Biosecurity measures designed to reduce the risk of the infectious disease’s introduction in dairy farms by employees and visitors.
\r\n\r\n
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Biradar",slug:"m.s.-biradar",email:"editor.bjhs@bldeuniversity.ac.in",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263841",title:"Dr.",name:"Shrilaxmi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagali",fullName:"Shrilaxmi Bagali",slug:"shrilaxmi-bagali",email:"shrikots@yahoo.in",position:null,institution:null},{id:"265434",title:"Dr.",name:"Gavishiddappa A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hadimani",fullName:"Gavishiddappa A. Hadimani",slug:"gavishiddappa-a.-hadimani",email:"gavish.hadimani@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7009",title:"Hypoxia and Anoxia",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Hypoxia and Anoxia",slug:"hypoxia-and-anoxia",publishedDate:"December 12th 2018",bookSignature:"Kusal K. Das and Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7009.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9504",leadTitle:null,title:"Evidence-Based Approaches to Effectively Respond to Public Health Emergencies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tResponding to global public health emergencies require well-tested and effective approaches. During the current pandemic, healthcare systems worldwide were ill-prepared to respond to the rapid and far reaching impact of COVID-19. This should prompt researchers to re-examine policies, practices, methods and approaches that governments, health care and civic organizations may use to address health emergencies. With over 100 years of research on the implementation of innovative practices, system and organizational scientists are poised to help states, health care systems and other systems to develop, establish and employ evidence-based practices (EBPs) to effectively respond to public health emergencies.
\r\n\r\n\tThe primary aim of this book is to present theoretical and empirical knowledge on evidence-based policies, organizational practices, group and individual practices and approaches that may allow States and healthcare systems to effectively confront current (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic), ongoing (e.g. HIV, opioid overdose) and upcoming epidemics affecting population health. The overall goal of this book is to advance knowledge on the development and dissemination of EBPs that contribute to a responsive, coordinated, reliable and effective public health system.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-144-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-143-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-145-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"355f26e9a65d22c4de7311a424d1e3eb",bookSignature:"Dr. Erick Guerrero",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9504.jpg",keywords:"Implementation, Dynamic Systems, Public Health, Emergencies, Coordination, Collaboration, Networks, Teams, Organizational Learning, Implementation, Public Health Crises, Pay for Performance",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 19th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 15th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Erick Guerrero is an internationally recognized researcher in healthcare access and redesign and Co-Principal Investigator in several public health research projects in the United States, Latin American, and Europe. He is also leading culturally responsive consortiums to respond to other public health crises including institutional racism and COVID-19.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"294761",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"erick-guerrero",fullName:"Erick Guerrero",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294761/images/system/294761.jpg",biography:"Erick Guerrero completed his doctoral degree at the University of Chicago in 2009. In 2016, Dr. Guerrero received tenure as Associate Professor at the University of Southern California. Since 2018, he has been serving as the Founder and Director at the I-LEAD Institute, a research and consulting firm in Silicon Beach. Dr Guerrero has a background in clinical psychology and organizational behavior. As a clinician, he has provided counseling to individuals and families for the past 23 years. As an organizational researcher, Dr Guerrero has published more than 60 peer-reviewed manuscripts and 2 books on implementation of evidence-based practices in health and human service organizations. Dr Guerrero currently co-leads three large studies on disparities and implementation research to respond to the opioid epidemic funded by the U.S. National Institute of Health. He is also leading culturally responsive consortiums to respond to other public health crises including institutional racism and COVID-19.",institutionString:"I-Lead Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"259492",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Gojević-Zrnić",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259492/images/7469_n.png",email:"sara.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8335",title:"Effective Prevention and Treatment of Substance Use Disorders for Racial and Ethnic Minorities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ca6c7d5d975b1fa9ce320b1162b0dad6",slug:"effective-prevention-and-treatment-of-substance-use-disorders-for-racial-and-ethnic-minorities",bookSignature:"Erick Guerrero and Tenie Khachikian",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8335.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"294761",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",surname:"Guerrero",slug:"erick-guerrero",fullName:"Erick Guerrero"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"776",title:"Singularity Robust Inverse Dynamics of Parallel Manipulators",doi:"10.5772/5378",slug:"singularity_robust_inverse_dynamics_of_parallel_manipulators",body:'Parallel manipulators have received wide attention in recent years. Their parallel structures offer better load carrying capacity and more precise positioning capability of the end-effector compared to open chain manipulators. In addition, since the actuators can be placed closer to the base or on the base itself the structure can be built lightweight leading to faster systems (Gunawardana & Ghorbel, 1997; Merlet, 1999; Gao et al., 2002 ).
