engaging in global competition, anyway being at first generally undecided, topically dubious about the right road to be taken, organizationally conflicting about the timing and the dimension of new investments. This sum of problems caused in a large number of cases delays on one side and/or insufficient investments on the other hand, and both these problems being anyway partly repaired in some others cases by the wiser directions taken by looking at the experience of forerunners and eventually to their errors.
The remaining set of firms was reluctantly forced to renew themselves. Their delays were implied by a set of different, cooperating reasons, and among them, the following ones:
their cultural approach to novelties, linked to locally minded markets, competitors, and strategies;
their tendency to prioritize existing markets and product;
the incertitude related to the amount of new commitments;
their fear not to able to transition to globalization from the resource point of view as well as to orchestrate the new complexities implied by the horizon of activities [38, 39, 40, 41].
To these obstacles, it is easy to add the internal frictions among top managers, prominent shareholders, and also stakeholders in some cases, each of them reasoning maybe in terms of personal advantage rather than firm perspectives.
As a consequence, a set of companies suffered from serious problems represented by their inability to coordinate and harmonize on a large scale, and their previous practices are related to specialized segments, finance, technology, and their cultural and administrative skills as well.
All these problems negatively affected the strategic directions and current choices of these companies, which, still thinking in an improper way, tried somehow to imitate the most powerful and concentrated companies in the planet (USA, Europe, Japan) to get revitalized, anyhow with late, uncertain, or even unstable results, not to speak of cases when they took downward turns.
The main difference among them all lies in the fact that dominant companies, or prominent oligopolists, no longer really belong to one country only, while, in the perspective of globalization, other companies belonging to different countries still work on similar but partial strategies, which makes difficult even not impossible to obtain the same competitive advantages or defenses at least. The same difference between the two groups, which creates further dis-equilibria, acts on the ability of getting convenient means of production (capital, technology, human resources, raw materials, and others), where the first ones are largely favored by their timely entrance into globalization and globalized visions of the world. The only problem can be represented by conflicts and wars among countries: Globalization made easier the availability of those means for companies, making them more independent and profitable, but at the same time, it tends to make conflicts more intense or widespread ones.
After the protracted upward development of globalization described in Section 1, world trade fell sharply in 2009 (Table 8).
2008 | 2009 | |
---|---|---|
Exports | 16,149 | 12,556 |
Global export value of trade in goods 2008–2009 (billion dollars).
Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/264682/worldwide-export-volume-in-the-trade-since-1950/ (accessed 6 May 2022).
Figures represented in Table 8 clearly show the drop in both growth and hopes caused by the bankrupt of both Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.
The global financial crisis of 2008 was followed by an extremely fluctuating and sometimes stagnant trend in international trade (Figure 2).
Global export value of trade in goods 2010–2020 (billion dollars). Source: Authors’ elaboration based on data from
In these sudden (or gradually postponed) storms, both businessmen and politicians ask themselves
The problem referred here is a well-known one, whose most important consequences are connected to i) the spatial extension and ii) the time span of the crisis.
While the latter can be traced back to the abovementioned political “solution,” the former one is strictly connected to such factors as follows:
the monetary dimensions of the crisis,
its (in)direct influences on further either financial or banking crises,
the psychological shocks it can produce,
the degree of integration between the interested country and the world financial system.
Factors 1–3 are self-explaining ones, and in a sense the fourth too, about which we limit here to recall i) the dramatic effects of
Two more notations seem anyway of some interest here:
the
the same
Financial crises are anyway not alone in causing (heavy) disturbances to world economy, and globalization in particular. One more category storms includes all the more or less important mismatches occurring along years in different continents,
To recall here only the most dramatic of them, we could rapidly mention the French Revolution (1789), the crumbling down of the Chinese Empire (1911), the Soviet Revolution in Russia (1917), the pulling out of the Shah in Imperial Persia (1979), not to mentions the so many local military rebellions in Africa, South America, and elsewhere.
