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",isbn:"978-1-83969-234-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-233-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-235-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a5f5277a1c0616ce6b35f4b44a4cac7a",bookSignature:"Dr. Basel I. Ismail",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10013.jpg",keywords:"Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer Analyses, Geothermal Power Generation, Economics, Geothermal Systems, Geothermal Heat Pump, Green Energy Buildings, Exploration Methods, Geologic Fundamentals, Geotechnical, Geothermal System Materials, Sustainability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Leading research investigator in a collaborative project (2007-2010) with Goldcorp-Musselwhite Canada Ltd. and Engineering of Lakehead University, owner of a Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada and postdoctoral researcher (2004 to 2005) at McMaster University.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"62122",title:"Dr.",name:"Basel",middleName:"I.",surname:"Ismail",slug:"basel-ismail",fullName:"Basel Ismail",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62122/images/system/62122.jpg",biography:"Dr. B. Ismail is currently an Associate Professor and Chairman of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. In 2004, Prof. Ismail earned his Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. From 2004 to 2005, he worked as a Postdoctoral researcher at McMaster University. His specialty is in engineering heat transfer, engineering thermodynamics, and energy conversion and storage engineering. Dr. Ismail’s research activities are theoretical and applied in nature. Currently, his research areas of interest are focused on green engineering technologies related to alternative and renewable energy systems for power generation, heating and cooling. Dr. Ismail was the leading research investigator in a collaborative project (2007-2010) with Goldcorp-Musselwhite Canada Ltd. and Engineering of Lakehead University. This innovative project was state-of-the-art in geothermal heat pump technology applied in Northwestern Ontario, Canada. Dr. Ismail has published many technical reports and articles related to his research areas in reputable International Journals and Conferences. During his research activities, Dr. Ismail has supervised and trained many graduate students and senior undergraduate students in Mechanical Engineering with projects and theses related to innovative renewable and alternative energy engineering, and technologies.",institutionString:"Lakehead University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Lakehead University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5084",title:"Advances in Geothermal Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d4647f1f9dae170acf327283d55abbf1",slug:"advances-in-geothermal-energy",bookSignature:"Basel I. Ismail",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5084.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62122",title:"Dr.",name:"Basel",surname:"Ismail",slug:"basel-ismail",fullName:"Basel Ismail"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5602",title:"Renewable Hydropower Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"15ea891d96b6c9f2d3f28d5a21c09203",slug:"renewable-hydropower-technologies",bookSignature:"Basel I. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"62754",title:"Melatonin and Exercise: Their Effects on Malondialdehyde and Lipid Peroxidation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79561",slug:"melatonin-and-exercise-their-effects-on-malondialdehyde-and-lipid-peroxidation",body:'\nMelatonin is an omnipresent molecule that has various functional activities in plants and animals [1]. It is possibly associated with longevity in which their dysfunction is what initiates the aging process [2, 3]. Melatonin was secreted by pinecone-like gland that is deeply placed in the brain which is called the “pineal gland.” This gland has sympathetic innervation as its main sources due to its special location in the brain [2]. The pineal gland is a tranquilizing organ leading to a high melatonin production in response to darkness. Serotonin (made from tryptophan) through the cascade of enzymatic reactions produces melatonin with chemical name N-acetyl-5-methoxy tryptamine. This gland is located outside the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and has large uptake of tryptophan which produces high melatonin levels [2]. This hormone is mostly secreted at night and results in sleep regulation, signaling the time of the day that acts as chronological pacemaker, and participates in various physiological functions.
\nMelatonin is a strong free radical scavenger which reduces nitric oxide (NO) generation within mitochondria. NO strongly interferes with components of the respiratory chain in the mitochondria [4, 5]. Melatonin has two direct and indirect antioxidant capacities, which directly scavenges free radicals and indirectly regulates the activity of antioxidant enzymes. When melatonin interacts with the toxic reactants, several metabolites are generated which per se act as direct free radical scavengers such as N1-acetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine (AFMK) [6]. Melatonin impacts toxic radicals and breaks them down, eliminates reactive oxygen species-induced H2O2 (one of the most important reactive oxygen species or ROS), acts on uncoupling proteins (UCPs), and decreases body heat production [7, 8]. Moreover, as melatonin decreases NO generation, melatonin leads to mitochondria function development, and due to increase in the mitochondria respiration, the ATP production and electron transportation increase as well [5, 9, 10].
\nTo have a glance at the other importance of melatonin, we pointed to neurodegenerative diseases. Melatonin production in aged individuals declines and is known as the primary contributing factor for aged-related neurodegenerative diseases. Also, hypoxia, hypoglycemia, viruses, drug neurotoxicity, radiation, or noxious substances all could produce neural damage. Through antioxidant effects of melatonin, it has been proposed as a neuroprotective agent. Over the melatonin therapeutic value, it is used as treatment of Alzheimer disease (AD), Parkinson disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, and brain trauma. Neurodegenerative disorders mostly happen due to free radical-mediated damage and mitochondria dysfunction as common pathophysiological mechanism [11].
\nAccording to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), exercise is a subcategory of physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive, and purposive that improves or maintains one or more components of physical fitness. Physical activity also refers to any bodily movement which is produced by the skeletal muscle contraction that increases energy expenditure more than basal level and enhances health. Furthermore, health is a human condition with three dimensions as physical, social, and psychological. To clarify the benefit of exercise and physical activity, we have to define the physical inactivity which refers to those physical activities less than what is required for optimal health and prevention of premature death [12, 13].
\nThere are huge differences between physical activity and physical fitness which should not be interchangeably used. According to CDC physical fitness is the ability to carry out daily tasks without fatigue and of course with plenty of energy to enjoy leisure time and respond to emergencies. Physical fitness has a number of components consisting of cardiorespiratory endurance, skeletal muscle endurance, skeletal muscle strength, skeletal muscle power, flexibility, balance, speed of movement, reaction time, and body composition. Physical activity according to above definition refers to any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscle contraction [12, 13].
\nMuscular strength is an essential factor for health and functional ability and consequently increases life quality. The importance of progressive resistance exercise had been clarified seen in World War II which was recommended for veteran rehabilitation. The important point of all resistance training is that the training must be “progressive” and progression is the act of advancing toward a specific goal which leads to continued improvement in muscle ability. Muscle development is under the effects of program variables such as exercise selection and order, number of sets and repetitions, and rest period length [14].
\nPhysical activity and exercises are so important strategies to face chronic conditions, lower cancer risk, and synchronize the circadian system. Increasing physical activity and taking part in aerobic endurance activities, resistance training, and flexibility exercises have been shown to decrease the risk of several chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, low back pain, osteoporosis, and sarcopenia [12, 14, 15, 16]. Physical activities and exercises are nonphotic signals that entrain human circadian clock [16]. Physical activity could increase the melatonin levels, decrease estrogen production, and improve fat metabolism [15].
\nCardiorespiratory fitness also is the capacity of the cardiovascular (both heart and vessels) and respiratory (lungs) systems to supply oxygen to the blood and consequently to the working skeletal muscles and the capacity of the muscles to use oxygen to produce energy for movement. The best test to determine the cardiorespiratory fitness is the maximum aerobic fitness; moreover in the human studies, length of time running or cycling in standardized test could examine the physiological/biochemical/psychological exhaustion [12].
\nStrength fitness is also another health component that is defined as the capacity of the skeletal muscle to move an external load. Balance is defined as the ability to control the body during the body movement, and flexibility is also defined as range of joint motion or range of motion (ROM) [12, 14].
\nTo continue the importance of the combination of the exercise and melatonin on the body system, we have to deliberate some fundamental concepts of training. Overload as the first concept is the “gradual increase of stress placed upon the body during exercise training.” Specificity of training is that training should be specific to the body needs or both movement patterns and force-velocity characteristics. Also, the good training program should have variation to support the training needs to remain optimal. In this case training periodization is defined as utilizes variation in training program design [14]. Exercise and physical activity can also act as preventer of chronic disease and regulate body systems. Regular activity and structured exercises are related to vast health benefits and body hormone regulation [12, 17, 18].
\nExercise has great impacts on many body’s homeostatic systems. Most human organisms display rhythms in their physiology and have 24 hour environmental cycle which is called circadian rhythm. Melatonin is one of the circadian rhythm generators in various physiological variables. Also, there are some voluntary rhythm modifiers such as activity or physical exercise; meal time can also act as circadian rhythm modifier signal [16]. Physical activity and exercise are nonphotic signals that regulate the human circadian clock and synchronize circadian system. Melatonin is one of the main signals of body clock that is commonly measured to report the effects of exercise on the circadian clock. Noteworthy almost different kinds of exercises and physical activities both acute and chronic could modify plasma melatonin levels. Meanwhile, endogenous profile of melatonin has different responses such as increase, decrease [19], or even unaffected to exercises that time of the day, and lighting condition is the most effective item on the melatonin secretion cycle even in response to exercises. As an overall consensus, those exercises which have been done at night or in the dark whether of moderate or high intensity result in delay in melatonin secretion. Indeed, the age does not influence the exercise-induced circadian rhythm of melatonin as nocturnal hormone. Besides the effects of exercises on the different phases of melatonin secretion, the exercises also transiently affect the melatonin levels. The mechanism of this transient changes in melatonin levels could be due to the circadian phase at that time exercise was undertaken. A bout of exercise increases the plasma melatonin levels, while regular training and exercises attenuate the melatonin [16]. There are several potent physiological factors that describe the melatonin changes. Melatonin acts as an antioxidant, and exercise especially strenuous exercise increases oxidative stress, hence melatonin which is secreted by the human body or even ingested capable of protecting against potential molecular damage [6]. It was reported that proximately after exercise melatonin levels increase and following 1 hour after physical activity, it returns to pre-exercise level [20]. Melatonin levels of trained individuals is higher in the morning compared to the evening, but in the following 3 weeks of hard training, the evening melatonin levels were higher than morning levels. Interestingly both morning and evening levels of melatonin decreased compared to pre-3 weeks of hard training. Well-trained individuals show an adaptive response to each training that they take part as their oxidative stress regulates and diurnal melatonin levels temporarily increase [16, 21]. Total mechanisms of the melatonin alteration following exercises remained unknown, but exercise-induced absolute rise in melatonin levels is more pronounced in the morning compared to the evening [22].