It is known that at kinematic singular positions of serial manipulators and parallel manipulators, arbitrarily assigned end-effector motion cannot in general be reached by the manipulator and consequently at those configurations the manipulator loses one or more degrees of freedom. In addition, the closed loop structure of parallel manipulators gives rise to another type of degeneracy, which can be called drive singularity, where the actuators cannot influence the end-effector accelerations instantaneously in certain directions and the actuators lose the control of one or more degrees of freedom. The necessary actuator forces become unboundedly large unless consistency of the dynamic equations are guaranteed by the specified trajectory.
The previous studies related to the drive singularities mostly aim at finding only the locations of the singular positions for the purpose of avoiding them in the motion planning stage (Sefrioui & Gosselin, 1995; Daniali et al, 1995; Alici, 2000; Ji, 2003; DiGregorio, 2001; St-Onge & Gosselin, 2000). However unlike the kinematic singularities that occur at workspace boundaries, drive singularities occur inside the workspace and avoiding them limits the motion in the workspace. Therefore, methods by which the manipulator can move through the drive singular positions in a stable fashion are necessary.
This chapter deals with developing a methodology for the inverse dynamics of parallel manipulators in the presence of drive singularities. To this end, the conditions that should be satisfied for the consistency of the dynamic equations at the singular positions are derived. For the trajectory of the end-effector to be realizable by the actuators it should be designed to satisfy the consistency conditions. Furthermore, for finding the appropriate actuator forces when drive singularities take place, the dynamic equations are modified by using higher order derivative information. The linearly dependent equations are replaced by the modified equations in the neighborhoods of the singularities. Since the locations of the drive singularities and the corresponding modified equations are known (as derived in Section 3), in a practical scenario the actuator forces are found using the modified equations in the vicinity of the singular positions and using the regular inverse dynamic equations elsewhere. Deployment motions of 2 and 3 dof planar manipulators are analyzed to illustrate the proposed approach (Ider, 2004; Ider, 2005).
Consider an n degree of freedom parallel robot. Let the system be converted into an open-tree structure by disconnecting a sufficient number of unactuated joints. Let the degree of freedom of the open-tree system be m, i.e. the number of the independent loop closure constraints in the parallel manipulator be m-n. Let
and can be expressed at velocity level as
where
Equation (3) can be written at velocity level as
where
where
The dynamic equations of the parallel manipulator can be written as
where M is the
Combining the terms involving the unknown forces
where the
The inverse dynamic solution of the system involves first finding
For the prescribed x(t),
Singularities may also occur while solving for the actuator forces in the dynamic equation (8), when
In the literature the singular positions of parallel manipulators are mostly determined using the kinematic expression between
References (Sefrioui & Gosselin, 1995 ; Daniali et al, 1995; Ji, 2003) name the condition
where
At the motion planning stage one usually tries to avoid singular positions. This is not difficult as far as inverse kinematic singularities are concerned because they usually occur at the workspace boundaries (DiGregorio, 2001). In this paper it is assumed that
At a drive singularity, usually rank of A becomes m-1. Let at the singular position the s th row of
where
Substitution of equation (13) into equation (14) yields
Equation (15) represents the consistency condition that
Now, because equation (13) holds at the singular position, there exists a neighborhood in which the first term in equation (16) is negligible compared to the other terms. Therefore in that neighborhood this term can be dropped to yield
Equation (17) is the modified equation that can be used to replace the s th row of equation (8) or any other equation in the linearly dependent set.
In the general case where the rank of
where
The consistency relations are obtained as below
Substitution of equation (18) into the derivative of equation (19) yields the modified equations,
When the linearly dependent dynamic equations in equation (8) are replaced by the modified equations, equation (8) takes the following form, which is valid in the vicinity of the singular configurations.
where in the case the s th row of
In the general case when the rank of
Notice that
The inverse dynamics algorithm in the presence of drive singularities is given below.
Find the loci of the positions where the actuation singularities occur and find the linear dependency coefficients associated with the singular positions.
If the assigned path of the end-effector passes through singular positions, design the trajectory so as to satisfy the consistency conditions at the singular positions.