Mention apart is deserved, to better clear our topic, by the World War I, originated by apparently silly causes (the assassination of an Austrian Archiduke), but as a matter of fact signing the dramatic end of the unbelievable more than 40 years of expansion and growth of the Western World which on due course since the Franco-German War of 1871.
Treating these two kinds of problems, scholars turn by turn qualify these disturbances as
This approach, which gave origin to a set a studies in particular in non-Anglo-Saxon world [43, 44]4, distinguishes two basic kinds of forces operating within economic dynamics, moving it currently or by exception, in regular v. erratica a way.
So, squeezing some thousands of pages in a few lines, we could describe Frisch interpretation as such the following:
economic systems are composed by inner variables and choices as well as by external permanent ones, the former due to the actions of economic agents, and the latter represented by demography, politics, technology, competition, money&banking, and so on, which favor/ obstacle/orientate economic choices (
this fusion of individual choices and permanent external influences might be
Obvious to mention among most important impulse variables as the last 100 years are concerned, the World War I and II, the Sino-Japanese war of 1931 ff., the Italian war against Ethiopia 1934–1935 and—after some 20 years of peace 1944 (Bretton Woods) to Vietnam war (1964 ff.)—the set on international wars and disturbances, in addition to abovementioned ones, also the two
Generally speaking, the political, sociocultural, economic, and industrial consequences of those impulse variables are well known ones to the reader, with general overturning—in worst cases—of boundaries, population distribution, public finance, industrial equilibria, but, at the same time, a fast development of technology, and so many advantages for the winner, if any. One more feature anyway to be mentioned—physical and financial destructions apart—is the common and general increase of prices, industrial, and consumer ones, which change the equlibria of families, firms, and in case the State in some cases in a dramatic way.
Propagation variables, each of them normally working with better or worse an equilibrium, are on their turn differently shocked by the aforementioned impulses, anyway under an immediate disorder under the pressure of the impulse ones. We conclude this flash leaving on one side the analysis of the consequences once more to the reader, and on the other listing the most important propagation variables:
natural propagation forces:
demography,
psychologies,
technology;
political propagation forces:
institutions,
international relations,
money, banking, and finance;
half-endogenous propagation forces:
type and size of firms,
competition structures,
distribution of income and wealth (according to Pareto theories) [43].
Cross-border acquisitions and all the more foreign direct investments are normally hailed by growing firms to sustain their expansion either within their own continent or in further ones as well. And we cannot deny that, decades ago, these activities were often conducted in the search of low-cost raw materials and labor in Latin America, South-East Asia, and mainly Africa. As we all know, this implied in not so few cases also workers’ and environment exploitation, that convenient branching out being accepted by 3rd World countries with mixed sentiments just to favour their own economic development. The situation concurred this way to increase the differences between big industrial countries on one side, mid-sized half-industrialized ones on the other hand, and developing countries to conclude.
Along years, the so-to-say mismatching implied by these attitudes of foreign companies (ranking top down from US, Great Britain, France, and others shouting “profits profits!”) drew public attention to the political, social, and cultural realms affected by their actions and behavior. This way, in hosting nations, some backlashes against globalization were registered within the civil society and by governments as well inducing in some cases a growing unwillingness to progress in multinational cooperation, better in multilateral co-operations of such a way. In worst cases, not only NGO-Non Governmental Organizations reacted to reputed exploitments, but a whole theory was developed—
The last critics overvalued real cases of that kind as they had their roots in the anarchist-
stability of institutions,
efficiency of infrastructures,
respect of property rights, especially the foreign investors’ ones.
Anyway, the calculus of costs and benefits has to be attentively weighted for both companies and host countries.
Companies gained only putative advantages, or even benefits shorter than expectations, putting into action egoistic behaviors, (un)voluntarily tending either to exploit or to make “easy money,” taking advantage from their bargaining power irrespective of fairness, workers’ /population/environment rights, in addition to the host-country interest in general. They must not only obey to these comprehensive ethical principles, but in addition to pay attention to the following technical factors:
to navigate the different legal systems of every foreign country (in particular as commercial and tax laws are regarded, tax payment included);
identically, to respect different labor laws granting protection to workers’ rights;
to get adequately accustomed to different new cultures, which have to be also considered full of language/behavior/marketing/advertising teachings.