\nAcute sport trainings and resistance exercises lead to change in the energy demands and are strong stimulation of muscle tissue. Intense exercises produce free radicals, inflammatory responses, hormonal and biochemical disturbances, and metabolic and defensive changes [6]. Acute exercise increases oxygen consumption much more than rest time which makes muscles prone to oxidative stress. Oxygen molecule is a radical species per se and also results in generation of various free radicals, and those free radical species that are forming due to oxygen and nitrogen are the most important in the living organisms [23]. While subjects have routine life pattern, their energy demands and blood vessel contribution are balanced. During the acute or resistance exercise training, oxygen consumption of both striated and smooth muscles increases dramatically which leads to increase in reactive oxygen/nitrogen species that is called RONS. While exercise-derived RONS are generated, the body antioxidant defense system starts to work and protects cells and tissues against free radicals. The imbalance between body antioxidant defense system and RONS is called oxidative stress [24]. Low levels of ROS regulate muscle force through calcium release mechanism, and influencing myofilament structure creates adaptive response to training. However, high levels of ROS reduce force production and result in muscular fatigue [25].
\nMelatonin due to its scavenging ability could directly interact with a variety of oxygen- and nitrogen-based radicals. It is an antioxidant that regulates the activities of other antioxidant enzymes [6, 25]. Strenuous sport activities lead to acute muscle injuries that are indicated by muscle soreness, prolong loss of muscle function, and leakage of muscle proteins. Acute exercise-induced muscle injuries consist of 30–67% of athletic injuries, while exercise-induced severe muscle injuries could impede the athletic progression. Muscle damages result in multidimensional changes in muscle tissue such as inflammation that per se encourage the free radical production and muscle atrophy [26, 27]. This condition could be reduced with optimal nutrition mostly by increasing dietary content of nutritional antioxidant. Melatonin as one of the body-secreted natural antioxidants could cross all barriers and reduce the oxidative damage in almost every environment in the body. Intensive exercises cause abundant changes in immunity and also change the carbohydrate and lipid metabolism that make athletes vulnerable to infection. In this case melatonin protects heart muscle cells and other body parts from exercise-induced inflammation [6, 27]. As previously mentioned, strenuous exercise muscle injuries lead to protein degradation that encourages muscle injury. Whenever exercise-induced protein degradation and consequent muscle atrophy are limited, the extent of muscle injuries could be blunted. Melatonin is one of the most effective factors that could limit muscle injuries. It was shown that melatonin inhibited the nuclear factor kappa-B (NFKB) activation that prevents the cytokine-induced atrophy and thus muscle injury. Melatonin also decreases proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) expression within the muscle. Also, muscle atrophy F-box (MAFBX) and muscle RING finger 1 (MURF-1) are inhibited by melatonin. MAFBX is a muscle-specific ubiquitin ligase that mediates the degradation of muscle-specific transcription factor MyoD. MURF-1 also is a member of ubiquitin ligase family which interacts with the giant protein titin in the muscle and is called titin-associated protein that expert antihypertrophic activity [28, 29]. In this case melatonin through the elevation of the expression of the muscle Akt could reduce the ratio of the MAFBX/MURF-1 and inhibits the breakdown of the structural muscle protein such as myosin heavy chain (Figure 1). The functional role of the melatonin and strenuous muscle injury prevention is not fully understood, but the melatonin effects on the muscle cytokines, NFKB activation, muscle Akt elevation, and consequent decline in the MAFBX/MURF-1 could open new points of view to the melatonin protection mechanism [26].
\nAdvantages of melatonin on the muscle injury that contribute to the strenuous exercise. Melatonin inhibits the activation of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFKB) and translocates it that reduces the expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha or TNF-alpha and interleukin-6 or IL-6 in exercise-induced injured muscle. Consequently melatonin could limit inflammation and increase the activation of the protein kinase B also known as Akt to control protein deprivation and downregulate the atrophy via NFKB/MAFBX/MURF-1/Akt pathway during injury. NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-B; TNF-alpha, tumor necrosis factor-alpha; IL-6, interleukin-6; Akt, serine/threonine kinase; MAFBX, muscle atrophy F-box; and MuRF-1, muscle RING finger 1 [26].
Melatonin and all its metabolites could scavenge ROS and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and act as the antioxidant cascade. Melatonin not only decreases the exercise-induced oxidative stress in the muscles but also enhances muscle antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase. Moreover, melatonin reduces muscle inflammatory factors such as IL-6 and TNF-alpha [25, 26, 27]. Melatonin could successfully manage the strenuous exercise-induced muscle damage through several ways. It increases the strength of injured muscle, reduces severity of the injury, increases number of satellite cells, inhibits NF-κB activation/translocation, causes TNF-alpha and IL-6 to decline, and increases muscle Akt and thus decreases MAFBX/MuRF-1 ratio. Due to its broad-spectrum antioxidant, it could protect DNA, proteins, and biological membrane lipids from the effects of ROS and other oxidative stress [6, 24, 26].
\nPhysical exercise is performing some activities to keep healthy weight, building and conserving healthy bone, muscle, and joints to develop physiological health. Exercise also promotes the immune system. Immune system responses to exercise are directly dependent on the intensity, duration, and body adaptive responses. It has been suggested that moderate exercise through endocrine hormone elevation could reverse immunosenescence. Moderate exercise training modulates exercise-induced ROS and DNA damage and regulates cytokine levels [30].
\nAerobic training and regular physical activity are highly associated with vast beneficial health issues including limiting cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes type 2, and age-related mortality. Aerobic training also induces vast acute and chronic adaptation in various physiological systems. Furthermore, physical inactivity is one of the four main causes of premature mortality. Although the aerobic physical activity increases in the current society, the level of the physical inactivity is still high [17, 31]. It was shown that physical activity could elevate melatonin levels, decrease estrogen production, improve fat metabolism, and reduce cancer risk as well. It has been reported that short- or even long-term physical activity has no substantial effects on the melatonin levels [15]. Moderate exercise, in another study, could modulate ROS, cytokines, and hormone levels that all affect apoptosis. Melatonin as one of this regulating hormones has diverse physiological aspects that it can counteract the immune depression following acute stress or aging and also upregulate TNF [30]. Exercise has immediate and/or delayed effects on melatonin secretion, in which duration, type of exercise, time of the day, fitness status, and age have also been identified as intervening factors in exercise-induced changes in the melatonin levels (Figure 2).
\nThe effects of exercise time duration on the melatonin levels [30].
Melatonin also plays an important role in the exercise-induced metabolic adaptation. Pinealectomized animals do not show adaptive metabolic changes due to aerobic training. Melatonin acts as a mediator between environment situation and physiological regulatory manner. Besides melatonin effects on the blood pressure and endocrine regulation, it also acts on the GLUT 4 (glucose transporter) gene expression (31). In this case aerobic training is coworker of melatonin in which both of them stimulate glucose uptake through insulin-independent process and increase GLUT 4 protein expression. It was reported that those pinealectomized rats that undergo aerobic training did not show any metabolic development. So melatonin plays key role in metabolic adaptation in both adipose and muscle tissues. As it was mentioned, melatonin has circadian rhythm and regulates body clock; it also regulates energy metabolism circadian timing in which period of activity and adaptation to activity affect this timing [16, 31]. In one study the effects of melatonin supplementation on the aerobic exercise-induced adaptation were examined. For this purpose male wistar rats are divided into four groups: sedentary control, trained control, sedentary treated with melatonin, and trained treated with melatonin. Glucose tolerance, physical capacity, citrate synthesis, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), mitogen-activated protein kinas (MAPK), and GLUT4 were examined. Following the 8-week aerobic exercise training on treadmill, those trained animals that treated with melatonin showed better results in their measured parameters that are mentioned above. Briefly, melatonin supplementation plus aerobic training creates great metabolic adaptation and improves metabolism efficiency [31]. The combination of aerobic exercise and melatonin, also, reduces the exercise-induced free radical agents. Low to moderate levels of free radicals have regulatory roles, but their high levels create cellular damages and induce oxidative stress [24]. Melatonin elevation or melatonin supplementation especially while it is combined with aerobic training could decrease the lipid peroxidation and malondialdehyde—lipid peroxidation most frequent marker—in sedentary individuals [18]. Long-term aerobic training could manage the lipid profile of sedentary individuals. Meanwhile when combined with melatonin, the protective effects of aerobic training against free radicals advance, and the body antioxidant defense system improves [18].
\nTwo central and direct ways guide the melatonin effects on the brown adipose tissue to increase exercise-energy expenditure. The nervous system is the central way that controls the melatonin through the sympathetic system. Sympathetic nerve-secreted norepinephrine controls the daily variation in melatonin synthesis [16]. Also, exercise leads to high increase in the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and catecholamine secretion which could modulate melatonin secretion [16]. Melatonin acts as antioxidant [6]. Its secretion is affected by daytime and especially the nervous system. Exercise training stimulates sympathetic nervous system and releases noradrenaline. Noradrenaline increases the tryptophan levels [30]. Tryptophan is uptaken by the pineal gland and decarboxylated to form serotonin (or 5-hydroxytryptamine). Serotonin during the daylight is stored in the pineal gland. Darkness causes noradrenaline to activate the enzymes (serotonin-N-acetyltransferase) and finally convert serotonin into melatonin (Figure 3) [32].
\nTryptophan to melatonin cascade process. Tryptophan is the precursor of serotonin and melatonin [32].
