Measurement of thermal heating and loss coefficient of different fibers.
\r\n\tIn the book the theory and practice of microwave heating are discussed. The intended scope covers the results of recent research related to the generation, transmission and reception of microwave energy, its application in the field of organic and inorganic chemistry, physics of plasma processes, industrial microwave drying and sintering, as well as in medicine for therapeutic effects on internal organs and tissues of the human body and microbiology. Both theoretical and experimental studies are anticipated.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book aims to be of interest not only for specialists in the field of theory and practice of microwave heating but also for readers of non-specialists in the field of microwave technology and those who want to study in general terms the problem of interaction of the electromagnetic field with objects of living and nonliving nature.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-227-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-226-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-228-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8f6a41e4f5ce0e9c48628516d7c92050",bookSignature:"Prof. Gennadiy Churyumov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",keywords:"Electromagnetic Wave, Microwave Energy Application, Electromagnetic Energy Generation, Intelligent Microwave Heating, Microwave Organic Chemistry, Microwave Reactor, Microwave Discharge, Microwave Plasma, Microwave Drying System, Tissue Microwave Heating, Measurement Automation, Industrial Microwave Process",numberOfDownloads:224,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Gennadiy I. Churyumov is a professor at two universities: Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, and Harbin Institute of Technology and a senior IEEE member.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy Churyumov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216155/images/system/216155.jfif",biography:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov (M’96–SM’00) received the Dipl.-Ing. degree in Electronics Engineering and his Ph.D. degree from the Kharkiv Institute of Radio Electronics, Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1974 and 1981, respectively, as well as the D.Sc. degree from the Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1997. \n\nHe is a professor at two universities: Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, and Harbin Institute of Technology. \n\nHe is currently the Head of a Microwave & Optoelectronics Lab at the Department of Electronics Engineering at the Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics. \n\nHis general research interests lie in the area of 2-D and 3-D computer modeling of electron-wave processes in vacuum tubes (magnetrons and TWTs), simulation techniques of electromagnetic problems and nonlinear phenomena, as well as high-power microwaves, including electromagnetic compatibility and survivability. \n\nHis current activity concentrates on the practical aspects of the application of microwave technologies.",institutionString:"Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics (NURE)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"24",title:"Technology",slug:"technology"}],chapters:[{id:"74623",title:"Influence of the Microwaves on the Sol-Gel Syntheses and on the Properties of the Resulting Oxide Nanostructures",slug:"influence-of-the-microwaves-on-the-sol-gel-syntheses-and-on-the-properties-of-the-resulting-oxide-na",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75284",title:"Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Review)",slug:"microwave-assisted-extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-review",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75087",title:"Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Microwave Heating on Rock Cracking and Their Mechanical Properties",slug:"experimental-investigation-on-the-effect-of-microwave-heating-on-rock-cracking-and-their-mechanical-",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74338",title:"Microwave Synthesized Functional Dyes",slug:"microwave-synthesized-functional-dyes",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74744",title:"Doping of Semiconductors at Nanoscale with Microwave Heating (Overview)",slug:"doping-of-semiconductors-at-nanoscale-with-microwave-heating-overview",totalDownloads:45,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74664",title:"Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction from Natural Matrices",slug:"microwave-assisted-solid-extraction-from-natural-matrices",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63902",title:"Whispering Gallery Modes for Accurate Characterization of Optical Fibers’ Parameters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81259",slug:"whispering-gallery-modes-for-accurate-characterization-of-optical-fibers-parameters",body:'\nWhispering gallery modes are surface modes that propagate azimuthally around resonators with rotational symmetry, generally a dielectric. This phenomenon was first described by Lord Rayleigh in the nineteenth century, when studying the propagation of acoustic waves in interfaces with a curvature [1]. St. Paul’s Cathedral (London, UK), the Temple of Heaven (Beijing, China), the Pantheon (Rome, Italy), the Tomb of Agamemnon (Mycenae, Greece), and the Whispering Gallery in the Alhambra (Granada, Spain) are examples of architectonical structures that support acoustic modes which propagate guided by the surface of the walls. It was at the beginning of the twentieth century when the study of this guiding mechanism was extended to the electromagnetic waves, since Mie developed his theory for the plane electromagnetic waves dispersed by spheres with diameters of the same size as the optical wavelength [2]. Shortly after, Debye stablished the equations for the optical resonances of dielectric and metallic spheres based on Mie’s dispersion theory [3]. The detailed study of the mathematical equations of WGMs was performed by Richtmyer [4] and Stratton [5], who predicted high-quality factors \n
Due to the intrinsic low losses, WGMs show very high \n
WGM resonances shift in wavelength as the refractive index of the external medium changes. The sensitivity of WGMs as a function of these variations is significant: when considering a silica-cylindrical microresonator of 125 \n
The guiding mechanism of WGMs in the azimuthal direction of a microresonator (MR) is total internal reflection, just as in the case of axial propagation in a conventional waveguide; see Figure 1a. Resonance occurs when the guided wave travels along the perimeter of the MR, and it drives itself coherently by returning in phase after every revolution. In its way, the wave follows continuously the surface of the MR, and the optical path in a circumnavigation must be equal to an integer multiple of the optical wavelength, \n
where \n
(a) Scheme of the WGM propagating azimuthally in the MR. (b) Cylindrical system of coordinates which shows the two regions considered in the problem.
We do not intend to give a full description of the solution of this problem, which can be found in [14], but we will summarize the main equations and features of WGMs.
\nIf we solve Maxwell’s equations with this uniaxial tensor, the modes split in two series of family modes that, analogously to the case of axial waveguides, are denoted as TE-WGMs, which show a transversal electric field (\n
In Eqs. (3) and (4), \n
By following this procedure, it is possible to calculate the dispersion curves of several WGMs propagating in a cylindrical, silica MR of 125 \n
Resonant wavelength of WGMs with azimuthal orders from 250 to 370. Only a selection of the solutions to highlight their discrete nature is shown.
Regarding the distribution of the fields, Figure 3a shows the amplitude of the electric field of the first radial order TM-WGM, propagating in a cylindrical, silica MR of 10 \n
(a) Optical field of a \n\nm\n=\n40\n\n and \n\nl\n=\n1\n\n WGM in a silica, cylindrical MR. (b) Field amplitude of the WGM as a function of the radial coordinate, for \n\nm\n=\n40\n\n and \n\nl\n=\n1,2,3\n\n.