On the side of host countries, on their turn, they too must pay attention to a number of factors, including or even mixing advantages and risks. General and special advantages can be resumed as follows:
expansion of foreign trade, increase of occupation, developing of sub-contractors and sub-suppliers new firms, and growth of internal demand also due to the
gains from cultural and technological transfers, including modern management practices and advanced labor skills.
Some critical questions stay anyway in the background, as they need a (preferably a previous or a step-by-step) solution:
the general attitude toward foreign participation to their economic system, together with the conditions to welcome it, tariffs cutting included;
the degree, timing, and extent of liberalization of their own economy,
the putting into action of measures apt to expand their degree of participation in the world economy, through conditions at the same time consistent with i) country political independency defense, ii) human and workers’ rights enforcement, and iii) environment protection safeguard.
Since first steps, globalization produced some contradictions between companies on the one hand and the governments of host countries on the other hand as regards the difference between wished and effective results. Many countries and companies fronted in fact difficulties in facing globalization at first, especially as objectives, trade, competition, and employment were concerned, and this lack of understanding increased in the first period; the gap between State regulation and company strategies, they both maybe undervaluing the burdens of the same globalization.
In terms of objectives, while State policies aimed to raise the standard of living, companies were looking to increase their market shares in order to grow, also due to a critical feature they understood, which could be summarized saying for most industries “grow to survive,” not to be secluded in small or even local markets nor, at worst, to fail. This way companies were compelled to think in two ways, adopting a twofold competitive strategy, a two-dimensional one: i) the local dimension to be able to compete locally, with both traditional competitors and new ones from other countries, and ii) the transnational dimension to compete all over the continent or world with global(ized) firms.
This way expanding companies joined a new strategy to their previous ones, entering in local markets both to sell and to make FDI in the field of production, so gaining footholds in the global market. In relation to the deepness of those investments, strategies between local responsiveness and global integration began to take shape (Export strategy, Standardization strategy, Multi-domestic strategy, and Transnational strategy).
With globalization, also competition gradually became a global one, changing in nature as well as in ways and means. States soon or later adopted the goal of raising new standards of economic efficiency for the country as whole, and companies on their turn had to raise their own efficacy and efficiency up to the level of the
Originally, local governments concentrated themselves slowly, and in some cases so-to-say insensitively on globalization, to realize later on, especially in the last 20 years or so that it was relevant to enter into bilateral/multilateral trade negotiations in order to be active a part in the world development agenda, or at least to be able to protect i) local environment, ii) citizens’ and workers’ rights, and iii) the equality of conditions. Local regulations increased their span and deepness, as host’ countries tended to set regulatory standards and restrictive policies for the implementation of international agreements and strategic cooperation, to reduce as much as possible the negative impact of globalization. In addition, also global regulations greatly increased their impact, especially in favor of States (or national governments) having limited contractual powers.