Also, in the direct way, protein kinase C (PKC) pathway leads to increase growth factor and mitochondria biogenesis [33]. Melatonin also could increase LDL receptor and inhibit cholesterol synthesis which is even useful for control obesity [33].
\nRegarding long-term endurance training, the melatonin hormone reaches steady state. Furthermore, there is direct positive correlation between melatonin levels and exercise duration (Figure 4) [30]. Following exercise melatonin gradually increases, and due to endurance training which should last for about 3 months, the melatonin reaches to steady state [30]. It was reported that the low-intensity aerobic training has better adaptation and lipid peroxidation prevention in sedentary individuals. Melatonin supplementation for about 2 months improves dyslipidemia, decreases LDL, and improves lipid metabolism [25].
\nDirect positive correlation between melatonin levels and exercise duration. As the training days progress, the melatonin levels increase [30].
Free radicals are those species that are created as a result of cellular oxygen consumption and are mediator of lipid peroxidation. Different elements and situations affect the lipid peroxidation such as heat, oxygen, and enzymes. Free radicals have one or even more than one free electron(s). All of these ingredients could damage the molecules’ organisms and create oxidative stress. Body natural defense system impedes the oxidative stress; whenever an imbalance occurs between the free radical production and antioxidant defense system effectiveness, the oxidative stress happens [18, 34]. Lipids are one of the important agents either in food or body’s biological system. Body lipids are prone to oxidation, and it would happen during several stages as food storage process or even in physiological/pathological conditions. Unsaturated fatty acids are prone to oxidation; while the free radicals penetrate into bilayer membrane structure, lipid peroxidation is going to happen [18, 35]. Oxygen and free radicals damage the unsaturated fatty acids under lipoperoxide formation. This compound is unstable and could break down into wide range of reactive species which bind to free amino groups and decrease the proteolytic degradation [34]. Free radical-induced lipid peroxidation happens in three stages: initiation, propagation, and termination [35]. In the first stage, free radicals attack fatty acid molecule which detach hydrogen ion and create fatty acid radical. Due to reordering of double bond, two double bonds between carbon atoms contain and create conjugated diene. The diene structure reacts with oxygen molecule and creates lipoperoxyl radical (Figures 5 and 6).
\nThe first stage (initiation stage) of lipid peroxidation process [36].
Structural formula of conjugated diene during lipid peroxidation [34].
In the second phase named propagation, the lipoperoxyl radical, the first phase product, reacts with other fatty acid molecules. Further this reaction a hydrogen atom detaches due to lipid hydroperoxide formation. Following propagation the last stage which is called termination occurs. In this phase enzymatic lipid peroxidation which catalyzes cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase enzymes happens [34, 36].
\nLipid peroxidation leads to two results as structural damage into membrane and creates secondary products. Broken fatty acyl chains and lipid-lipid or even lipid-protein cross-links could damage membrane and affect biological systems and impair membrane function and enzymatic inactivation [36]. Malondialdehyde, which is known as MDA, is a three-carbon molecule that is created by free radicals, and it is not only a secondary product but also the most frequent marker of lipid peroxidation [18, 37]. MDA is generated by decomposition of arachidonic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (Figure 7). MDA is stable and membrane permeable which may act as signaling messenger [38]. MDA is one the most popular oxidative stress markers, and due to its toxicity, it becomes very relevant to biomedical condition, and several technologies are used to determine MDA such as liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS) and several derivatization-based strategies [38].
\nMalondialdehyde formation and metabolism process. Decomposition of arachidonic acid (AA) and PUFAs as side products of enzymatic process during the biosynthesis of thromboxane A2 (TXA2) and 12-l-hydroxy-5,8,10-hepadecatrienoic acid (HHT) (blue pathway) or nonenzymatic process by lipid peroxidation-induced bicyclic endoperoxides (red pathway) generates malondialdehyde. Malondialdehyde could enzymatically be metabolized (green pathway); those key enzymes in both malondialdehyde formation and metabolism are cyclooxygenase [1], prostacyclin hydroperoxidase [2], thromboxane synthase [3], aldehyde dehydrogenase [4], decarboxylase [5], acetyl CoA synthase [6], and tricarboxylic acid cycle [7] [38].
There are multiple methods to prevent lipid peroxidation and MDA harmful effects that among them antioxidant usage is the most effective and suitable approach [39]. Antioxidants scavenge free radicals and inactivate peroxides and other ROS consequently could prevent or even delay oxidation process. The chemical structure, concentration, temperature, and type of oxidation substrate determine the efficiency of antioxidants. It means that to select the best antioxidant, we have to consider many points of view and take many factors into account [39]. Antioxidant defense system helps organism to battle with oxidative stress. This system has three lines of defense. In the first stage, ROS overproduction impedes. The second defense line is mainly created by enzymes, and in the third line of defense, molecules should scavenge ROS [24].
\nMelatonin as pineal gland hormone is secreted according to circadian rhythm. Melatonin is also a strong antioxidant that could cross physiological barrier due to its amphiphilic feature, thereby decreasing oxidative damage. Melatonin has direct (direct scavenging of free radical and activate DNA reparation enzymes) and indirect (support superoxide dismutase or SOD) antioxidant capacities [24]. Amphiphilic feature of melatonin makes it strong scavenging factor that increases the efficiency of melatonin’s radical scavenging which could pass between lipidic and aqueous phases. Melatonin also neutralizes singlet oxygen, peroxynitrite anion, and nitric oxide [24]. A wide range of biological systems such as linoleate model system or LDL contributes in melatonin antioxidant properties [39, 40]. Melatonin supplementation decreases the MDA and also lipid peroxidation [18]. In an experimental study, it was shown that melatonin supplementation during long-term aerobic exercise could diminish the exercise-induced lipid peroxidation and also malondialdehyde [18]. Exercise training generates almost twofold elevation in oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, and MDA levels [41]. Another report represented that melatonin administration 30 min before the exercise impressively decreases triglyceride and MDA [6]. Four-week melatonin supplementation followed by single exercise that lasts about 30 min decreases oxidative stress and MDA as well [42].
\nWe would like to express our gratitude to many people who saw us through this book. The authors would like to acknowledge the help of all the people involved in this project. We would also like to show our gratitude to all those researchers and their pearls of wisdom and knowledge that help us in writing this chapter.
\nThere is no conflict of interest for all authors.
Tensions between the English-speaking community which forms about one fifth of the national population have been high due to an ongoing separatist movement. It escalated considerably in October, 2017 with the unilateral proclamation of the Ambazonian Federal State by Sissiku Ayuk Tabe who was later on arrested in Nigeria with his Cabinet at the Nera hotel and transferred to Cameroon where he, is serving a life imprisonment term [1]. In 2016, lawyers, teachers and students in the two Anglophone regions initially carried out demonstrations and strikes which eventually engulfed a wider section of the population. This mobilization was due to their marginalization by the Francophone-dominated government in which they were highly under-represented in nearly all aspects of national life: political appointments and professional training and had been treated as second-class citizens since their reunification. They complained that their vibrant economic and political institutions had been completely wiped out, and their education and judicial systems had been neglected and degraded [2]. How did activists succeed to raise the awareness of the population? What were the reactions of the population to the various videos and posts sent?
Social movements are one of the main ways in which people collectively give voice to their grievances and concerns, and demand that something be done about it [3]. This has been facilitated recently by the media environment that has radically changed with the development of new media technologies which has helped activists to actively spread videos which exposed security forces abusing human rights (by suppressing peaceful gatherings, beating, harassing, arresting and killing protesters, burning their houses, schools and hospitals) in order to produce a counter-narrative to the ‘official story’ that main-stream media had been producing. The videos show appalling images not just of how French-speaking soldiers tortured Anglophones but also their inability to communicate with them adequately although they share the same country [2]. The various videos incriminated Cameroon security forces and therefore as a result, the Cameroon government shut-down the Internet in January 2017 for 93 days in the tension-ridden Anglophone zone. It was after the Anglophone teachers, lawyers, and students went on strike over alleged social bias in favor of Francophone. Education, financial, and health-care institutions as well as businesses that depended on the Internet access were affected. International bodies pressurized the government to restore internet access.
Although Internet access was restored in April 2017, the network was very unstable. In October 2017, the government effected a second Internet blockade, targeting social media and apps such as WhatsApp and Facebook where activists sent videos incriminating the government. It continuously affected the country economically, and many citizens were forced to travel back and forth to regions with Internet access for business or information. It is worth-noting that Social media is important because it allows activists to get in contact with people locally, regionally, nationally and even internationally [4]. These activists mostly based in the western world understand the characteristics of their target audience (What they call the people at Ground Zero) and are able to personalize their messages to reflect the situation of their audience more appropriately on popular platforms. Facebook allows users to post, like and share content (pictures, videos, articles, etc) on sensitive issues with just the click of a button to a much large audience as much as possible.
Rather than referring to satirical material, fake news refer to the trend of Internet-based publications purporting to be genuine news sources which propagate inaccurate stories based on rumor or blatant untruths [5]. Our objective in this write-up is to examine how the social media is population-friendly by showing the reactions of the population to the Internet-based information. We equally made an effort to show how the activists and the government struggle to outsmart each other in promoting their narratives in the cyber-space. Our attention will be paid on the Ngarbuh massacre because of the struggle between the activists and the government each struggling to dominate the cyberspace by promoting its narratives.
The rise and spread of new ICTs has transformed the way that society is organized, which of course include social movements. Internets and SMS messaging for examples have enabled activists to coordinate protest in record time, giving raise to the ‘flash mob’ phenomenon [6]. ‘Flash mob’ is a term that originally referred to social experiments, and countercultural movements to reclaim ‘public spaces’ [5]. The Anglophone movement can be dubbed as the ‘Twitter Revolution’ or ‘Facebook Revolution’ emphasizing the role of social media in diffusing videos of human rights abuses and to organize protest mobilizations both at the local and international levels [3].