Set time
Calculate
If the manipulator is in the vicinity of a singular position, i.e.
If the manipulator is not in the vicinity of a singular position, i.e.
Set
The planar parallel manipulator shown in Figure 1 has 2 degrees of freedom (
Two degree of freedom 2-RRR planar parallel manipulator.
The moving links are uniform bars. The fixed dimensions are labelled as
The loop closure constraint equations at velocity level are
Then the task equations at velocity level are
The mass matrix M and the vector of the Coriolis, centrifugal and gravitational forces R are
where
Since the variables of the actuated joints are
Then the coefficient matrix of the constraint and actuator forces,
The drive singularities are found from
When the end point comes to
Hence the time trajectory s(t) of the deployment motion should be selected such that at the drive singularity the generalized accelerations satisfy equation (36).
An arbitrary trajectory that does not satisfy the consistency condition is not realizable. This is illustrated by considering an arbitrary third order polynomial for
For the time function s(t), a polynomial is chosen which satisfies the consistency condition at the drive singularity in addition to having zero initial and final velocities. The time
Motor torques for the trajectory not satisfying the consistency condition: 1.T1, 2.T2
Furthermore, even when the consistency condition is satisfied,
The coefficients of the constraint forces in eqn (38) are
which in general do not vanish at the singular position if the system is in motion.
Once the trajectory is chosen as above such that it renders the dynamic equations to be consistent at the singular position, the corresponding
Time function satisfying the consistency condition.
The 2-RPR manipulator shown in Figure 5 has 3 degrees of freedom (n=3). Choosing the revolute joint at D for disconnection (among the passive joints) the joint variable vector of the open chain system is
The velocity level loop closure constraint equations are
The prescribed position and orientation of the moving platform,
Motor torques for the trajectory satisfying the consistency condition: 1.T1, 2.T2.
RPR planar parallel manipulator.
Let the joints whose variables are
The link dimensions and mass properties are arbitrarily chosen as follows. The link lengths are
The generalized mass matrix M and the generalized inertia forces involving the second order velocity terms R are
where
For the set of actuators considered, the actuator direction matrix Z is
Hence,
Since
Hence, drive singularities occur inside the workspace and avoiding them limits the motion in the workspace. Avoiding singular positions where
When point P comes to
The desired trajectory should be chosen in such a way that at the singular position the generalized accelerations should satisfy the consistency condition.
If an arbitrary trajectory that does not satisfy the consistency condition is specified, then such a trajectory is not realizable. The actuator forces grow without bounds as the singular position is approached and become infinitely large at the singular position. This is illustrated by using an arbitrary third order polynomial for
Motor torque for the trajectory not satisfying the consistency condition.
Actuator forces for the trajectory not satisfying the consistency cond.: 1.F1, 2.F2.
For the time function s(t) a polynomial is chosen that renders the dynamic equations to be consistent at the singular position in addition to having zero initial and final velocities. The time
Bad choices for
However, even when the equations are consistent, in the neighborhood of the singular positions
where
A time function that satisfies the consistency condition.
Once the trajectory is specified, the corresponding
A general method for the inverse dynamic solution of parallel manipulators in the presence of drive singularities is developed. It is shown that at the drive singularities, the actuator forces cannot influence the end-effector accelerations instantaneously in certain directions. Hence the end-effector trajectory should be chosen to satisfy the consistency of the dynamic equations when the coefficient matrix of the drive and constraint forces, A becomes singular. The satisfaction of the consistency conditions makes the trajectory to be realizable by the actuators of the manipulator, hence avoids the divergence of the actuator forces.
Motor torque for the trajectory satisfying the consistency condition.
Actuator forces for the trajectory satisfying the consistency condition: 1.F1, 2.F2
To avoid the problems related to the ill-condition of the force coefficient matrix, A in the neighborhood of the drive singularities, a modification of the dynamic equations is made using higher order derivative information. Deletion of the linearly dependent equation in that neighborhood would cause task violations due to the removal of a task. For this reason the modified equation is used to replace the dependent equation yielding a full rank force coefficient matrix.
Rotational joint displacements: 1.θ1, 2.θ2.
Translational joint displacements: 1.ζ1, 2.ζ2.
The elements of M and R of the 2-RPR parallel manipulator shown in equation (41) are given below, where
In dairy farms, biosecurity, surveillance, resilience/immunity, biocontainment, and control of disease spread within the herd are the pillars that need to be appropriately managed to ensure the healthy herd [1].