The general setup used in the experiments is shown in Figure 4a. The light source is a tunable diode, linearly polarized laser (TDL) with a narrow linewidth (<300 kHz). The tuning range covers from 1515 to 1545 nm. The laser integrated a piezoelectric-based fine frequency tuning facility that allows continuous scanning of the emitted signal around a given wavelength, with subpicometer resolution. A polarization controller (PC) after the laser allows rotating the polarization of the light, and, as a consequence, it allows exciting TE- and TM-WGMs separately. The optical signal is then launched through an optical circulator, which enables measuring the WGM resonances in reflection by means of a photodetector (PD).
\n(a) Scheme of the experimental setup. (b) Typical reflection spectrum of a WGM.
The MR will consist on a section of the bare optical fiber under test (FUT). Depending on the experiment, it will be a conventional telecom fiber, a rare-earth doped fiber, a photosensitive fiber, or a fiber where a grating has been previously inscribed. It is carefully cleaned and mounted on a three-axis flexure stage. WGMs are excited around the FUT by using the evanescent optical field of an auxiliary microtaper with a waist of 1–2 \n
The transmission of the taper was measured using a photodetector, and the signal was registered by an oscilloscope synchronized with the TDL. A typical transmission trace consists on a signal that will present a series of notches at the resonant wavelengths. For MRs of 125 \n
As it was mentioned before, the position of the resonances will depend on the value of the refractive index of the material. In the next sections, we will study the characterization of different fibers and fiber components by means of the measurement of the shift of WGM resonances as the effective index of the MR is modified.
\nWhen a silica fiber is heated up, two effects occur. First, the expansion of the fiber leads to a change of the diameter. Second, the thermo-optic effect induces a change in the refractive index of the material due to a variation of temperature. This variation modifies the spectral position of the WGM. From Eq. (1) it is possible to evaluate the shift of the resonant wavelength, \n
In the case of optical fibers as MRs, it is a good approximation to assume that the thermo-optic coefficient (i.e., the second term in Eq. (5)) can be replaced by that of the pure silica, since the optical field of the WGMs is mainly localized in the fiber cladding (see Figure 3). The high sensitivity of WGMs to variations of temperature has been demonstrated for different geometries of the MR, such as microspheres [19, 20] or cylinders [21]. Moreover, the propagation of an optical signal of moderate power (\n
Here, we will present the characterization of temperature variations in two different examples: (i) rare-earth doped active fibers and (ii) fiber gratings inscribed in commercial photosensitive fibers.
\nHeating of rare-earth doped fibers can be an issue in fiber-based lasers and amplifiers. For example, thermal effects can be a limit to the maximum output power that these systems can provide [22]. Another example is the shift in wavelength observed in distributed Bragg reflectors (DBR) and distributed feedback (DFB) lasers due to a pump-induced increment of temperature [23]. The heat is due to the non-radiative processes related to the electronic relaxation of some dopants: for example, this effect is less important in ytterbium-doped fibers, while Er/Yb-codoped and erbium-doped fibers exhibited a high increase of temperature with pump, due to its specific electronic-level system [24]. Thus, it is an intrinsic characteristic of the doped fibers that one needs to evaluate in order to design the proper optical system.
\nIn the experiments presented here, several commercially available single-mode, core-pumped doped fibers from Fibercore were investigated. Specifically, the FUTs were three Er-doped fibers (DF-1500-F-980, M12-980/125, and I25-980/125), a Yb-doped fiber (DF-1100), and an Er/Yb-codoped fiber (DF-1500 Y). The values for absorption coefficients at the pump wavelength were 5.5 dB/m (DF-1500-F-980), 12 dB/m (M12-980/125), 21.9 dB/m (I25-980/125), 1000 dB/m (DF-1100), and 1700 dB/m (DF-1100). Short sections of \n
Wavelength shift of the resonant wavelength as the pump power is increased. From left to right: pump power 0 mW, 40 mW, 110 mW, 180 mW, 270 mW, and 370 mW.
At this point, several features of this technique must be clarified. First, it is worth to point out that the shift in wavelength is virtually independent of the particular resonance used for the measurements, that is, it does not depend on its radial and azimuthal order nor on its polarization. The sensitivity to thermal variations of different WGM resonances was theoretically calculated around 1.53 \n
The second aspect to highlight is related to the fact that the dopants in the active fibers are located in their core, while WGMs are highly confined in the outer region of the cladding (see Figure 3). From the study of heat conduction in doped fibers carried out by Davis et al. [25], it is possible to calculate that, at the steady state, the increase of temperature at the core of the fiber is just 1.5% larger than at the outer surface.
\nIn order to calibrate the shift in wavelength of the WGM resonances with the heating, a FBG inscribed in the core of a doped fiber was used for comparison. The procedure is described in [21]. The WGM resonances shift at a rate of 8.2 pm/\n
Figure 6 summarizes the measurements performed for the different doped fibers. A similar trend can be observed in all the cases; the resonances shift fast in wavelength for low pump powers, and, beyond certain pump, heating tends to saturate. It can be observed that the Yb fiber DF 1100 shows a similar increase of temperature to those of the Er-doped fibers, although the concentration of the dopants in the Yb fiber is much larger (note the absorption coefficient around 975 nm). Also, the highest temperature increment corresponds to the Er/Yb-doped fiber (DF 1500 Y), despite that it shows a lower absorption coefficient than its equivalent Yb-doped fiber (DF 1100). These results are in accordance to the fact that the heating is related to the existence of non-radiative transitions for the relaxation of electrons in the active medium.
\nHeating of the doped fibers as a function of pump power.
As it was mentioned before, WGMs are axially localized: their extension along the fiber is \n
The FBGs used in the experiments were written in germanium-silicate boron codoped, photosensitive fibers from Fibercore, using a doubled-argon UV laser and a uniform phase mask. The length of all the gratings was \n
As a preliminary experiment, a section of fiber Fibercore PS980 was uniformly irradiated (i.e., there was no grating inscribed). The length was 5 mm, and the UV fluence power used in the irradiation was 150 J/mm2. The wavelength shift of the resonances was measured as the MR was illuminated with a 1550 nm optical signal, compared to the original position of the resonances, with no illumination along the FUT. Figure 7a shows the results. The data show a clear difference between the irradiated length (\n
Temperature profile of irradiated FUTs, (a) uniformly and (b) nonuniformly.