ICTs transform mainstream dominated media systems into multifaceted media environment. Media today are more diverse and offer more options for people to access political information. Social movement actors also communicate political messages through a wide range of interconnected outlets, and the advent of ICTs has not only broaden but has also changed some of the forms this communication has taken, its impact and its reach.
One of the key way social movements engage in cultural resistance is by means of the production and dissemination of multiple forms of media in order to mobilize support, to reach out for supports beyond those already in agreement with movement claims, and to increase the legitimacy of their claims and demands. Social movements operate at a considerable disadvantage when trying to influence news portrayals of issues than do their better-funded opposing groups and organization [3].
ICTs are unquestionably central to activists’ repertoires of communication, moblisation, and deliberation processes and have been harnessed in many creative and strategic ways to increase the power and reach of social movement communication and action. Alternative media produces strong counter-narrative to the “official’ story which in this case was that the separatist caused the atrocities. Communication flows from the mainstream media to activist alternative media which is then disseminated via listserves and telephone as people called each other to talk about what had happened and to question the official version of events. Information flew in this case from Rene Sadi and Atanga Nji from the mainstream media to the alternative media and the information was given quite a different interpretation.
Activists in the Ambazonian crisis created a strategy which [7] considered as alternatives which is the creation of their own independent media or public forums of communication in order to communicate for a lack of interest or bias by established media. Alternatively, in the Ambazonian crisis, many videos were produced that facilitated the mobilization and production of a counter-narrative to the ‘official story’ which indicates that there is no Anglophone problem in Cameroon and the professionalism of the security forces. The Internet makes the process of sharing easier, faster and with a potentially larger audience than ever before. These messages in the videos from the alternative media environment have made their ways into mainstream mass media like the various reports carried by BBC, France 24, TV5 monde etc.
One of the concepts that has occupied the political area in Cameroon has been the Post-truth politics. This refers to a political culture wherein debate is more emotional and disconnected from the details of policy, and the ignoring of factual rebuttal. The most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports. The impact of fake news on the construction of a post-truth media consumer’s reality is profound. Post-truth differs from traditional contesting and falsifying of facts by relegating facts and expert opinions to be of secondary importance relative to appeal to emotion. This was less notable before the invention of the Internet and related social changes. Post-truth politics has been ascendant in Cameroon since the beginning of the Anglophone crisis. The Cameroonian government preaching one and indivisible Cameroon hardly makes reference to the cases where the majority Francophone-Cameroon abused the constitution to disfavor the English-speaking. They equally denied the existence of an anglophone problem which [2] shows that it really exists.
We collected the qualitative data of acts of genocide in Southern Cameroon used in this work from the Internet from seasoned activists’ accounts who had sent out numerous posts on numerous issues to their targeted population. They served as a fertile ground of textual material: videos, blog posts, comments, social networking posts which are all as [8] puts it, are parts of the expanse of qualitative material online. It is described by [9] as “a new continent, rich in resources but in parts most perilous.” which had “lain undiscovered, unmined and uninhabited” for the past 30 years.
Activists posted many materials online to awaken Southern Cameroonians’ consciousness of the events of the War of independence, therefore Facebook was a fruitful site of the way as [10] puts it, hundreds of millions of Southern Cameroonians and other relate to one another and share genocidal information: it provide an entirely preserved archive of data featuring, write-up, friends’ comments, pictures, about the Ambazonia war of independence. We judged the information as a true reflection of participants’ minds, uses and behavior. Therefore, the participants were ‘doing’ things with their postings. As may be expected from our theoretical stance, our questions focused on how people talked and interacted on Facebook of events of massacres in the Southern Cameroon. The symbols of the posts to the public drew our as well as the people’s reactions. We considered their comments in order to understand how their various posts either raise their awareness to the independence of Southern Cameroon as the activists promoted or to the concept of “one and indivisible Cameroon” as the government of Cameroon did everything to maintain the souvereignty of the nation. So the target population was the population of the Southern Cameroon who received information from both ends. How did they react to this information was our main point of focus.
On the 16th February, 2020 activists and other people inundated the cyberspace with the picture below which drew the attention of the entire world because it was a genocidal act that involved the massacre of children and pregnant women who were buried in a mass grave. The caption was:
“These are some of the Victims of the Ngarbuh Massacre, in Donga Mantung Division, in Cameroon’s Northwest region. Locals have blamed the military and it’s allied militias for the attack. The death toll now stands at 38” [11] (Figure 1).
Picture of the slained children and their grave. Source: Atlantic Chronicles [11].
On the 15th March, 2020, activists sent another post in order to prick the conscience of humanity which stated: “One month on…#NGARBUH still haunts me! Why did you kill our innocent children Biya1??? May this reminder prick the conscience of the world. 14th Feb #Massacre still on my mind. Sleep well Angels…”.
On April 30th, activists sent a video showing the mass burial of pregnant women, children, and other women and men who were in Ngarbuh and asked a rhetorical question of what happened to the authors.2 Another video showed clearly the wailing of people in the background which indicated that people had wounds in their hearts that would take time to heal [12].
Activists sent ceaselessly posts on the heartlessness of some of the elite of the region who celebrated the massacre. The following article was sent on the 1st June 2020 and the video had been deleted at the time we consulted it on Facebook:
“This was 14th February 2020 at 7:10 am, when #GerardNgalla got news that the #NgarbuhMassacre went successfully as they had planned. In celebration Gerard had his breakfast live on Facebook. He was congratulated by many, I mean many from Donga-Mantung, at the moment that we were mourning our children and pregnant women killed by Gerard and BIR. All I have to say is, there must be #Justice4Ngarbuh. Na last time be time3.” The following responses were received:
“How for market Gerald as heat dey come on for Ngarbuh gaz? Dat gaz dey smell so badly,” “Dealer,” and evn abused him saying: “pig-style eating! real wild animal in human form! Beast” [13].
Commentators were hard on him while relying on divine intervention and wishing the children a peaceful rest by saying, “God will protect them in Jesus name, Amen” “Lord God, have mercy!” “May they rest in peace” “Lord please help them…” “May God give them internal rest” “Heavenly rest is open unto them” “God is seeing everything,” “God help,” “May their souls rest in peace,” “Chai JESUS, Follow up this incident for us. You are the only righteous to do this and liberate your children from the hands of the heartless” [13].
The others call for resistance by imploring on the people’s feeling and pragmatism: “I asked the “amba camp” they said the Army should drop their guns. This is a Republic, the Army will never do that not even in the USA. Please please please for the sake of our junior ones I’m calling on you artist, musicians, bloggers, celebrities pleas for the sake of our junior ones. Just Imagine how these children were feeling, close your eyes and imagine. They would say our brothers and sisters abandoned us to die. Some will go to Ivory Coast and pay tribute to Arafat whereas he can go to Mamfe his homeland and pay tribute to the lost souls. Fame is like a candle.”
In accordance with the Post-truth politics, the government of Cameroon refutted the facts of the Ngarbuh massacre and even called those who had investigated it “bad angels” until they yielded to international pressure which demanded them to investigate it. After the investigation, they acknowledged that their military carried out the massacre.
Cameroon’s defense minister made two statements: on February 17, he first announced that the government had opened an investigation and that its results would be made public. In a second statement he said the results of the investigation “may be made public at the appropriate time”. In both statements, he claimed that armed “terrorists” attacked government security forces and that the clash resulted in the explosion of fuel tanks, which destroyed several homes and killed a woman and four children. This statement was reiterated on February 18, in a press release, by the Minister of Communication [14, 15].
After several days of accusations regarding the Ngarbuh Massacre, communication minister, René Emmanuel Sadi has finally broken the silence [16]. Despite high numbers from the UN, media reports and witnesses, minister Sadi confirmed the story of the army spokesperson in a statement on Monday February 17, saying only five civilian lives were lost, one woman and four children. The minister questioned: “How can one believe for a moment that an army as disciplined and civic-minded as ours can loot civilian properties and kill the people whose protection and security is their mission?” He reiterated that “under no circumstances have our defence and security forces deliberately undertaken to perpetrate abuses of any kind against the civilian populations at the service of whom they are assigned.” Minister Sadi ascertained that the situation in the North West and South West regions is gradually improving because the Head of State was implementing the recommendations of the Major National Dialog.
It was not the first time the government had refused any wrong doing; the government had made similar statements of atrocities that soldiers had committed against civilians in the Northern Region of Cameroon where military killed a woman and her child. In several occasions, government had placed the blame for crimes committed against civilians on Ambazonian separatists, even in cases of lack of evidence. The UN, USA, rights groups and politicians have asked for an investigation into the massacre, demanding thatwitnesses be protected.
Government forces [16] and armed members of the Fulani ethnic group killed at least 21 civilians, including 13 children and a pregnant woman, on February 14, 2020 in the village of Ngarbuh in Cameroon. They also set fire on five houses, looted many other property and beat residents. The corpses of some of the victims were found charred in their homes. The government denies that its troops have deliberately committed crimes. “The murders of civilians, including children, committed under horrific conditions, are heinous crimes that should be effectively and independently investigated and those responsible brought to justice,” said Ilaria Allegrozzi, researcher senior on Africa at Human Rights Watch. They stressed that, the denial of the military involvement in the crimes would further traumatize the survivors and would only encourage the government troops to commit further atrocities.
They reported that, witnesses assured them that between 10 and 15 soldiers, including members of the Rapid Intervention Battalion (BIR), an elite unit of the Cameroonian army, and at least 30 armed Fulani first entered on foot in Ngarbuh 1, a district of Ngarbuh, on February 13 at around 11:00 p.m. and looted many houses. Some members of these forces then continued towards the Ngarbuh 2 neighborhood, looting houses and beating residents. At around 5:00 a.m. on February 14, a group of soldiers and armed Fulani attacked the Ngarbuh 3 neighborhood. They killed and burnt 21 civilians in four houses. Using satellite images taken on February 14 at 10:24, results indicated that several houses in Ngarbuh had been damage possibly with fire.