Biosecurity is focused to reduce and prevent the introduction of diseases or pests of animals on a farm, and to minimize the spread of diseases or pests within a farm. Biosecurity action plans need to be implemented mainly in large dairy farms where the disease agents can be introduced by various sources such as labor, advisers, replacement cattle, supplies, feedstuffs, and vehicles [2].
Surveillance programs are developed for early detection of emerging pathogens, to establish disease-free status or the prevalence of a specific disease in a herd [3].
Relation resilience immunity is based on the individuals’ resistance to diseases that can be modulated by the ability of animals to adapt to adverse conditions (stress factor) and recover from them [4].
Biocontainment and control programs are important backup systems for biosecurity plans that will prevent the emerging disease spreading within the herd or the endemic diseases spreading between animals into the farm [2, 5].
The overall biosecurity of dairy farm uses different levels or shells of actions (national or supranational, regional, and local), linked with the epidemiological profile of the pathogen. For highly contagious infectious agent (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease), the most efficient biosecurity plan is at national or European Union level, while for infectious agents transmitted by close contact between animals (e.g., bovine tuberculosis), the regional biosecurity measures such as movement controls will protect the status of the region [1].
Biosecurity practices on livestock farms have been described and prioritized in various ways [1, 2, 5, 6]. In this chapter, we grouped biosecurity measures in the following categories: dairy farm sanitation, facility biosecurity, animal biosecurity, feed biosecurity, and manure biosecurity.
Some infectious agents are specific for dairy cattle and others are zoonotic, affecting both bovine and human health. Employees and visitors can contribute to the spread of all these infectious agents on a dairy farm [7]. The transmission of pathogens by humans can be reduced or even stopped by providing on-farm laundry facilities for all protective clothing used on the farm, using only clean overalls during farm visits, providing disposable clean booties for visitors and cleaning of boots with disinfecting solution after scrubbing off any visible dirt at the end of the visit, and washing of hands before and after working with sick or young animals [7, 8, 9].
Milking parlor personnel should wear latex gloves while milking to reduce the spreading potential of the contagious mastitis pathogens [9]. Sometimes, these hired personnel can take care of other animals outside the dairy farm and carry pathogens on the farm. Employees should be regularly trained in good practices to prevent the spread of disease (the principles of hygiene and disease security). They need to know that calves are susceptible to diseases carried by adult animals, and daily activities should be organized so that employees work with younger animals before working with older animals. Prevention of the infectious agent’s introduction and spreading from outside and inside sources should also be considered in the education of hired personnel in basic hygiene and disinfection [10]. The main actions included in the biosecurity plan for dairy farms should reduce the risk of infectious diseases to be introduced by employees and visitors (Table 1).
Biosecurity measure | Action |
---|---|
Record in the logbook all farm visitors | Place the visitor logbook at the farm entrance |
Restrict the access of visitors to the stable | Locking the stable doors |
Inform unauthorized persons that they are not allowed to enter the stable | Post-warning signs asking visitors not to pass inside stable and several directing signs to the farm offices |
The visitors can access the stable only with clean clothes and boots, which they have not used in other farms | Provide clean boots and overalls for all visitors |
The visitors should use a footbath with disinfectant and clean their boots before entering the stable | Place a disinfectant footbath and brushes outside the stable |
The dealer or transporter of the newly arrived animals is not allowed to enter in stable or in contact with the farm animals | The access of the cars is made on a route that avoids contact with the farm animals, directly toward the quarantine area located at a distance from the herd |
The livestock renderer access in the stable or the contact with cattle is restricted | Store dead animals away from the stable and main roads |
Biosecurity measures designed to reduce the risk of the infectious disease’s introduction in dairy farms by employees and visitors.
The access of visitors must be limited and recorded in a logbook; the farm touring must start from younger to older animal groups; barn doors are recommended to be locked and a warning sign must be posted to keep out unauthorized personnel [9].
Also, along the access road of the farm must be displayed signs directing visitors to the administrative area and to the visitor parking, as well as warning signs to limit direct contact of visitors with farm feed and animals [11].
Equipment can be contaminated with infectious secretions, excretions, and blood and the movement of equipment between stalls and farms may also transport pathogens [12].