The temperature profile along a FBG with strong reflectivity was measured using this technique. The FBG had a reflectivity higher than 99.9%; the Bragg wavelength was 1556 nm, its length was 12 mm, and it was fabricated in PS1250 fiber (Fibercore). First, the illumination signal was tuned well outside the reflection band, at 1540 nm; in this case, there is no reflection of the optical signal; it just propagates through the FBG. The power launched to the MR was 800 mW. Curve (i) in Figure 8 shows the obtained results. As expected, a similar result to the case shown in Figure 7a was obtained: the heating over the length of the FBG was fairly constant, \n
Temperature profile of a FBG illuminated (i) outside and (ii) within the reflexion band.
Finally, the temperature profile was measured when the optical signal was tuned to the Bragg wavelength (power, 1 W) (see curve (ii) in Figure 8). In this case, one should take into account that the UV irradiation is constant over its length, and the gradient temperature is due to the fact that the optical signal is reflected as it penetrates into the grating. A sharp increment of temperature at the beginning of the grating, at the extreme that is illuminated, can be observed. The maximum is located at the vicinities of the point where the FBG begins. The decay of temperature extends over a length of \n
In the previous section, the gradient of temperature induced in fiber-optic components by means of an illumination signal has been characterized and discussed. It has been shown that there is a difference in temperature between the sections that have been irradiated with UV light compared to the pristine fibers. It is well known that the UV irradiation induces a change in the index of photosensitive fibers, which is employed to fabricate FBGs and LPGs. According to Kramers-Kronig relations, the change in the refractive index is associated with a variation of the absorption coefficient. In addition, the exposure of the fiber to the levels of UV light usually employed in the grating fabrication induces mechanical deformations in the fiber [27]. This leads to an increase of the loss due to scattering. Thus, when a fiber is UV irradiated, its loss, \n
The increase of \n
Different types of photosensitive fibers were studied [11]: (i) Fibercore PS980, (ii) Fibercore PS1250, (iii) Fibercore SM1500, and (iv) Corning SMF28; this fiber was hydrogenated for 15 days (pressure: 30 bar) to increase its photosensitivity. The setup used in the experiments was the same than in the previous experiments shown in this chapter. In this case, the FUTs were short sections of the different fibers, which were exposed to a UV fluence of 150 J/mm2. Similar temperature profiles to that shown in Figure 7a were obtained for all of them, but with different temperature increments, since the photosensitivity was also different for each of them.
\nThe different increases of temperature between the irradiated fiber and the pristine fiber will provide us information to quantify the variation in the \n
where \n
Thus, with this analysis and the experimental data obtained from the measurement of the wavelength shift of WGM resonances in irradiated points (1) and pristine points (2) of the FUT, this ratio between the respective \n
Direct measurements of transmission loss variation as the fibers were irradiated were carried out for a PS980 fiber. First, the value of the loss of the pristine fiber was measured at 1550 nm by means of the cutback method: the obtained value was \n
(a) Direct measurement of the loss as the PS980 fiber is irradiated. (b) Heating of the PS980 fiber as a function of the illumination power.
The contribution to the loss by means of the absorption mechanism was measured using the WGM technique (see Figure 9b). In this case, a 1550 nm laser (maximum power, 1 W) was launched to the FUT, and the thermal shift of the resonances was measured as the laser power was increased, at two different points, one within the irradiated section and one outside it. The data does not show any sign of saturation of the heating, at this range of power. The temperature of the irradiated section increased linearly, at a rate of \n
This process was repeated for all the different fibers mentioned before: PS1250, SM1500, and hydrogenated SMF28, at 1550. Table 1 includes the results from the measurements and the corresponding analysis: \n
\n | WGM technique | \nDirect measurements | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n|||
Irradiated | \nPristine | \nIrradiated | \nPristine | \n|||
PS980 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
PS1250 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
SM1500 | \n>401 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n1.954 | \n
H2-SMF28 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \nn/a2 | \n\n\n | \nn/a1 | \n
Measurement of thermal heating and loss coefficient of different fibers.
Nonavailable.
Below detection limit.
Cutback measurement.
Nominal value.
The results, compiled in Table 1, allow establishing several conclusions of interest. First, as expected, the absorption coefficient is substantially increased due to the UV irradiation. As a consequence, even for signals of moderate powers, FBGs might experience shifts and chirps that should be taken into account [31]. Second, the results show that \n
Finally, Eq. (6) can be used to calculate the absolute value of the absorption and scattering coefficients by taking into account the values of h and a for a silica fiber [25] and the measurements of \n
\n | \n\n | \n\n\n | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Irradiated | \nPristine | \nIrradiated | \nPristine | \n|
PS980 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
PS1250 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
SM1500 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
H2-SMF28 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \nn/a2 | \n
Absorption and scattering contributions to the overall attenuation coefficient.
Nominal value.
Nonavailable, hydrogenated fiber.
Thus, by means of the combination of both techniques, it is possible to quantify the different contributions to the loss, even for short sections of fiber. This information might be useful, for example, in the design of novel-active doped fibers, since it is possible to evaluate if the doping technique increases the scattering loss unnecessarily, but not so much the absorption.
\nThe elasto-optic effect consists on the variation in the refractive index generated by any strain applied to the fiber. The correspondent elasto-optic coefficients are usually determined by measuring the optical activity induced by a mechanical twist and the phase change induced by longitudinal strain [32, 33]. This technique relies on the use of the conventional axial modes propagating through the fiber. Since these modes are essentially transverse to the axis of the fiber [34], the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect does not show up. On the contrary, WGMs have a significant longitudinal component; hence, their optical fields experience the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect intrinsically. In the last years, researchers have demonstrated a number of fiber devices in which the longitudinal components of the electromagnetic modes are significant, such as microfibers [35] and microstructured optical fibers with a high air-filling fraction [36]. For these cases, the measurement and characterization of the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect and its Pockels coefficients are of high interest. Roselló-Mechó et al. reported a technique based on the different wavelength shifts of TE- and TM-WGM resonances in a fiber under axial strain, to measure these coefficients [37]. This technique has the additional advantage that, since it does not involve the conventional modes of the fiber, there is no need that the FUTs are single mode in order to carry out the measurements. Then, the coefficients can be measured at different wavelengths to determine their dispersion; this is a limitation of the usual technique based on the optical activity which is overcome by means of WGM technique [38].