Once most countries found that there is no escape from globalization
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The problem of mercury toxicity was only widely explored in the second half of the 20th century, following cases of fatal poisonings as a result of the consumption of contaminated fish and grains preserved with mercury compounds. According to HELCOM reports, Hg emission in the Baltic region at the beginning of the 21st century was lower than during the 1980s. In addition to mercury transformation, climate warming, particularly in the autumn-winter season, is another factor contributing to the changes in mercury circulation, especially in the area of land-sea contact. The increase in rainfall, particularly in the summer, is of particular importance for the marine environment. This is related to an increased inflow of Hg with wet precipitation, but the warm season is also favourable for intensive growth of sea organisms and, consequently, a faster accumulation of chemical substances, including toxic ones. As a result, the concentration of mercury in organism biomass increases.",book:{id:"5096",slug:"applied-studies-of-coastal-and-marine-environments",title:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments",fullTitle:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments"},signatures:"Magdalena Bełdowska",authors:[{id:"176840",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Bełdowska",slug:"magdalena-beldowska",fullName:"Magdalena Bełdowska"}]},{id:"49999",doi:"10.5772/62205",title:"Fabrication and Properties of Zinc Composite Coatings for Mitigation of Corrosion in Coastal and Marine Zone",slug:"fabrication-and-properties-of-zinc-composite-coatings-for-mitigation-of-corrosion-in-coastal-and-mar",totalDownloads:1742,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Deterioration of metals and alloys during service due to corrosion and wear phenomena shortens materials’ life span and structural integrity particularly in aggressive environments such as coastal and marine. This degradation also limits the use of these materials in most industrial applications. Therefore, the improvement of the quality of these materials in order to combat these challenges in industry remains critical. Surface modification techniques are employed to enhance materials’ properties to enable better performance and to extend their applications in demanding environments. Electrodeposition has been a useful method developed to improve the corrosion and mechanical properties of materials. In the present contribution, ample knowledge about electrodeposition of Zn composite/nanocomposite coatings and their characteristics are reviewed to address coastal and marine degradation of metals and alloys.",book:{id:"5096",slug:"applied-studies-of-coastal-and-marine-environments",title:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments",fullTitle:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments"},signatures:"Patricia A.I. Popoola, Nicholus Malatji and Ojo Sunday Fayomi",authors:[{id:"169258",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Popoola",slug:"patricia-popoola",fullName:"Patricia Popoola"},{id:"174331",title:"Dr.",name:"Ojo Sunday",middleName:null,surname:"Fayomi",slug:"ojo-sunday-fayomi",fullName:"Ojo Sunday Fayomi"},{id:"176997",title:"Mr.",name:"Nicholus",middleName:null,surname:"Malatji",slug:"nicholus-malatji",fullName:"Nicholus Malatji"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49582",title:"Geological Evolution of Coastal and Marine Environments off the Campania Continental Shelf Through Marine Geological Mapping - The Example of the Cilento Promontory",slug:"geological-evolution-of-coastal-and-marine-environments-off-the-campania-continental-shelf-through-m",totalDownloads:1448,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The geological evolution of coastal and marine environments offshore the Cilento Promontory through marine geological mapping is discussed here. The marine geological map n. 502 “Agropoli,” located offshore the Cilento Promontory (southern Italy), is described and put in regional geologic setting. The study area covers water depths ranging between 30 and 200 m isobaths. The geologic map has been constructed in the frame of a research program financed by the National Geological Survey of Italy (CARG Project), finalized to the construction of an up-to-date cartography of the Campania region. Geological and geophysical data on the continental shelf and slope offshore the southern Campania region have been acquired in an area bounded northward by the Gulf of Salerno and southward by the Gulf of Policastro. A high-resolution multibeam bathymetry has permitted the construction of a digital elevation model (DEM). Sidescan sonar profiles have also been collected and interpreted, and their merging with bathymetric data has allowed for the realization of the base for the marine geologic cartography. The calibration of geophysical data has been attempted through sea-bottom samples. The morpho-structures and the seismic sequences overlying the outcrops of acoustic basement reported in the cartographic representation have been studied in detail using single-channel seismics. The interpretation of seismic profiles has been a support for the