They narrated the story of a man who hid himself and saw the killing of his entire family as they tried to escape and set their house on fire. Residents affirmed that there was no confrontation between the armed separatists and the security forces and they did not hear any explosion so the killings were deliberate. It was aimed at punishing civilians suspected for harboring separatist fighters and were threatened not to harbor separatist fighters warning them that their village would be destroyed if they continued to harbor separatists (Figure 2).
Picture of persons the military killed in Ngarbuh. Source: Human Rights Report [16].
In the state television, the minister of Territorial Administration responded to Human Right Watch by calling them “misguided angels” who were out to destroy the image of the Cameroonian defense forces who were doing a wonderful work. He called on them to rather condemn the atrocities of separatist fighters whom he called terrorists and threatened ending the activities of Human Watch Right because their report was erroneous. He added that they had given money to private media to weaken the institutions of the state [17, 18].
On Friday 14th of February 2020, at around 3 a.m., an attack was launched in the village of Ngar 3 from Fiiru by a joint military operation consisting of six soldiers, three armed men belonging to ex-combatants of the restoration forces of the Virtual State of Ambazonia and numerous herdsmen. The operation burnt and shot everywhere. The joint mission was led to Ngarbuh by the former separatist fighter: Nfor Marcel called “Bullet” alongside two other ex-combatants who had left the war of independence and had joined the National Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Committee.
The attack was bloody, no one was spared, some villagers were burned alive and those who could not find shelter were shot, as shown by the bodies of the victims scattered in the bushes. Pregnant women and children who escaped gunfire and machete sheltered in a house were all of them were burnt alive. Some survivors attested that a total of 13 houses and many villages were burnt beyond recognition. Among the 35 corpses discovered were three (3) pregnant women, three (3) children including a family of about 9 persons and other men and women. The victims consisted of about 9 men, 6 women, and 14 children. After the departure of the soldiers, some villagers, pastors and Ambazonian fighters, buried the victims on Saturday February 15, 2020 in numerous mass graves [19] (Figure 3).
Mass grave of massacred civilians. Source: Mimi Mefo Info [19].
This was after the works of a commission which Paul Biya sanctioned February 17 to investigate the killings, following incessant national and international pressure across the board. The commission was headed by Divine Chemutah Banda, Chairperson of the National Commission of Human Rights and Freedoms, Bishop George Nkuo of the Kumbo Diocese and Imam Ahmadou Baba Sale, among others as members [20].
The government of Cameroon admitted a mixed Battalion commissioned by the Commander of the 52nd Motorized Infantry Battalion in Nkambe of Nangono Ze Charles Eric orchestrated the extrajudicial killings headed by Sergeant Baba Guiba mixed group of Ntubaw. Villagers narrated that three military elements and two Gendarme left Ntubaw at 10 pm on February 13, while the the head of them took along 17 members of the vigilantist group. At the entrance to Ngarbuh, they split in two to “take care” of Ngarbuh 1 & 2. At Ngarbuh 3 the site of the massacre, Sergeant Baba Guiba and 10 members of the vigilante waged an attack. The report shows that five terrorists were killed and arms were seized, and three women plus ten children were also killed. Due to panic, the soldiers and the members of the vigilante group covered the facts by burning houses. Sergeant Baba Guiba then returned to Ntubaw and deliberately sent a biased report to his hierarchy which the Government used for its communication. The report indicates that the corpses were actually exhumed in order to establish their facts and that disciplinary sanction were charted.
The following post went viral when the report was released “The Ngarbuh report by LRC is fake. Names of soldiers and military people mentioned in it do not exist. What a scam!”
Even most of the comments considered it to be a lie: “When you make lies part of you, there will come a time when the lies will turn to lie to you”, “It is no surprising issue to me. That is their best arts, lies telling. The report is just powder in the eye!, “Even some are fake not all are fake because sergeant Baba guida I know him personally”, “What to expect from endemic dysfunction? Without a verifiable system of records and accounting - anywhere in the world - it is impossible to implement Truth while so-called “civilized” cultures create all kinds of tools/instruments to enforce Truth”, “Could never be a true list, have they mentioned the DOs ,Governor, and ministers who were the real commanders,those names could be late soldiers or fake.”
The data indicate firstly that the government’s stance on bearing genocidal responsibility changes continuously when internal and external pressures are exerted on it to investigate crimes committed against humanity as it was the case in Ngarbuh and it remains stagnant or the blames are shifted to the separatists when no serious pressure is exerted on it as it was the cases of the Ofen-Tiben massacre, Menka-Pinyin massacre, Bakweri town massacre, Buea Town massacre, Muyuka massacre, Ekona massacre, Munyenge massacre, Kwa-Kwa massacre, Wum massacre, Weh massacre, Esu massacre, the killing of the baby Martha, the beheading of Sam Soya, the burning of mami Appih etc.
The Facebook page of the Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Program, the National Committee for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (NCDDR) on 16th February, sent out a post which stated: “Amba want their kids to die so that they cry for genocide and that in so far as Ambazonian fighters continue to exist every body including children shall continue to be targeted’”. The same Facebook page attributed the killings of the Ambazonians and what happened as “collateral damage.” “For as long as Amba boys exist in your communities, there will be casualties, and some of them will be children. It is called collateral damage. AmbaFools sit abroad and say, we have to break eggs to make an omelette” [21].
On the 21st of February, Aaron Yancho Kaah and other sent a post entitled: “Kumbo diocese mourns the victims of the Ngarbuh massacre today”. He said the eucharistic prayer at the kumbo cathedral was in honor of the 35 slained innocent peasant farmers and children by Cameroun soldiers at the Ngarbuh village on the 14th February [22] Thousands of Catholic faithful around kumbo attended the solemn mass “which left many la Republique Cameroonian loyalists grumbling”. Prayers were offered for the bereaved families and they called on God to forgive the perpetrators of such a hate crime. His Eminence Christian Cardinal Tumi also attended.
However, it left many unanswered questions in the minds of Ambazonian and the the following comments were made: “Cameroon is Two and Very Divisible. We Ambazonian keep saying this yet Francophone think its a joke. Why is it the Catholic Church and not the government leading these proceedings if truly the region was peaceful? Why is there no official delegation from Yaounde in Kumbo for this funeral? Why did Paul Biya not declare a national day of mourning for the victims if truly it was a collateral damage? In Bafoussam the Prime Minister was there after the landslide right? Why are Anglophone hated so much by Francophone? We shall continue to fight until we achieve the Restoration of our lost Independence.”
Other considered Cardinal Tumi as a hypocrite, “What did Tumi go to do there after he had claimed that normalcy was returning and forcing evil special status on us which has embolden the ememy to kill us for his sports,”, “God is always on the throne”, “Silence means”, guilty”, “Chaaaaiiiiiiiii Ambazonians have suffered”, “The only thing that disturb me is what Cardina Tumi went there to do,”, “Adieu little friends, parents et al.”, “Rest well…”, “Make dem all go massa”, “I doubt whether God can forgive the perpetrators of this massacre. If He can forgive them, I think He goes wrong ---- He should deal with them squarely and nothing like forgiveness.”
Post-truth politics is more emotional and consequently the most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports. This permitted friends to share their emotions with others. This part treats the categorization of the comments of people who received the posts either from activists and people. The fact that the Cameroon government tried by all means to falsify the happenings in Ngarbuh provoked an outpour of emotion from Southern Cameroonians. They express their helplessness by calling for resistance till the last man standing, labeling political actors negatively, unearthing the wickedness and inhumanity of the military forces, expressing the need for divine intervention, showing optimism for independence, indicating how the state has failed to protect its citizens, considering international bodies as being unfair and powerless etc.
No Facebook posts received as many comments as the one which carried the reaction of the minister of communication in which he styled the military as professionals and the separatist fighters as terrorists [15]. Ambazonians knew the truth which other Cameroonians did not know. After the killings and burning of houses, the separatist fighters buried the dead. The more the truth is hidden, the more the wound widens, the more tension increases, the more trust is destroyed and the more the war will prolong and which may probably end up widening the divide between the two peoples. Martial solutions only help to radicalize the population and encourage them to defy state institutions.
Their comments were a call for rebellion because the state considered everyone of them as Amba so they had to carry gun and fight. They wondered how the government could refuse to acknowledge such genocidal acts and they were determined to pick up arms against the government and to force the Francophone out of their land. They question the trust of the government and the government thought it could only regain it through intimidation. They felt helpless in front of international organization.
“Today I’ll be picking up my own arm against this government, it’s too much”, “Sometimes shame di hold me for this pipo their chance.4 How can this he-goat deny this. So it’s no more petrol accident”, “Is high time we all pick up guns, since we are all ambas in the eyes of military, anyhow any one left behind will tell me if those children were ambas”, “Operation Frogs to leave Ambaland has been activated and shall soon enter full gear. All frogs should leave Ambaland5 for their own safety. A word to a wise na sophi ei sense.6 “The earlier you kill all of us, the better. We shall not sit and watch our country eaten up by vampires. Enough of these jokes. Kill us all if you care…You cannot silence this generation. We’ve seen more than what any other generation had ever seen. Non…”, “Professional Army huh…I reserve my comment”, “This photo was automatically covered so you can.”, “Does it mean no one in the world has power in this world to stop this barbarism in Cameroon. Even UN, AU, EU US?”, “How can people be lying like this and are asked to do investigations? What will be the outcome?”, “Even in the North the Force of law and order did not kill women and children.7”
In reactions to the post on Facebook, the Ambazonian people poured frightful curses on them and wish them dead mysteriously. They labeled the minister a wizard and wished him mad and they thought they are demon possessed. They mocked them by saying it happened in Mali.8 They think that they will be consumed by their own evils.