All equipment used on the farm must be regularly cleaned and disinfected [11]. To prevent contamination of equipment, storage containers need to be used for all tools and feeding equipment. Also, all storage containers are regularly cleaned and disinfected. The storage containers must protect equipment from diseases, pests, or weeds [13]. Before use in healthy animals, equipment that has been used on sick animals must be cleaned and disinfected. However, it is better not to use clothing, shoes, and tools dedicated to the compartment of sick animals [14]. Dehorners, ear taggers, hoof knives, clippers, and all shared and hired equipment will be cleaned and disinfected between uses [11, 14].
Nursing bottles and buckets must be sanitized before each feeding [14], calves kept indoors must have fresh clean dry bedding, and plastic calf hutches will be cleaned and disinfected after use [11].
The equipment used for manure disposal will not be used for transporting or delivering feed [13].
Disposable clothing and used veterinary equipment must be removed safely [11].
Vehicles are considered fomites mainly for pathogenic robust organisms that can survive a long time in the environment [1]. Mainly external vehicles that collect milk, calves, and carcasses or deliver feedstuffs, pharmaceuticals, and semen can be involved in the transmission of infectious disease because they travel daily from farm to farm [2, 10]. A high biosecurity risk is associated with carcasses (dead stock) collectors because they are usually in contact with diseased animals [15, 16].
To prevent the introduction of infectious agents, vehicles must be kept clean and should not have access to the zones where the animals are housed [10, 11, 17].
External vehicles should not be allowed on the farm [18]. If vehicles are necessary on the farm, then ensure that vehicles and trailers are clean when entering the farm and disinfected before and after use [6, 11, 18, 19]. Cleaning and disinfection will cover both the exterior and the interior of the vehicles, with greater attention to areas where dirt may be hidden (e.g., wheel arches and tires) [11]. Because the transport by dealers may pose additional risks of infectious disease transmission between farms, it is recommended that the animal moving will use only farm-owned vehicles [20], with clean and ample bedding to prevent both injuries and disease [14].
Guidance indicators and warning and restricting access signs to unauthorized vehicles must be placed at the entrance to the farm road and along the road. The farm must have a designated area for visitors’ vehicles that are at the entrance of the farm and away from the animal and animal stalls [6, 10, 14]. Also, service vehicles should not drive over the routes of feed delivery or manure handling [14].
In a dairy farm, the building’s design can help prevent the spread of pathogens to sick cows, periparturient cows, and newborns [2]. Buildings should have a well-established destination, in correlation with the categories of animals present on the farm. Dairy farms can secure their premises against domestic and wild animals by installing various types of fences (e.g., electric fence) around the buildings. Disinfectant footbaths should be at the entry of livestock housing. All farms should have isolation building (the quarantine facility) where the health status of the newly purchased cows will be observed before they join the rest of the herd [21]. To prevent direct and indirect contact between residents and new animals, the quarantine facility should be located in the farthest possible place on the dairy farm [10]. The farm must have a biosecurity plan that includes building maintenance activities (e.g., check and maintain fences, replace bird netting, and repair holes in buildings), which will reduce the contact of cattle with wild animals and the feed contamination with birds droppings or badger feces [14, 21].
The introduction of new cattle is one of the most important biosecurity risks for dairy farms [10]. In modern dairy farming, the sale and movement of cattle is an intrinsic part of the business as a consequence of the increased herd replacement rate of adult milking cows, the forced culling, and the need to increase the size of the herd [1]. Therefore, keeping a closed herd is the most effective biosecurity measure but is the least practical [6]. To reduce the risk of diseases spreading between farms, the new animals are purchased only from herds with known health status and known vaccination protocols [9, 10].
The best solution to prevent the introduction of diseases through the acquisition of new animals is the hosting of the newly purchased cows in a quarantine facility with trained personnel to handle isolated animals [10, 21]. Quarantine is one of the most important biosecurity tools and consists of the separation of specific groups of animals to prevent the transmission of infectious diseases. Prophylactic quarantine is designed to separate the resident herd from newly acquired animals for 1 month or more. During the 30 days of isolation, the personnel from the quarantine facility will monitor cattle health status and prevent direct and indirect contact between new and resident animals [9, 10]. If the infections have short incubation times, then the animals will develop acute diseases during the quarantine period. In other cases, to prevent the diseases spreading from animals that might be hiding an infectious agent without exhibiting clinical signs to resident animals, the quarantined animals will be tested for various diseases such as bovine tuberculosis, Johne’s disease, brucellosis, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, leucosis, bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), trichomoniasis, neosporosis, ringworm, liver fluke, lungworm, digital dermatitis, and contagious mastitis pathogens (Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus) [10, 14]. The testing of animals in the prophylactic quarantine is a valuable biosecurity tool when properly applied.