\nAccording to Eq. (1), a variation in the refractive index will tune the WGM resonances in wavelength. In this case, an axial strain will be applied to the FUT in order to induce this variation in the index, due to the elasto-optic effect. This feature was applied in different works in order to tune the WGM resonances [39, 40]. However, there was not any mention to the different behaviors of TE- and TM-WGM.
\nAn axial strain introduces a refractive index perturbation in an isotropic, cylindrical MR, due to the elasto-optic effect, which will be different for the axial (\n
where \n
The refractive index perturbation is not the only factor to take into account when evaluating the wavelength shift of WGM resonances due to strain: the radius a of the MR also varies with it according to Poisson’s ratio, \n
With all these ideas in mind, the relative shift of the WGM resonances, \n
(a) Wavelength shift of TE-/TM-WGM resonances for \n\nε\n=\n330\n\n \n\nμε\n\n. (b) Measurement of the wavelength shift as a function of the strain.
The measurements were repeated at 1064 nm, to study the dispersion of the elasto-optic effect. Results at both wavelengths are compiled in Table 3 and are compared with those reported in the literature. Both sets of measurements are in good agreement, and the small differences might be due to the fact that the technique based in WGM measures the \n
\n | Present work | \nLiterature | \n|
---|---|---|---|
1531 nm | \n1064 nm | \n||
\n\n | \n0.116 | \n0.131 | \n0.113 @ 633 nm [32] | \n
0.121 @ 633 nm [41] | \n|||
\n\n | \n0.255 | \n0.267 | \n0.252 @ 633 nm [32] | \n
0.270 @ 633 nm [41] | \n
Comparison of experimental \n
In this chapter, we described a technique based on the excitation of WGMs around cylindrical MRs, to measure properties of the MR material. The resonant nature of the WGMs confers this technique with high sensitivity and low detection limits. Also, the technique allows measuring these parameters with axial resolution; hence, it is possible to detect changes of the parameters point to point along the MR.
\nThe technique has been applied to different experiments. Mainly, thermo-optic effect and elasto-optic effect have been investigated in silica fibers. The variation in the index, due to a change in the temperature or strain, rules the shift in wavelength of the WGM resonances. When the technique was applied to different types of fibers and components, different information were obtained from the experiments. In particular, we measure temperature profiles in pumped, rare-earth doped fibers and in FBGs; the absorption coefficient in irradiated photosensitive fibers; and the Pockels coefficients in telecom fibers. Novel results were obtained: for example, it was possible to measure absorption and scattering loss coefficients separately, and, also, the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect was observed experimentally. The information provided by the WGM-based technique might help to optimize the fabrication procedures of doped fibers and fiber components as FBGs or LPGs.
\nThis work was funded by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain and FEDER funds (Ref: TEC2016-76664-C2-1-R) and Generalitat Valenciana (Ref: PROMETEOII/2014/072), Universitat de València (UV-INV-AE16-485280). X. Roselló-Mechó’s contract is funded by the FPI program (MinECo, Spain, BES-2014-068607). E. Rivera-Pérez’s contract is funded by the Postdoctoral Stays in Foreigner Countries (291121, CONACYT, Mexico).
\nWetland is a unique and distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail, and the primary distinctive factor of wetlands from other landforms or water bodies is the occurrence of adaptive vegetation of aquatic plants, characteristic to the unique hydric soil [1, 2]. The modified form of wetland is termed “constructed wetland.” Constructed wetlands for water treatment are complex, integrated systems of water, plants, animals, microorganisms, and the environment [3, 4]. Wetlands play a number of functions, including water purification, water storage, processing and recycling of carbon and other micro and macro nutrients, stabilization of shorelines, and support of plants and animals. While wetlands are generally reliable, self-adjusting systems, an understanding of how natural wetlands are structured and how they function greatly increases the likelihood of successfully constructing a wetland treatment system [5, 6].
\nThe cleansing of water has always occurred through natural processes as the water flows through rivers, lakes, streams, and wetlands, and in the last several decades, systems have been constructed to use some of these processes for water quality improvement [7]. Wetlands are now highly preferred as systems for improving the quality of point and nonpoint sources of water pollution, including stormwater runoff, domestic wastewater, agricultural wastewater, as well as coal mine drainage [4]. To enhance sustainability in wastewater management, the use of constructed wetlands has been applied in the treatment of different forms of wastes. Artificially created wetlands have been successful in the treatment of petroleum refinery wastes, wastes from sugar factory, leachates from landfills and composts, wastes from aquaculture systems, wastes from pulp and paper mills, and wastes that emanate from slaughter houses, textile mills, and plants that process sea food. Under the management of these wastes, the constructed wetlands can serve as the sole treatment or may be part of an integrated wastewater treatment system [8].
\nAntimicrobial resistance (AMR) is defined as the ability of a microbe to resist the effects of medication that was once successful and efficient in treating the microbe [9]. The term antibiotic resistance (ABR) is a subset of AMR, as it applies only to bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics. The AR phenotypes can arise within a microorganism through the lateral and horizontal gene transfers and mutation. The mutations of the chromosomal DNA alter the existing bacterial proteins, through transformation, resulting in the creation of mosaic proteins and/or as a result of the transfer and acquisition of new genetic material between bacteria of the same or different species or genera [10]. The emerging pollutants in forms of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have remained prevalent in aquatic environments such as wetlands that receive ARG-loaded sewage [11].
\nAs much as the use of constructed wetland has been recommended in the treatment of various forms of wastewater, the system efficiency is a factor of very many natural and artificial factors, with the emerging pollutants and contaminants such as resistant genes being the most complicated contaminants to eliminate through the system [11, 12]. Moreover, some studies have reported constructed wetlands as reservoirs to various forms of resistant genes, which trap them and release them to other aquatic systems, hence contributing to their higher concentration in streams, rivers, or lakes [13]. Numerous suggestions have been provided to improve wetland’s functional effect, efficiency, and predictability and provide a proper ecosystem management [6, 7]. This chapter covers a discussion on the constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment and the challenges of emerging related contaminants, such as resistant genes, and provides recommendation for the proper handling and removal of such wastes from the wetland’s functional system.