“Thunder will strike all of you someday idiet. It happens in Mali”, “I’ve never cursed but this time around I release dementia to that Rene of a human.”, “Either this man’s brain is short or he is just possessed. We all saw the Cameroonian military people killing…executing…some women carrying their kids on their backs”, “You will excrete clotted blood after a prolonged painful incurable ailment for saying this! People have lost everything. ..I mean everything they have reason to be alive for, in the most dreadful manner, and you say this???”, “Thanks very much in the days of appointment we celebrate we never knew you were the witchcraft behind our back,” “The demons that lives in you will surely one day consume you all,” “This country will never change if people like you remain in power. Please change from your wicked ways for judgement awaits us all”, “It shall never be well with you Mr man for the blood of those children is on your head”, “May thunder strike him where ever he is right now and may the spirits of everyone killed haunt every soul involved in this massacre”, All the ministers and service heads in Cameroon need to be given mass burial for a new country to emerge. Chai what has come over them or its really that the devil is at work? The bloody money u eat and talk nonsense shall one day prevail on your life and the life of your family members. You shall not see route”.
The comments also exposed the wickedness and inhumanity of the government and the Francophone community, labelling them as devils and terrorists, and vampires as people suffering from mental problem: “These Devils still lie even when captured on camera. Our people in that community were living in peace, they didn’t ask Cameroon military to come and protect them. Boko haram is slaughtering their citizens in the North, they wouldn’t go for their protection,”, “Terrorists like him ..They want to suck more blood”, “The paradox of doing the will of it’s master contradicts the ethics of good soldierhood. Your advocacy would have been harnessing if you had an iota of feelings towards the victims, their families, friends and relations, but is rather unfortunate that …”, “I used to think Devils have some funny looks but its like they’re some of these human faces we see everyday”, “This man i curse you and your entire generation to come. You have drunk just too much blood that even if you are found carrying a big mess on you, you will claim to be clean you vampire and your entire clan will all pay for just wait and see”.
Another aspect of the comments dwelled on divine reliance or intervention, truth and divine justice. They thought the government supported the military and promoted them to fight against them. That is why they relied on divine intervention They reminded them that God exists and He is awake and protects those who fights for the truth and He will punish those who murder the innocent people at Ngarbuh. They were certain that God will exhaust their prayer and a time will arrive when those killing them would be unable to continue doing so. Not only did they wish them deadly diseases but also that God would punish them from one generation to another. They ask on God to protect them.
“Chai!!!!Chai!!!!! There’s God oooo, chai chai chai, there’s God ooooooooo” “They should keep on with their lies only only the truth will save us, Happy are the people who are fighting for the truth, Lord protect us from Every danger and restore peace in our hearts”, “René or whatever you are called, God will take away your children same way you took ours. He is awake. Our cries won’t go unheard. We trust in him. It’s just a matter of time,” “May God expose all these lies you keep telling everyday and. may your generation never find happiness. May God punish your family and generation with deadly diseases forever in the name of Jesus!As the spirits of those dead watch u in tear tell lies f…”, “A season is coming their way, when they wouldn’t be able to go further. Jesus is the beginning & the end.”
They were optimistic considering the present as temporal which means that they were going to be triumphant because according to them God is on the throne and He is a God of justice and would disgrace the wicked they believed. They invited their brothers in Ngarbuh to wait on the Lord because evil has never prevailed and God is for the helpless. Therefore their messages gave solace to those who were affected.
“The mid-way race doesn’t matter. It’s the end that matters…All fingers crossed. God is seated on His Throne…”, “The one that the military did in Bamenda….that’s in the city, they still deny it …. God of Justice visit our enemies they are too strong for us…my people keeps living in pain everyday. “Praise God for them. God is on His throne laughing at them. For He will make them a public disgrace in the days ahead. (Ps. 2:1-8). Dear Ngarbuh brothers wait on the Lord, His is coming and He is here. He is the Lord for the helpless. Evil has never prevailed”, “One day you will cry and shed tears only for the words you used over innocent souls. May God give you another Chance to Change else, you will be consumed by the wrath of the angry Almighty.”
They even offer a prayer and waited on the time of God: “Lord Jesus, help us to have a heavenly view and a heavenly perspective. Help us to understand that we all have an eternity which will supersede our temporal existence here on earth. Help us to shape our acts and our words to fit our eternal reality. We…”,
They said if death were not weak, the militarymen would have all been dead and reminded them that they would equally be killed, the same way they were murdering them because he who kills using the sword die by the sword. They said the acts of the military would bring them nightmares, sleepless night and curses on them and their families:
“Just that the death is as weak as the word weak if not you guys won’t see no peace”, “He who fights with a sword will virtually die by the sword.as you jubilate and feast over the blood of the innocent, be rest assured, all you perpetrators of this evil, your day of reckoning is just by the corner”, “We are waiting now for Mr “buried the bereaved9” to come and say his own nonsense”, “A fallen hero once said that how long shall they kill our prophets while we stands aside and look. We need to be emancipated. Set the captive free”, They have created their own hell, nightmares, sleeplessnights, curses upon their families from generation to generation, God is alive”, Jesus is lord, only with this—I do not want to say that God is sleeping but rather the right time is coming”, “God is slow to anger and has given ample warnings that he will destroy those who oppose him and threaten his people (ex 34:6-7) don’t continue to provoke God for you will not be able to contain his wrath.”
They also showed that the state had failed in its duty to protect the population. It was quite perplexing for them to understand why an army should kill instead of protecting the population, why those who criticized the army are tracked and punished. They concluded that the army was there to satisfy the government and their creator10 and not the population and God.
“I don’t know whether this article is a joke or something serious. To whoever is talking, it is truly unbelievable that our protectors have turned against their duty. Whether the mind believes it or not, it is just the ideal. The reality lies in evidence!”, “How can one believe for a moment that an army as disciplined and civic-minded as ours can loot civilian properties and kill the people whose protection and security is their mission?” But they are doing it so maybe they want to set the government hope…”, “How can one believe for a moment that a corrupt government like that of Cameroon can attest for something they’ve done that could lead to more investigations?”, “We understand. If you dare criticize the army, they can decide to bring you down. Every life is important in Cameroon and deserves protection”, “That’s why the military keeps causing their havoc because they would be protected by their boss….”, “Rene Sadi I pity you. You are a diplomat by profession. You want to please your master and creator Biya. My advice to you is to fear GOD ALMIGHTY.”
One also clearly sees the feeling of impartiality in their write-ups: A situation where conclusions are drawn without full knowledge of the situation, a situation in which a third party is lacking: “I only laugh at those asking people like him to investigate the massacre, this already tells us the outcome of the investigation. God have mercy on us all”, “Has this man, in his capacity as minister of communications, ever gone down to the field to examine the situation first-hand before making any declarations? Please, somebody should help me understand. Maybe I’m not current,”, “In the face of it all, adversity, pressure, oppression is the only breeding ground for critical thinking, inventions and innovations! Keep pushing us. Maybe this is why we needed to think outside the box.”
They made a mockery of the system and the use of military force for survival and said it was a system without trust and were kept in power by the military: “I understand Issa Tchiroma11 better now. What a professional army indeed! This professionalism must be in hell where rape, looting and killing is the norm. Ahhh, go and sit down”, “The regime has lost the confidence of the population. It is not a surprise. Sample the opinion of 90% of francophone, they will say the same thing”, There’s only one thing keeping the regime in power: the military”, The only people standing on the way for Cameroon potentials is the military. When military becomes electorate, judiciary and administration… the old and incompetent can stay in power…”, “It was crossfire between the military and infrastructures12…to be continued”, “A General admitted on record that the military deliberately burn houses! Can you comment on that Mr Minister?”
“How can we imagine that ministers can embezzle state funds and they are allowed to live like kings”, “The devil has no shame”, “Where on earth can a notorious thief caught red handed quickly and simply confess and admits his criminal acts just like that, he prefers to be hang”, “Short sightedness is really killing this octogenarian regime”, “What I see here is idolization of some incarnates in the name of humans”, “Preparing to take over your land if the last person falls. The Ngarbuh inccidence has really motivated you and now you are thinking of other ways to completely eliminate every body in Ambazonia, that why you are thanking the head of state, Paul Biya.…
On the 19th February, 2020, [23] sent out the post below: “SDO for Nkambe, if separatist did the massacre in Ngarbuh why you people reduced the number of deaths to only 5”.
This means that all the government officers were liars and were not working for the interest of the population but for the government. They did everything to maintain the regime in power against the people’s will: The people had this to say: “What a simple nice question? SDO,oya. Answer the question”, “He is still working on the report”, “God has a way of exposing these barbarians by simply making them confess their crimes directly or indirectly”, “A very good question”, “Shame to Cameroon government, a country where all authorities are liars”, “Admission of guilt, they killed 32-5=27 people, acquiescence is not acceptable, it simply means, they know they did commit the genocide but want to share little of it with the Separatists. They failed to see that they started the war which is still ongoing and they cannot fault the defenders in anyway, whatsoever.”, “God has a way of exposing these barbarians by simply making them confess their crimes directly or indirectly”, “Tens of people have been killed. We all see them excluding those who have died in the bushes after sustaining gun shots. If LRC gov’t were honest about their claim, the exact figures would have been published but by the simple act of downplaying the numbers is telling enough of their guilt. They are trying to conceal their crimes, and in so doing they naively exposed themselves”, “God will see us through. It’s ordained”,
Human Right condemned the massacre and called for an independent investigation: “The murders of civilians, including children, committed under horrific conditions, are heinous crimes that should be effectively and independently investigated and those responsible brought to justice,” said Ilaria Allegrozzi, senior researcher on Africa at Human Rights Watch. “To deny that these crimes were committed adds further trauma to survivors and will only encourage government troops to commit further atrocities.”