To prevent the bovine tuberculosis introduction, the biosecurity plan should take into consideration all possibilities of Mycobacterium bovis transmission. Cattle are the main reservoir and spread microbes through aerosols (adults) or manure (calves) to many domestic and wild mammalian species. Sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and dogs are spillover hosts and spread M. bovis spread microbes in various ways (respiratory, digestive, by bites, or scratches). After infection, badgers, brush-tail opossums, wild boars, deer, and other wildlife species become wildlife reservoirs (maintenance host). Humans are susceptible and contract the infection mainly by drinking raw milk and raw milk products. People with pulmonary or urogenital tuberculosis can retransmit the infection to cattle [22].
Calves are more susceptible and should be kept in a separate area to minimize their exposure to infectious agents [14]. Calves can carry many infectious diseases without clinical signs and positive results on the laboratory tests (e.g., Johne’s disease). This risk can be reduced by purchasing calves only from herds officially certified as disease-free [1].
Because one of the most common ways of the BVD virus introduction in a free farm is via a pregnant heifer (“Trojan cow”) carrying a persistently infected fetus, all calves from purchased cattle should be tested at birth to detect persistently infected animals with BVD virus [1, 9, 10]. Persistently infected animals are the main route of the BVDV spreading between herds because they cannot be detected by serological tests (immunotolerant calves), but excrete massive amounts of virus [1, 23]. The risk of farm contamination can be reduced by purchasing animals only from herds officially certified as BVDV-free. If the BVDV status in the herd of origin is unknown, then pregnant females should be isolated on arrival (the contact with any animal of breeding age must be restricted), tested for BVD antibody and BVD antigen, and released from isolation only if they are negative results at both tests or antibody positive, antigen-negative, calved, and the calf was tested negative or removed from the herd [1]. To prevent BVDV introduction into a free farm, the following risk factors should be considered: trade with live animals, embryo transfer and semen recipients, return of animals from animal exhibitions, direct contacts between cattle on pasture or over fences, density and activity of arthropod vectors, vaccination, and employee and visitors contact with animals [9, 24].
Sick and suspicious animals should be isolated in a specific area and always handled at the end. In the control of contagious mastitis, the latter are milked cows suspected of the disease [9].
Implementing effective biosecurity programs will bring long-term economic benefits. Dutch studies have shown that the main benefits of a closed dairy herd with good biosecurity are better fertility and lower slaughter rates. The USA comparative studies in Johne’s disease-positive herds and Johne’s disease-negative herds revealed an economic loss of almost US$ 100 per cow in positive herds. Spread of an infectious disease onto a farm can lead to large economic losses. An outbreak of BVD in an Australian farm with 320 milking cows caused losses of $AUD 144,700 [25].
Vaccination is another important biosecurity tool designed to protect resident cattle from infectious agents that could have been brought in by the newly purchased cows [26]. In dairy cattle, immunization mainly targets common infectious agents such as BVD virus, IBR virus, parainfluenza-3 (PI3) virus, bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), leptospirosis, and clostridial infections [27]. Vaccination programs should be established in collaboration with the herd veterinarian and adapted to the risk of the disease spreading on the farm, including infectious agents that evolve in the area [25, 28]. Vaccination should not be considered the primary or single biosecurity tool because no vaccine provides 100% immunity [26, 28].
Dairy herd vaccination programs are affected by various factors such as age and category of production, disease history, housing, type of vaccine (killed or modified live), and costs [28]. Vaccination programs are designed by age categories and are applied continuously to maximize herd immunity and minimize the spread of the infectious agent [27, 28].