\nWetlands are ecotones/transitional areas between land and water, with indistinct boundaries between the wetland area and uplands or deep water [14]. The definition expansion of the term wetland covers a broad range of systems that range from marshes, bogs, swamps, wet meadows, tidal wetlands, floodplains, and ribbon (riparian) zones along stream channels. However, all wetlands, whether they are natural or artificial, freshwater, or salty, pose a single characteristic or numerous characteristics, and they occur within the surface or near-surface water, whether they are permanently or temporarily submerged under water [15]. In most wetlands, hydrologic conditions are such that the substrate is saturated long enough during the growing season, a mechanism that creates oxygen-poor conditions in the substrate, limiting the vegetation to those species that are adapted to low-oxygen environments [16].
\nWetlands provide a number of functions and benefits. Wetland functions are inherent processes occurring in wetlands; wetland values are the attributes of wetlands that society perceives as beneficial [17]. The wetland hydrology is generally one of slow flows with either shallow waters or saturated substrates, which allows sediments and other pollutants, including emerging contaminants to settle as the water passes through the wetland system. The occurrence of slow flows provides prolonged contact times between the water and the surfaces within the wetland [15]. The wetland treatment mechanisms are anchored on the complex mass of organic and inorganic materials, with diverse opportunities for gas/water interchanges, which foster a diverse community of microorganisms that break down or transform a wide variety of substances [7]. Within the wetland’s ecosystems, there are dense growths of vascular plants adapted to saturated conditions, which slow the water, create microenvironments within the water column, and provide attachment sites for the microbial communities as well as other contaminants. The litter that accumulates as plants die back in the fall creates additional material and exchange sites and provides a source of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous to fuel microbial processes [18].
\nEven though, not all wetlands can perform all functions and values, majority of them provide several benefits. When subjected to appropriate ecological management without any threats, majority of wetlands can provide the following:
Water quality services
Flood storage services under excessive precipitation and the desynchronization of storm
Nutrients and other materials cycling services
Habitat for fish and wildlife
Services for passive recreation, such as bird watching and photography
Services for active recreation, such as hunting education and research
Services for esthetics and landscape enhance merit
A constructed wetland is an artificial shallow basin filled with substrate, usually soil or gravel, and planted with vegetation that has tolerance to saturated conditions. Water is then directed into the system from one end and flows over the surface (surface flow) or through the substrate (subsurface flow) and gets discharged from the other end at the lower point through a weir or other structure, which controls the depth of the water in the wetland [11]. Several forms of constructed wetlands have been introduced, including surface flow wetlands, subsurface flow wetlands, and hybrid systems that integrate surface and subsurface flow wetland types [6, 19]. Constructed wetland systems can also be combined with conventional treatment technologies to provide higher treatment efficiency [8]. The choice of constructed wetland types depends on the existing environmental conditions and how appropriate they are for domestic wastewater, agricultural wastewater, coal mine drainage, and stormwater [6].
\nConstructed wetlands have been widely used in the treatment of primary or secondary domestic sewage effluents, and others have been used to treat domestic wastewater and have also been modeled to handle high organic loads associated with agriculture or domestic wastewater [5]. A large number of constructed wetlands have also been built to treat drainage from active and abandoned coal mines [20]. The constructed wetland technology has recently been used in the control and management of stormwater flows, and its application in reducing the impacts by stormwater floods within urban areas is expanding globally [21]. The constructed wetland technology is not only preferred in stormwater flow control but also in the treatment of wastewater, and its preference is based on its low cost, low energy requirement, and need for minimal operational attention and skills. Due to its numerous merits and high sustainability potential, there is an increasing extensive research on its practical application to expand the knowledge on its operation and to provide more insight on its appropriate design, performance, operation, and maintenance for optimum environmental benefits. Even though the constructed wetlands are sturdy and effective systems, their performance depends on the periodic improvements to handle emerging contaminants such as antibiotic and antibacterial resistant genes, and for them to remain effective, they must be carefully designed, constructed, operated, and maintained [11, 12].
\nConstructed wetland is a system that puts together different units that work together to ensure that its intended purpose is achieved. Constructed wetland systems entail a properly designed and constructed basin that holds water, a substrate that provides filtration pathways, habitat/growth media for the needed organisms, and also communities of microbes and aquatic invertebrates, which in most cases develop naturally. Most importantly, constructed wetlands also hold vascular plants whose nature depends on the intended purification role and efficiency. The efficiency of the constructed wetlands in waste treatment depends on the interaction and maintenance of these components [22].
\nIn a constructed wetland system, natural geochemical and biological processes within a wetland realm are involved in the treatment of metals, explosives, and other contaminants that exist within the water. Normally, there are three primary components in a constructed wetland. Constructed wetland has an impermeable layer (generally clay). It also has a gravel layer that acts as a substrate needed for the provision of nutrients and support to the root zone. It also has an above-surface vegetation zone [16]. The impermeable layer within the constructed wetland system prevents infiltration of wastes down into underground aquifers. The gravel layer and root zone comprise of a layer where water flows and bioremediation and denitrification occur. The above-ground vegetative layer contains the well-adopted plant material. Within the wetlands, both the aerobic and anaerobic processes occur, and these can be divided into separate cells [5, 16]. Groundwater can be made to flow through pumping or naturally by gravity through the wetland. Within the anaerobic cells, plants and other natural microbes are involved in the degradation of the contaminant. The aerobic cell performs the work of further improving the water quality through continued exposure to the plants and the movement of water between cell compartments. The use of straw, manure, or compost with little or no soil substrate has been beneficial in the wetlands constructed primarily for the removal of metals. However, for wetlands constructed to treat explosives-contaminated water, certain plant species are used to enhance the degradation through a process termed phytoremediation [23].