reconstruction of the stratigraphic and structural setting of the Quaternary continental shelf successions and the outcrops of rocky acoustic basement in correspondence to the Licosa Cape morpho-structural high. These areas result from the seaward prolongation of the stratigraphic and structural units, widely cropping out in the surrounding emerged sector of the Cilento Promontory. The cartographic approach is based on the recognition of laterally coeval depositional systems, interpreted in the frame of system tracts of the Late Quaternary depositional sequence.",book:{id:"5096",slug:"applied-studies-of-coastal-and-marine-environments",title:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments",fullTitle:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments"},signatures:"Gemma Aiello and Ennio Marsella",authors:[{id:"100661",title:"Dr.",name:"Gemma",middleName:null,surname:"Aiello",slug:"gemma-aiello",fullName:"Gemma Aiello"}]},{id:"49642",title:"Engineering Tools for the Estimation of Dredging-Induced Sediment Resuspension and Coastal Environmental Management",slug:"engineering-tools-for-the-estimation-of-dredging-induced-sediment-resuspension-and-coastal-environme",totalDownloads:2337,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to environmental impacts that may result from resuspension, sedimentation and increase in concentration of chemicals during dredging activities. Dredging dislodges and resuspends bottom sediments that are not captured by dredge-head movements. Resuspended sediments are advected far from the dredging site as a dredging plume and the increase in the suspended solid concentration (SSC) can strongly differ, in time and space, depending on site and operational conditions. Well-established international guidelines often include numerical modelling applications to support environmental studies related to dredging activities. Despite the attention that has been focused on this issue, there is a lack of verified predictive techniques of plume dynamics at progressive distances from the different dredging sources, as a function of the employed dredging techniques and work programs, i.e., spatial and temporal variation of resuspension source. This chapter illustrates predictive techniques to estimate the SSC arising from dredges with different mechanisms of sediment release and to assess the spatial and temporal variability of the resulting plume in estuarine and coastal areas. Predictive tools are aimed to support technical choices during planning and operational phases and to better plan the location and frequency of environmental monitoring activities during dredging execution.",book:{id:"5096",slug:"applied-studies-of-coastal-and-marine-environments",title:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments",fullTitle:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments"},signatures:"Iolanda Lisi, Marcello Di Risio, Paolo De Girolamo and Massimo\nGabellini",authors:[{id:"15209",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Di Risio",slug:"marcello-di-risio",fullName:"Marcello Di Risio"},{id:"116232",title:"Dr.",name:"Massimo",middleName:null,surname:"Gabellini",slug:"massimo-gabellini",fullName:"Massimo Gabellini"},{id:"176998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Iolanda",middleName:null,surname:"Lisi",slug:"iolanda-lisi",fullName:"Iolanda Lisi"},{id:"177000",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"De Girolamo",slug:"paolo-de-girolamo",fullName:"Paolo De Girolamo"}]},{id:"50060",title:"Depositional Environment of Phosphorites of the Sonrai Basin, Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India",slug:"depositional-environment-of-phosphorites-of-the-sonrai-basin-lalitpur-district-uttar-pradesh-india",totalDownloads:1823,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Phosphates are regarded as one of the most important fertilizer minerals used by man. In Sonrai basin of Lalitpur the phosphorites are found to occur as lenticular and detached bodies throughout the Formation of the Bijawar Group. Individual bodies range from a few meters to about 4 km in length, and width varies from thin bands to about 125 meter with P2O5 concentration ranging from 10 to 20%. The Paleoproterozoic Bijawar Group are overlain by the Archaean Bundelkhand Basement Complex and underlain by Vindhyan Supergroup. The occurrence of phosphorites is confined to the Sonrai Formation which consists of massive to brecciated phosphorite within the lower reddish shales, with at least three bands identified. Megascopic study reveals that the brecciated phosphorite is reddish brown in color and fine to medium grained with angular fragments of chert and quartz embedded in a groundmass of iron oxides and secondary silica intercalated with minor veins of chert and iron oxides. The phosphorite horizon in the Lalitpur area is associated with pink to white brecciated massive quartzite, shale, dolomite and limestone of the basal unit. The concentration trends of certain major oxides indicate that the phosphorites are more enriched in CaO, P2O5 and SiO2 than Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2, Na2O and K2O. The concentration trends of trace elements reveal that the phosphorites are moderately enriched in Co, Zn, Zr, Pb, U than in