Vaccination schedule for dairy heifers from birth to 6 months of age can be started with an oral modified live vaccine (MLV) for bovine rotavirus and bovine coronavirus given 30 minutes before the ingestion of colostrum to prevent the inactivation [28]. In the first hour of life, calves must receive 2.8 L of colostrum, and in the next 23 hours, the rest of 2.8 L [27]. Depending on the epidemiological situation, an intranasal vaccination of neonatal calves with respiratory vaccines (IBR/PI-3/BRSV) can be started at 3 days of age or older [28]. At 6 weeks old, dairy heifers can receive an injectable modified-live IBR/PI3/BRSV/BVD vaccine and a seven-way clostridial bacterin-toxoid [27]. The immunity of injectable vaccines is longer than the immunity of intranasal vaccines [28]. Following national and international regulations on brucellosis prophylaxis, at 4–6 months age replacement heifers should receive brucellosis RB51 vaccine. Also, depending on the epidemiological situation, calves can receive the appropriate vaccination for leptospirosis clostridial diseases and/or Histophilus somnus. At 6 months of age, heifers should be revaccinated with modified live IBR/PI3/BRSV/BVD virus vaccine, seven-way clostridial vaccine, and five-way leptospirosis bacterin [27, 28].
Pre-breeding heifers (10–12 months of age) should be revaccinated with killed or modified live IBR/PI3/BRSV/BVD virus vaccine, five-way leptospirosis bacterin, and seven- or eight-way clostridial bacterin-toxoid [28]. Optionally, it can be done with vibriosis bacterin [27].
Pre-calving heifers should be revaccinated 40–60 days before calving with killed IBR/PI3/BRSV/BVD virus vaccine, five-way leptospirosis bacterin, killed rotavirus and coronavirus vaccine, and Escherichia coli + Clostridium perfringens types C and D bacterin/toxoid. Three weeks before to calving, heifers should be revaccinated with killed rotavirus and coronavirus vaccine, and Escherichia coli + Clostridium perfringens types C and D bacterin/toxoid [27, 28]. Also, pre-calving heifers should be vaccinated with coliform mastitis bacterin [27].
Adult cows should be annually vaccinated, 40–60 days before calving for IBR, PI3, BRSV, and BVDV [27]. Depending on the history of diseases in the region and the associated epidemiological risks, the farm veterinarian should choose vaccines that immunologically protect dairy cows during the lactation period and the dry period for leptospirosis, vibriosis, Rotavirus, Coronavirus, Clostridium perfringens types C and D, and Escherichia coli mastitis. Types of vaccines recommended are killed or bacterin/toxoid and modified-live vaccines (MLV) [27, 28]. Adult dairy cattle should receive a booster vaccination at 3 weeks before calving with killed rotavirus and coronavirus vaccine and Escherichia coli + Clostridium perfringens types C and D bacterin/toxoid vaccine [27]. MLV vaccines should be used with prudence in pregnant cows and only after consultation with the veterinarian [28]. The annual vaccination for vibriosis should be performed in dairy herds where the artificial insemination is not practiced [27].
The annual vaccination of adult dairy cattle for calf scours (rotavirus and coronavirus, Escherichia coli, and Clostridium perfringens types C and D) should be considered in all herds with recent history as a part of the preventative management practices [27].
Mastitis is one of the most important diseases in dairy cows that affects the welfare, production, and duration of the economic life of the animals [29]. Economic losses are due to direct milk production losses (reduction of quantity, unsalable, or poor quality), culling or removal from the herd of animals with unsatisfactory treatment results, cost of veterinary care, cost of excessive use of antimicrobials and other medicines, and the risk of antibiotic resistance [30].
The main pathogens targeted by mastitis vaccines are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Escherichia coli [29]. Reduction in the incidence and duration of intramammary infections can be obtained by applying the combination of vaccination with high milking hygiene procedures, treatment of clinical cases, segregation, and culling of known infected cows [29]. The following preventive measures were proved to have a positive result in the management of mastitis in dairy herds: the use of milkers’ gloves, blanket use of dry-cow therapy, washing unclean udders, maintaining cows upright after milking, back-flushing of the milking cluster after milking an animal with clinical mastitis, and application of a treatment protocol [30] Also, to maximize the success of immunization, within 5 days of mastitis vaccines, dairy cows must not receive any other Gram-negative bacterin vaccines (e.g., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Pasteurella spp., Campylobacter sp., and Moraxella bovis) [27].
To evaluate the effects of mastitis vaccines in dairy cows, the following monitoring parameters are most commonly used:
Clinical and subclinical mastitis incidence and severity
Somatic cell count
Serum and/or milk immunoglobulin G concentrations
Milk bacterial culture or Staphylococcus aureus count in milk
Milk production
Cure or cull rate [29]
Newly acquired dairy herd bulls should be 30–60 days in prophylactic quarantine and tested with negative results for persistent BVDV infection, brucellosis, and tuberculosis. Recommended vaccination schedule for dairy herd bulls is an annual vaccination at the breeding soundness examination with IBR/PI3/BVD killed vaccine, five-way leptospirosis bacterin, and vibriosis bacterin [27].