\nWetlands are formed on substrates that are fully or partially submerged in water, where a relatively impermeable subsurface layer prevents the surface water from seeping into the ground [1, 2]. These conditions can be created with few modifications to form a constructed wetland. A constructed wetland can be built almost anywhere in the landscape by shaping the land surface to collect the surface water and by sealing the basin to retain the water [7]. Hydrology that enhances the linking of all the functions in a wetland system stands as the most important design factor to be considered in constructed wetlands, as it is often the primary factor in the success or failure of most constructed wetlands. Therefore, planning and putting up of constructed wetlands require the contribution of a qualified hydrologist to ensure that all the hydrological requirements and conditions are taken care of [24]. Even though the hydrology of most constructed wetlands is very much similar to the other surface and near-surface water, it does differ in several important respects. Small changes in hydrology can have fairly significant effects on a wetland’s functionality and its treatment effectiveness and efficiency. Indeed, due to the large surface area of the water and its shallow depth, a wetland system interacts strongly with the atmosphere through rainfall and evapotranspiration. This (the combined loss of water by evaporation from the water surface and loss through transpiration by plants) and the density of the vegetation of a wetland strongly affect the constructed wetlands’ hydrology. This can be experienced through the obstruction of water flow paths as the water finds its sinuous way through the network of stems, leaves, roots, and rhizomes, and it can also occur through the blockage of exposure to wind and sun [7, 24, 25]. Water always acts as a vehicle for delivering the pollutants to the system and also for discharging the untapped pollutants away from the system [24].
\nSubstrates for constructed wetlands can come in the form of sediment or litter. Substrates used to construct wetlands include soil, sand, gravel, rock, and organic materials such as compost [26]. Due to low water velocities and high productivity typical of wetlands, the sediment and litter accumulation occurs within the wetlands. The substrates, sediments, and litter have numerous functions that are beneficial to the efficiency of the constructed wetlands. They provide support to many of the living organisms in wetlands, and the substrate permeability also affects the movement of water through the wetland and provides numerous chemical and biological processes, many of which are microbial in nature and also enhance the transformation of pollutants within the substrates. The substrates also provide storage for many contaminants, and the accumulation of litter increases the amount of organic matter in the wetland, which provides sites for material exchange and microbial attachment. Through this process, carbon source is realized as well as the energy source that drives some of the important biological reactions in wetlands.
\nFlooding of the constructed wetlands with water has a contribution in its functional mechanism. The physical and chemical characteristics of soils and other substrates are altered when they are wholly or partially under water. For example, under saturated substrate, the water replaces the atmospheric gases within the pore spaces and the microbial-driven metabolism results in the consumption of the available oxygen. Therefore, since oxygen is consumed more rapidly than it can be replaced by diffusion from the atmosphere, the substrates change to anoxic condition (without oxygen). Such conditions become significant in the removal of pollutants such as nitrogen and metals. However, substrates can also act as reservoirs for most contaminants, with high concentration of emerging contaminants such as resistant genes being detected in the constructed wetland substrates [27, 28].
\nConstructed wetlands can work with both the vascular plants (the higher plants) and nonvascular plants (algae), and the photosynthesis process by algae increases the dissolved oxygen content of the water which in turn affects nutrients and metals [18, 29]. Constructed wetlands also attract large organisms such as birds which can feed on contaminants. Additionally, they form attachment surfaces for other protozoans and other microorganisms such as zooplanktons, phytoplanktons, and bacterioplanktons which also aid in the elimination of pollutants and contaminants [30, 31]. Vegetation acts as the main trapping and retention points for most contaminants. Studies have continued to detect a high concentration of emerging contaminants such as resistant genes within the root systems of most constructed wetland vegetations [11, 32].
\nConstructed wetlands’ performance is also a factor of other life-forms. Organisms within the wetlands include microorganisms and other larger animals. The regulation functions by the microorganisms and their metabolism processes are the fundamental functions of the wetlands systems [33]. The microorganisms are varied in species and possess the required adaptions to drive the functions of the wetland systems. The known significant microorganisms include bacteria, yeasts, fungi, protozoa, and rind algae. The biomass generated from these microbes (microbial biomass) forms a major useful sink for organic carbon and many nutrients. Additionally, the microbial activities also transform a great number of organic and inorganic substances into innocuous or insoluble substances as well as alter the reduction/oxidation (redox) conditions of the substrate, and thus not only affect the processing capacity of the wetland but also enhance the recycling of nutrients. Some microbial transformation processes are aerobic as they require free oxygen to occur, while others are anaerobic as they occur under the absence of free oxygen. However, most of the bacterial species are also facultative anaerobes in nature. These groups are capable of functioning under the constructed wetland conditions of either aerobic or anaerobic in response to changing environmental conditions [6, 34].
\nThe level of water within a constructed system is crucial to the microbial activities, and microbial populations undergo adjustments to changes in the water delivered to them. Populations of microbes can rapidly expand under the condition of suitable energy-containing materials. However, when environmental conditions become unsuitable, many microorganisms become dormant and can remain dormant for years [35]. The microbial community of a constructed wetland can be affected by toxic substances, such as pesticides and heavy metals, and care must be taken to prevent such chemicals from being introduced at damaging concentrations. The biodiversity with the constructed wetlands is rich, and this is based on the favorable habitat that the system provides to different forms of organisms, which range from animals to plants, including invertebrates and vertebrates. The invertebrate animals, which include insects and worms, contribute to the treatment process by actively fragmenting detritus and consuming organic matter [36]. Additionally, the larvae of many insects are also aquatic and they undertake the consumption of a significant amount of material during their larval stages, which may last for several years in most insect species. The invertebrates also perform a number of ecological roles; for example, dragonfly nymphs have been confirmed to be important predators of mosquito larvae which results in biocontrol of malaria in most waterlogged areas. Despite invertebrates being the most important animals as far as water quality improvement is concerned, constructed wetlands also harbor a variety of amphibians, turtles, birds, and mammals, all of which are important in the systems’ ecological balancing [37].
\nThe mechanisms that are available to improve water quality within a constructed wetland system are numerous and often interrelated. The mechanisms involve the settling of suspended particulate matter; the filtration and chemical precipitation through contact of the water with the substrate and litter; chemical transformation; adsorption and ion exchange on the surfaces of plants, substrate, sediment, and litter; the breakdown and transformation of pollutants by microorganisms and plants uptake; and transformation of nutrients by microorganisms and plants as well as the predation and natural die-off of pathogens [36]. The removal can be undertaken biologically through microbiological degradation through catabolism and anabolism, protozoic predation and digestion, and through plant uptake and storage; chemically through adsorption (ionic and covalent) oxidation, reduction, and UV degradation and physically through filtration and settlement, which filters some materials and degrades others [38, 39, 40].