Sc, Ba, V, Cr, Ni, , Rb, Sr, Y and Th. The dispersion patter, correlation coefficient and mutual relationship of significant major oxides represented by plotted diagrams, indicate that SiO2, CaO, MgO are antipathetically related with P2O5. The relationship suggests a gradual replacement among these oxides during diagenesis. High values of P2O5 and CaO in the phosphorites indicate more concentration of apatite constituent. The difference in geochemical behavior of CaO and MgO may be due to ionic substitution of Ca+2 by MgO+2 in the apatite crystal lattice during alkaline environment of the basin. The strong negative relationship between P2O5 with Fe2O3 in phosphorites may be due to leaching and/mild weathering of iron from the ores and reprecipitation along with P2O5 in the pore spaces, cavities/voids, veins, etc in highly oxidizing marine environment of the basin. The minimum evidence of organic matter, absence of sulphide minerals and lower concentration of V, Ni, and Cu suggest that the phosphorites were deposited in an oxidizing environment with slightly anaerobic to highly aerobic facies.",book:{id:"5096",slug:"applied-studies-of-coastal-and-marine-environments",title:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments",fullTitle:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments"},signatures:"Shamim A. Dar and K. F. Khan",authors:[{id:"176685",title:"Dr.",name:"Shamim",middleName:"A",surname:"Dar",slug:"shamim-dar",fullName:"Shamim Dar"},{id:"181312",title:"Dr.",name:"K.F",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"k.f-khan",fullName:"K.F Khan"},{id:"181314",title:"Dr.",name:"Saif A",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"saif-a-khan",fullName:"Saif A Khan"}]},{id:"49930",title:"Monitoring the Coastal Environment Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques",slug:"monitoring-the-coastal-environment-using-remote-sensing-and-gis-techniques",totalDownloads:2707,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The coastal zone has been of importance for economic development and ecological restoration due to their rich natural resources and vulnerable ecosystems. Remote sensing techniques have proven to be powerful tools for the monitoring of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere on a global, regional, and even local scale, by providing important coverage, mapping and classification of land cover features such as vegetation, soil, water and forests. This chapter introduced the methods for monitoring the coastal environment using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Case studies of port expansion monitoring in typical coastal regions, together with the coastal environment changes analysis were also presented.",book:{id:"5096",slug:"applied-studies-of-coastal-and-marine-environments",title:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments",fullTitle:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments"},signatures:"Dong Jiang, Mengmeng Hao and Jingying Fu",authors:[{id:"25222",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"dong-jiang",fullName:"Dong Jiang"},{id:"176843",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingying",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"jingying-fu",fullName:"Jingying Fu"},{id:"176844",title:"MSc.",name:"Mengmeng",middleName:null,surname:"Hao",slug:"mengmeng-hao",fullName:"Mengmeng Hao"}]},{id:"49825",title:"Management of Marine Protected Zones – Case Study of Bahrain, Arabian Gulf",slug:"management-of-marine-protected-zones-case-study-of-bahrain-arabian-gulf",totalDownloads:2928,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Coastal and marine environments in Bahrain are characterized by a variety of habitats, including seagrass beds, coral reefs, and mangroves that support some of the most endangered species such as dugongs and turtles. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are considered the most advocated approach for marine conservation. Several MPAs have been established in Bahrain. This study explores the ecological and legal contexts of MPAs in Bahrain and evaluates the effectiveness of these MPAs in achieving their conservation goals. Although MPAs are contributing to the protection of critical coastal and marine habitats and their associated flora and fauna, there is yet further need to strengthen efforts on conserving coastal and marine environments in Bahrain. Effectiveness of MPAs in Bahrain could be enhanced by developing management plans, implementing the necessary regulatory measures, and investing in long-term monitoring and research programs. Findings of this study could contribute to wider regional and international experience of the effectiveness of MPAs in protecting important coastal and marine environments.",book:{id:"5096",slug:"applied-studies-of-coastal-and-marine-environments",title:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments",fullTitle:"Applied Studies of Coastal and Marine Environments"},signatures:"Humood A. Naser",authors:[{id:"50322",title:"Dr.",name:"Humood",middleName:null,surname:"Naser",slug:"humood-naser",fullName:"Humood Naser"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"789",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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