According to [18], the minister of Communication hit back at a recent report published by Human Rights Watch over the Camerron’s military involvement in the Ngarbuh massacre and burning of houses. Reacting to the report during a press briefing on Thursday in Yaounde, Communication Minister Rene Emmanuel Sadi described the report as overtly biased and rejectted all accusations. He stressed that the Head of State has ordered for a commission of inquiry which will publish its findings soon and there was no need for organizations to go ahead and publish what he described as false information on the incident without having gone to the scene to carry out investigations. He said Human Rights Watch has no material evidence to support their assertion and denounced their approach which to him is an attempt to undermine the image of Cameroon and the stability of the institution.
Ambazonians expressed optimism stating that La Republique needed not to deceive themselves because they did not cover the truth of what happened at Ngarbuh on 14th February forever. They also added La Republique’s thugs were panicking already because no amount of distraction and obfuscation could save them. They equally expressed the hope that they would be dragged to the International Court of Justice for their crimes against Ambazonians. They equally wished there had been satellite images to uncover the truth of Ngarbuh. However, they depended on God because they believe He is awake. They said no matter what they would get freed one day and reiterated that they were their own enemies because of their their “divide and rule fallacy”.
Facebook reports had it that two angry Cameroonians attempted burning themselves up with fuel in front of the Cameroonian Embassy in London, in protest against the Ngarbuh massacre. The two victims were rescued by the British police and administered medical care. The writer commented that the Ngarbuh massacre was yet to be over in the minds of many people world-wide and the worst case scenario in retaliation to that incident was expected in the coming days as southern Cameroonians looked forward to having black Friday that week. This post by Aeron Kaah was widely shared and commented [24].
The martyr was considered as a BAS UK member. They asked for Divine intervention and complained that they have cried a lot until their tears could no longer flow because they were living in a painful moment and environment: “God of mercy protect us,”, “God have mercy on us. Oh look at your beautiful children”, “God Almighty is watching”, “Ohhh God, please help us for the pain is tooo much” “Everyday ooh na so so cry ooh,13 water don finish for my eyes. God have u become an IDP14 too?? Come to our rescue”, “My fellow Ambazonian please hold yourselves together, don’t add more pains on us please we know that it hates my brothers take heart LRC government and its allies shall never go unpunished”, “That’s a good move hope I could be found where I could as well burn myself rather than shamelessly being alive while innocent children are roasted without any sympathy”, “The ngarbuh messacre is so painful it calls us all whether you belong to which political party,” “This shall continue until the international community does something. Even if they don’t want to listen to Ambazonia, let there be Justice for ngarbuh”.
According to [25] in a post entitled: We must not sleep, emphasized that, they too shall not sleep as our children and our unborn Ambazonians are being burnt alive by a beast. He said President Rawlings called Biya a “beast” after the Ngarbuh massacre. He called on his fellow Ambazonians in the UK to follow up the African Bar letter they had sent to their MPs15 in the United Kingdom. He called on them to contact commonwealth countries via their respective embassies in London, to shame them and question their loyalty to Africans since they were mute following the Ngarbuh massacre, and to remind Namibia that she was a South African colony that was rescued from the hands of apartheid colonial master (South Africa). They were offered their independence because Ethiopia and Liberia had taken their case to the International Court of Justice. Despite this, Namibians had ignored their quest for independence.
Kenya which was the Chair of the commonwealth and ought to have called for action against Cameroon had remained indifferent. Ghana’s President who gave the impression that he was a moderate and could not be influenced by the west had said nothing about the genocide in Southern Cameroons despite the calls for actions to be taken against Biya from his fellow statesman: Rawlings. He concluded that those African leaders were still puppets to Britain but they had to give them tough time and tell them what they thought about them. They had to hold them responsible for the genocide in the Southern Cameroons. Ambazonians had to ask them to DISMISS Cameroon from the Commonwealth for failing to respect the values and principles of the organization or those countries themselves should leave the Commonwealth. He gave them the numbers of the various embassies for them to talk with their ambassadors to let them know that they had failed African children in order to please colonial powers.
This post was widely shared and it received some of the comments below: “We have to be very serious here because UK is the heartbeat and focal point in this our case of Southern Cameroons due to their colonial role. More pressure should be mounted on them to stand up at once”, “Oh my God! Can u imagine Namibia ignoring us when I can remember way back in the primary school, our class six madame never allowed us rest with one song with opening lines..
“Namibia….. Oh oh Namibia…
Namibia… Your woe is our woe…”.
“If we make like this it will be as if we are begging them let us arm our RFS and see how the professional military will beg us”, “Great job bro and thanks for the sharing”, “Only God will do what no man can do. Ambazonian be strong for the almighty is with you”, “Good one comrade”, “Good strategy”.
Gina Informs shared the Commonwealth Secretary-General Patricia Scotland’s reaction after the Ngarbuh Maasacre [26]: “I strongly condemn the recent killings of civilians, including women and children in the North-West of Cameroon on 14 February 2020. We noted the Government announcement that there would be a full investigation into the incident. We encourage the Government to conduct an impartial investigation, for perpetrators to be held accountable and for results to be made public. The Commonwealth strongly condemns all forms of violence, and in particular, the loss of lives of innocent civilians including women and children.
Cameroon is a noted member of the Human Rights Council and as such we are minded of General Comment 13 to the Convention on the Rights of the Child to freedom from all forms of violence which is underscored by the understanding that no violence against children is justifiable, all violence against children is preventable.”
Southern Cameroonians blamed her for not helping them enough and that she had collected a gift from the Government in order to be quiet and labeled her as a noise-maker and a pretender: “When this Scotland or Poland Woman came to Cameroon, what did she say and collect? After corruption sealed your lips, you can now blow grammar from that end. God is watching”, “After receiving a Golden statue she is acting up. Corruption knows no shame. She should be ashamed”, “All this useless noise makers. Are they not fueling people with hate instead?”, “If she was serious she would have suspended Cameroon from the CW16 long ago but she enjoys the statues she gets from yde,17” “man tell that lady to shut up. She should stop playing holy.”
On the 16th February, Aaron Yancho Kaah sent a post entitled: Ngarbuh massacre. ‘The UN visit to this village is a Non-event’ cries an insider. [27] The post stated that, more than a dozen UN field staff had arrived to Ngarbuh: a farming community, to investigate the massacre of the more than 35 peasant farmers who were mostly children by trained Cameroun soldiers on Valentine’s day and that there was an infiltration of LRC’s agents in that mission and that some people loyal to the Biya’s regime in those communities had been brainwashed and paid to testify that they saw Amba fighters committing those acts. The post noted that those communities were gripped by fear and would say anything henceforth to secure their lives and freedoms. The post concluded that, it was inconsequential and a non-event that nothing should be expected out of it and that the Southern Cameroons civil society consortium had called for an independent thorough investigation into these killings that had left Southern Cameroonians in tears world-wide.
The following were the reactions: “What are we doing with an investigation? Total Retaliatory plan is what we needs….. take out the traitors. Simple”, “UN has first hand information my bro. They don’t work on propaganda, so there are under agents”, “If you were tagging the UN and US congress members that would have reached power eyes and ears”, “My brother was shot at Ichim on the 14th Feburary by amba and he died in hospital with reason that he voted, meanwhile he did not vote. What have you got to say about this?”, “wickedness in the both camp’s.”
On the 25th February Aaron Yancho Kaah sent another post which went viral with about 176 shares on the entitled “Look Here please..” [24]. He wrote.
Information reaching us this morning confirms that Danjuma popularly known as DJ the good Samaritan who helped the UN and Human Right Watch to access vital pieces of information about the Ngarbuh Massacre is under going severe torture and assault after been kidnapped by cameroun soldiers at gun point yesterday. There concerns he may have been killed today as the Biya regime struggles to conceal the story behind the Ngarbuh attacks. There is a commanding demand for the UN to give it’s witnesses protection unless they want to discourage everyone from telling the truth. “The intimidation of villagers and eyes witnesses of the Ngarbuh massacre is scary and many of the victims are on the run to Nigeria with their families” reported an insider on thr line to Donga today.
According to [28] UN SG Antonio Gutteres through spokesman reacts to the Ngarbuh Massacre. The Secretary-General is deeply concerned over reports about the killing of civilians, including children, in an attack on the village of Ngarbuh in the North-West Region of Cameroon on 14 February. He extends his deepest condolences to the families and calls on the Government of Cameroon to conduct an investigation and to ensure that those responsible are held accountable. The Secretary-General calls on armed actors to refrain from attacks against civilians and to respect international humanitarian and international human rights law. He reiterates the readiness of the United Nations to work with stakeholders towards a political solution to the crisis in the North-West and South-West Regions of Cameroon through meaningful dialog.
The people responses to the killing of Danjuma and the United Nations’ Secretary General reaction indicate they did not have to rely on an international community but themselves and it instigated them to take arms and fight the more. They considered Cameroon an unsaved zone.
“Terrible”, “This is sad. More reason why UN must take serious measures.”, “Why did the UN allow him unsaved???????”, “God safe him from these wicked people”, “Hi Camemeroon Na Danger Zone”, “Wondering where this world is heading to”, “Oh JESUS”, “Truth always surface (LRC will never succeed in Jesus name Amen)”, “They should share this and even to that UN office to let them know what’s happening after they left”, “Where is the UN. Why is the UN afraid of Biya?”
They considered the UN SG as being evil, a nincompoop, and being unfair in their decision because according to the commentators, a person who has committed a crime cannot investigate himself. They called on him to leave a legacy by thinking of his being a father too to children like those massacred at Ngarbuh. His non-action was considered as a disgrace.