\nConstructed wetland treatment technology incorporates the principal components of wetland ecosystems that promote degradation and control of contaminants by plants, degradation by microbial activity, and increased sorption, filtering, and precipitation [38, 39, 40]. The treatment need dictates the nature of technology required and requires proper selection of designs, such as surface or subsurface flow, single or multiple cells, and parallel or series flow. Putting up of constructed wetland systems are sometimes part of a treatment train that integrates processes in series such as settling ponds, oil/water separators, and physical/chemical treatment methods. The removal mechanisms within the constructed wetlands can act uniquely, sequentially, or simultaneously on each contaminant group or species [3, 4]. For instance, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in contaminated groundwater are primarily eliminated through the integrative physical mechanism of diffusion-volatilization. Further to this, mechanisms such as adsorption to suspended matter, photochemical oxidation, and biological degradation may also play a role. Within a constructed wetland treatment system, physical removal mechanisms of contaminants include settling, sedimentation, and volatilization. Gravitational settling is responsible for most of the removal of suspended solids. The most effective treatment wetlands are those that foster these mechanisms.
\nThe long-term effectiveness of constructed wetlands to contain or treat some contaminants is not well known. Wetland aging may contribute to a decrease in contaminant removal rates over time. However, constructed wetlands are a cost-effective and technically feasible approach to treating wastewater and runoff for several reasons [41].
\nConstructed wetlands’ demerits outweigh the merits. Some of the merits are that they can be less expensive and more affordable to build than other forms of treatments, their cost of operation and maintenance (required supplies and energy) are low, and the operation and maintenance only require periodic and not continuous on-site labor. Furthermore, the constructed wetlands are able to tolerate fluctuations in flow, they sustainably facilitate water recycling and reuse, they provide favorable habitat for many wetland organisms, and the system can be built to fit harmoniously into the landscape. Constructed wetlands have the ability to provide numerous benefits in addition to water quality improvement, such as wildlife habitat that supports tourism and other sporting, and they enhance the esthetic enhancement of open spaces. Therefore, due to all the above economic, ecological, and esthetic benefits, constructed wetlands are environmentally sensitive treatment approaches that are viewed with favor by the general public [42].
\nThe use of constructed wetlands is also subject to limitations that are associated with the use and putting up of the system. Compared to conventional wastewater treatment systems, constructed wetlands generally require larger land areas. Even though wetland treatment may be economical relative to other options, this only applies to where land is available and affordable. The constructed wetland’s performance efficiency may be less consistent as compared to the conventional treatment. The treatment efficiency of constructed wetlands may vary; this variation may be seasonal in response to changing environmental conditions, including rainfall and drought or spatial in relation to the existing weather conditions in different places. While the average performance over the year may be acceptable, but due to such fluctuations in performance efficiency, wetland treatment cannot be relied upon if the effluent quality must meet stringent discharge standards at all times. The biological components are always sensitive to toxic chemicals, such as ammonia, and other pesticides that are periodically flushed or surged by the flowing water, and this may temporarily reduce treatment effectiveness and reduce the efficiency. For proper survival and improved efficiency, constructed wetlands also require a minimum amount of water. While wetlands can tolerate temporary drawdowns, they cannot withstand complete drying and some plants in it can also not tolerate complete submergence [1]. The use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and stormwater control is a fairly recent development. There is yet no consensus on the optimal design of wetland systems, nor is there much information on their long-term performance. Furthermore, its ability and potential to eliminate emerging contaminants such as resistant genes have not been fully realized [32].
\nAntibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) originate from hospitals, wastewater treatment plants effluents and sewage sludge, and animal slurry in farmland. Soils, surface water (e.g., seas and rivers), and sediments are contaminated by these large arrays of antibiotic resistance genes [43]. Resistant genes are the major courses of antibiotic resistance, which is one of the upcoming crucial concerns to global health care with considerable effect in rising morbidity, mortality, and costs associated with major public health problems. Antimicrobial resistance occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes. However, the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials is accelerating this process [44]. Horizontal and lateral gene transfers have greatly contributed to the increasing number of drug-resistant pathogens within the environment (Figure 1).
\nThe transfer of resistant genes between resistant and nonresistant microbes.
Antibiotic resistance has the potential to affect people at any stage of life as well as the health-care, veterinary, and agriculture industries, making it one of the world’s most urgent environmental and public health problems. [45]. Its chain of spread spans from contaminated wastewater discharges from the hospitals to the consumption of contaminated food material (Figure 2). The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant genes in the environment is considered one of the most urgent threats to modern health care and environmental quality and safety. It is often assumed that the abundance and diversity of known resistance genes are representative also for the non-characterized fraction of the resistome in a given environment [46]. Antibiotic resistance genes are ubiquitous in the environment, which has led to the suggestion that there is a high risk these genes can cause in the spread of the disease [46, 47].
\nResistant genes contamination pathways.
Constructed wetlands, though designed to remove and eliminate pollutants from wastewater, can also be the hot spots for horizontal or vertical gene transfer, enabling the spread of antibiotic resistance genes between different microorganisms. Antibiotic resistance occurs due to changes or mutations in the DNA of the microorganism, or due to the acquisition of antibiotic resistance genes from other microbial species through gene transfer. The transfer of genetic materials between unrelated individuals is termed horizontal gene transfer, while the transfer of genetic materials from parent to their offspring is termed vertical gene transfer [48]. Horizontal gene transfer is the major source of ARGs as well as the emergence of pathogenic forms of microorganisms with new virulence [11, 12]. Constructed wetlands being the reservoir for various strains and species of microorganisms may provide the media for such transfers to occur, hence contributing to problems of drug resistance [11]. There is rising concern due to the wide presence of antibiotics in the constructed wetlands, as it not only causes serious toxic effects on organisms but also promotes the spread of antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs), even with low concentrations in the environment. ARGs being spread through horizontal or vertical gene transfers can also be spread and maintained in microbial populations, even without selection pressure from antibiotics, and wetlands systems provide favorable transfer grounds [12].
\nThe recognition that the environment could serve as a source for resistance genes to human pathogens has spurred interest in investigating the distribution of resistance genes in various environments to better understand the process [10, 32]. Wastewater and wastewater treatment plants such as constructed wetlands can act as reservoirs and environmental suppliers of antibiotic resistance through filtration and load of resistant genes into the aquatic ecosystems [13]. Indeed, wastewater has been confirmed to be the major route by which the antimicrobials, ARBs, and ARGs are introduced into the natural ecosystem from the human settings. Although wastewater treatment plants such as the constructed wetlands significantly reduce the load of bacteria, the final effluents may contain ARBs, sometimes even at higher concentrations than in the raw wastewater [11, 12].
\nConsiderable research has been conducted on the behavior and fate of ARBs and ARGs discharged from different forms of wastewater to soil through the application of animal manure wastewater irrigation and to aquatic environments through wastewater discharge and runoff. The impact of discharging ARGs in treated wastewater to aquatic systems as well as associated ARG amplification and attenuation dynamics has neither been adequately researched nor discussed. Indeed, intracellular and free ARGs in surface and groundwater can propagate through horizontal gene transfer to indigenous pathogenic microbes. Furthermore, these ARBs may eventually reach and colonize humans through multiple pathways resulting in acute infections or long-term silent colonization that can eventually evolve into an infection [13].
\nThere are various routes through which the antibiotic-resistant genes can enter the environment. One major route is when the antibiotic-resistant pathogens and associated metabolites are released from hospitals through urine and feces from patients as hospital wastewater. After the release, the effluent physical chemical characteristics and the prevailing environmental factors determine the biodegradation, adsorption, and uptake processes of these drug-resistant pathogens and related genes, eventually shaping the abundance and diversity of the available drug-resistant bacteria. Similarly, antibiotics may be released into the wastewater treatment system via people taking antibiotics from home (Figure 3). From the wastewater treatment plants, the antibiotics can load into sludge, which are later dispersed on fields as fertilizer or released as runoff directly into the receiving surface water [49, 50]. Further to this, wastewater can also be treated by releasing it into constructed wetlands. In such cases, the constructed wetlands will be exposed to antibiotic contaminants from the wastewater. Even though the constructed wetland is expected to filter all the contaminants, including the drug-resistant pathogens and related genes, that is always not the case, the receiving effluents may still receive some amount of drug-resistant pathogens and related genes as effluent loads from the constructed wetland system. Additionally, antibiotics are also used therapeutically or as growth promoters in livestock and poultry. Antibiotics and their metabolites can spread through animal excrements and end up in the treatment systems such as the constructed wetlands, which can eventually release the treated effluents into the fields and groundwater, or in the case of antibiotic use in fish farms, directly into the aquatic environment. It is also worth noting that wherever antibiotics are spread, it is also likely that resistant bacteria follow the same routes of dispersal [51, 52]. Due to these interactions and movements of the drug-resistant pathogens and related genes, there have been increased levels of antibiotics, ARGs, and drug-resistant bacteria within the environment. Furthermore, the environmental bacterial flora which also harbor ARGs and potential ARGs continue to increase within the receiving aquatic environments. Therefore, these types of environments are the likely resistance hot spots where ARGs proliferate and new resistant strains are created by and transferred to other parts of the environment. Due to the increased spread of drug-resistant bacteria and related genes, the routes by which humans come into contact with these bacteria are also increasing. These may include consumption of crops grown by contaminated sludge used as fertilizer, drinking of water drawn from contaminated groundwater or surface water, and frolicking in marine water linked to contaminated surface water. When these resistant bacteria enter humans, they have the opportunity to spread their ARGs to the human microbiome and, through constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment, the cycle repeats [50, 53].
\nContribution of constructed wetland in the ARG removal and reloading.
While ARGs in their environmental context may originally have had other primary functions aside from conferring resistance to antibiotics, these genes have now been recruited as resistance genes in pathogenic bacteria. Reuse of treated wastewater is increasingly seen as one of the solutions to tackle the water scarcity problem and to limit the pollution load to surface water. Yet, using reclaimed water for non-potable purposes and particularly to irrigate food crops presents an exposure pathway for antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria and genes (ARB & G) to enter the human food chain. Wastewater reuse is currently of particular concern as the potential source of selective pressure that elevates the levels of antibiotic resistance in native bacteria [54]. Aquatic ecosystems are considered important matrices for the release, mixing, persistence, and spread of ARBs and ARGs associated with horizontally transferable genetic elements [11, 12]. Presently, existing regulations give little attention to the protection and management of wetlands, making them to increasingly get exposed to resistant gene-loaded human excreta, raw sewage, untreated wastewater, and other pollutants from diverse sources, making natural and constructed wetlands to be the potential reservoirs of ARBs carrying ARGs that might spread to microbes as well as man [55].
\nThe knowledge on antibiotic resistance in wastewater has continued to expand, but proper management for complete elimination with zero reloading into the environment has not been achieved. Indeed, in the past few years, introduction of high-tech molecular studies has increased the understanding on this study subject. However, there are still numerous gaps on the subject, such as how active are horizontal and lateral gene transfers in wastewater, what are the specific main driving factors to the transfer mechanisms, and what is the role of the wastewater treatment plants in increasing the spread of drug-resistant microbes. Indeed, even though constructed wetlands have been commercially used to control and degrade municipal and industrial wastewater, there is need for caution on how exotic wastes such as explosives and those that harbor resistant genes are handled by these systems. With the growing concerns that environmental concentrations of antibiotics exert a selective pressure on clinically relevant bacteria, for the control of such acute strains, there is need for a major shift toward a more localized management of the water cycle, pioneering low-cost wastewater treatment technologies, and more efficient monitoring strategies based on a limited number of indicators that would facilitate the assessment of the anthropogenic impact on the water cycle. Furthermore, there is need to better understand the dispersion processes and the fate of pathogenic and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment, in order to prevent risks to humans and their environment, while also controlling and reducing as much as possible the anthropogenic bacterial input into the environment.
\nThe authors appreciate Egerton University for providing review materials and an opportunity to produce this chapter.
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