“Look at his face! Traces of evil all around it”, “You ask the person who burnt houses for bi firefighter and again at the same time arson investigator. Wandas”, “Tell him I said that he is a nincompoop ”, “Mr S/G what legacy will you keep behind after your turn of office is over? Sir you are a disgrace to mankind and to father-hood”, “I wonder who he is sending condolences to….; Is he speaking with dead people?” “If I understand well, the UN is insinuating that arm groups are attacking civilians and may have committed the crime. All anglophones have been sold into slavery by the UN”, “I see to refrain attacks against civilians and do what? Continue killing themselves? Why are these people this wicked?”, “I wander who brought this man as secretary general at the UNITED Nations. I know America regret this very man”,
They considered the United Nation as being powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog and that actions were better than comments. Since he could not use his office to right the wrongs committed during independence, they then consider him as a noise-maker. They considered him as someone prone to corruption than justice and also as the worst UN SG ever. Guterres was considered as a criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments. They are labeled as blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed. They show their hatred to the UN because according to them, it is a useless organization.
“Toothless bull dog” you are the father of all nations, when your children are bloodily fighting, you look for means to forcefully call them to order and for negotiation, you do not sit in your comfortable chair and said u’re ready to welcome the protagonists”, “Mr.S/G! You need to act. The time has come for ur organisation to act.no more time for comments and condemnations. Or are waiting to see all of Southern Cameroonians in graves before u wld know things are not getting better over here.”, “Two sides Cutlass condolences, and to think that this folk can use the office given him to solve the errors of the UN, in the 60s make me sick”, “Nonsense noise-maker. We need actions and not your usual noise Mr. SG”, “It is now very clear to us that ever the UN have been both over with money what shame. But we will never so render because you will killed time to last man standing”, “Antonio Guteres the worst UN Secretary General ever. You are waiting for a full blown war before you act? Shameless!”,
“Forget about them, all of them are blood suckers AU, UN and what so ever, these are occultic groups, when innocent babes are killed, they are happy, how can you be asking the perpetrators to investigate, what is he investigating, the government profession…”, “Time to dissolve this Divided Nations bullshit. It’s sickening, how eat and fart doing nothing. Is LRC and Southern Cameroon such a complicated equation to solve? Put this case in court for God’s sake!”, “Empty man who only have increased on his own organization while many are dying, is it today that they see our people dying in their numbers”, “What in any of those lines is new?”, “Is it calling on the government to investigate or respect human rights?, “Useless organization. Let them keep asking Cameroon Government to investigate untill every one is killed. Toothless bull. I hate UN. Useless organization”,
They considered the UN SG evil because he was trying to cover up the situation in the Southern Cameroons because according to them, President Paul Biya was not going to investigate the massacre.
“The UN is a useless organization. A toothless bulldog. It should be dissolved. Its serves no purposes”, “Same useless song”, “Pls ask dem to stay quite, we dis generation demands action or dere should stay quite forever.!!!”, “The same language every day, “Which Dialogue again?, How many times will the UN claim innocence that they never know Biya can never be sincere about q meaningful political settlement or are they buying time enough to enable the entire anglophones be destroyed?, “He and his UN are always and ever concern about worsening situations around the world. Rubbish”, “Cameroon is one and indivisible no one have a right on this fighting”, “Clowns!”, “Anthem”, “Bullshit”, “Nonsense,” “Shame”, “Talk is cheap!”, “Papa get out”, “Politics dirtiest Game ever”, “Fuck them all. They keep on talking but can’t do anything. Demonic organization, “See face,”, “Cowards UN they are not even brave enough to come to southern Cameroon”, “Toothless bulldogs, fuck”, “Hypocrites”,
Nelborg Steve on a post entitle:, DEVELOPING NEWS initiatially posted by Jenifer DK, indicated that the UN had called for an independent international investigation into the Ngarbuh massacre including: Ofen-Tiben massacre., Menka-Pinyin massacre, Bakweri town massacre., Buea Town massacre, Muyuka massacre., Ekona massacre., Munyenge massacre, Kwa-Kwa massacre, Wum massacre, Weh massacre, Esu massacre, The killing of baby Martha, The beheading of Sam Soya, the burning of mami Appih.
Southern Cameroonians appreciated the move by saying: it was “Spirit-lifting”, “The sleeping UN is gradually getting up from sleep”, ‘And Florence Ayafor’s case, I was shocked to see that Video from a Catalonian activist page”, “Let the investigation only be done thoroughly. Other killings be done for it’s a genocidal act”, “Good news”, “Why have they not included this imam that they used and failed to protect”, “Excellent! But what about the Guzang Massacre, the beheading of Ayafor Florence, the Krugwe Massacre? Ok ooh”, “Better late than never”, “GOOD NEWS”, “just the beginning”, “Matters arising from the minutes. Slowly but surely the world is awakening from the stupor.”
When the military burnt houses, rape women, massacre people as they did in Ngarbuh, the government labeled them as professional and disciplined soldiers while the separatists who defended themselves against the outslaught of the soldiers are considered terrorists. On the other hand, the separatist also labeled the military as terrorists. Who then is a terrorist? In the perspective of the government which is struggling to maintain the territorial integrity of the country, it is the separatists who are trying to cut off themselves from La Republique Cameroon.
Therefore, the labelling theory is very applicable in this work. It is an attempt to explain deviance as a social process by which some people who commit deviant acts come to be known as deviants and the others do not. Deviance is seen as a consequence of society’s decision to apply that term to a person. Therefore, deviant behavior is what a decision labels as deviant. The critical point here is not the behavior itself but why the behavior was labeled as deviant. Not all who engage in deviant activities are labeled deviant but some are [29].
Patrick Ekema who fought against the separatist movement was given a medal for patriotism wheras the separatists considered him as him as their worst enemy. He did the worst of thing sealing business people’s shop and was even accused of murder. All senior government workers are labeled by Southern Cameroon separatists as enablers because they did all they could to disrupt the revolution by cooperating with the government. They are labeled as good people by the government not because what they do is good but that their actions help the government to maintain territorial intergrity. They are very insensitive to the cries of their people, they do not denounce the military atrocities but instead help the military to fight against their people. Therefore, the people labeled them as devils, terrorists, vampires, as people suffering from mental problem etc.
They labeled the United Nation as powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog, a noise-maker, criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments, blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed, a useless organization because of its inability to take action and to listen to them.
The rise and spread of new ICTs has transformed the way that society is organized, which of course include social movements. As a result, satirical material, fake news which are Internet-based publications purporting to be genuine news sources which propagate inaccurate stories based on rumor or blatant untruths have come to stay. This is enshrined in the post-truth politics which refers to a political culture wherein debate is more emotional and contrary ideas are hardly welcomed. The most popular fake news stories during the Ambazonian crisis have been shared more widely than the most popular mainstream media reports and it provoked a lot of reactions.
No Facebook posts received as many comments as the one which carried the reaction of the minister of communication in which he styled the military as professionals and the separatist fighters as terrorists. Ambazonians knew the truth which other Cameroonians did not know. After the killings and burning of houses, the separatist fighters buried the dead. The more the truth is hidden, the more the wound widen, the more tension increases, the more trust is destroyed and the more the war will prolong and which may probably end up widening the divide between the two peoples. Martial solutions only help to radicalize the population and encourage them to defy state institutions.
Their comments were a call for rebellion because the state considered everyone of them as Amba so they had to carry gun and fight. They wondered how the government could refuse to acknowledge such genocidal acts and were determined to pick up arms against the government and to force the Francophone out of their land. The people question the trust of the government and the government thinks it can only regain it through intimidation. They felt helpless in front of international organization.
In reactions to the post on Facebook, the Ambazonian people poured frightful curses on government officials and wish they mysteriously died. They labeled them as wizards and wished them mad and they thought they were demon possessed. They mocked them by saying it happened in Mali. They think that they will be consumed by their own evils. The comments also exposed the wickedness and inhumanity of the government and the Francophone community, labelling them as devils and terrorists, and vampires as people suffering from mental problem.
Another aspect of the comments dwelled on divine reliance or intervention, truth and divine justice. They thought the government supported the military and promoted them to fight against them. That is why they relied on divine intervention They reminded them that God exists and He is awake and protects those who fights for the truth and He will punish those who murder the innocent people. They were certain that God will exhaust their prayer and a time would arrive when those killing them will be unable to continue doing so. Not only did they wish them deadly diseases but that God would punish them from one generation to another. They ask on God to protect them.
They were optimistic considering the present as temporal which means that they were going to be triumphant because according to them God is on the throne and He is a God of justice and would disgrace the wicked they believed. They invited their brothers in Ngarbuh to wait on the Lord because evil has never prevailed and God is for the helpless. Therefore their messages gave solace to those who were affected. They also showed that the state had failed in its duty to protect the population. It was quite perplexing for them to understand why an army should kill instead of protecting the population, why those who criticized the army are tracked and punished. They concluded that the army was there to satisfy the government and their creator and not the population and God. One also clearly sees the feeling of impartiality in their write-ups: A situation where conclusions are drawn without full knowledge of the situation, a situation in which a third party is lacking: They made a mockery of the system and the use of military force for survival and said it was a system without trust and were kept in power by the military.
They considered the UN SG as being evil, a nincompoop, and being unfair in their decision because according to the commentators, a person who has committed a crime cannot investigate himself. They called on him to leave a legacy by thinking of his being a father too to children like those massacred at Ngarbuh. His non-action was considered as a disgrace.
They considered the United Nation as being powerless comparing it to a toothless bull dog and that actions were better than comments. Since he could not use his office to right the wrongs committed during independence, they then consider him as a noise-maker. They considered him as someone prone to corruption than justice and also as the worst UN SG ever. According to them, he was a criminal, an accomplice and a collaborator to dictators and repressive governments. They are labeled as blood-suckers who were happy when people are killed. They show their hatred to the UN because according to them, it is a useless organization.
Therefore Internet-based news is people-friendly because it helps them to express their feeling which is in cossonance with the post-truth politics.
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\\n\\nA Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\\n\\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIndividual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\\n\\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIn the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\\n\\nIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\\n\\nAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\\n\\nParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
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\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nAttribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\n\nCreative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\n\nWith the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\nIn case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\n\nAll rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\nA Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIndividual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIn the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\n\nIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\n\nAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\n\nParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\n\nAll the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
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