If there are animal species other than cattle, then the vaccination actions must take into account for these species as well. Farm dogs and cats should be vaccinated at least against rabies to protect humans and other animals [14].
Antibiotic overuse can be reduced by using a proper mixture of natural antibacterial peptides, biological response modifiers, prebiotics, probiotics, and correct development of the gut microbiome [31].
The limited use of bacterial culture and sensitivity testing by veterinarians are other causes of the persistence of the multidrug resistance (MDR) isolates in dairy farms. The findings of the last decades highlight the necessity of using antimicrobial susceptibility testing each time before prescribing an antibiotic [32].
To reduce the risk of pathogens spreading in farm animals, dead animals should be disposed of in the shortest time. Depending on the national regulations and farm’s possibilities, the disposal of carcasses can be done by a licensed dead stock collector, burial, or composting [14].
Studies designed to investigate what motivates and withholds farmers to implement biosecurity measures placed the carcass storage away from the stables on the second rank for feasibility, but with a lower score for efficacy [33].
Rendering trucks have a particular risk for farm biosecurity because they are at high risk for carrying animals killed by infectious diseases [26]. To prevent farm contamination, mortality pick-up should be located away from the stable and feed storage bin and silo [34].
The biosecurity of feed and water must start from the source, respectively, from the fields where crops are grown and from the water capture source. Manure used as a natural fertilizer can contaminate the soil, crop, and water used for irrigation and groundwater sources [2]. The quality and potability of water should be tested regularly, and samples from each feedstuff batch or lot should be stored for possible laboratory analyses (e.g., bacteria, toxins, molds, and mycotoxins) until that batch is consumed without incidents [2, 10].
To reduce the risk of the diseases being introduced by contaminated feed, the dairy producer should record and monitor the manure application on its pastures and fields cultivated with feedstuffs [2]. The risk of a feed-related disease outbreak is increased when feedstuffs are purchased from multiple locations or the crops were fertilized with manure from other dairy farms [2, 10].
To prevent feedstuffs to be contaminated through fecal material and urine from rodents, birds, dogs, cats, and any wildlife, dairy farmers should design food storage areas in a way to be inaccessible (e.g., opened bags can be placed into containers with tight lids; barns can have welded wire fence) [2, 14].
The biosecurity plan of the dairy farm should include the frequency of storage areas cleaning, the way of feed bags storage off the floor on pallets, removing and disposing of the not consumed feed within 24 hours, rotation of feed inventory for the purpose to reduce the possible presence of detrimental organisms or toxins in stored feeds, and periodically checking of silos, bins, and bunks to detect and remove as soon as possible moldy or spoiled feedstuff [14].
Although not recommended, some cattle herds are still using surface water (e.g., lakes, ponds, and rivers) as a water source. Drinking water can be contaminated by animal carcasses (e.g., dead wild animals), manure from other livestock, bird droppings, urine and feces of wildlife, and human waste [2, 10, 14]. Water biosecurity programs should include several measures designed to prevent contamination with toxins and infectious agents such as restriction of the birds and wildlife access to farm water sources, filtration and chemical sterilization of water, and regular testing of water quality and potability [2]. Waterers should be cleaned once a week [14].
In dairy farms, manure is the most problematic waste and should be treated as a biological risk material because it has a huge bacterial load [2]. Manure should be stored in an area inaccessible to cattle [14]. Contact with manure from infected cattle is the main means of spread for rotavirus, coronavirus, Escherichia coli, Salmonellosis, and Johne’s disease to other receptive animals. Manure handling should prevent environmental contamination and should not violate the legislation in force [14].
Manure is rich in nutrients that could be recycled as fertilizer [35]. However, the use of this natural fertilizer should be done with caution to prevent contamination of crops, pastures, and groundwater sources [2]. Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Listeria spp., and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis can be killed by the process of manure composting but the process must be controlled before the use of compost in agriculture [2, 36, 37]. In the process of composting should not be used the manure from the hospital pen, where de infectious agents can be in a high concentration. Also, the temperature and microbial activity should be checked to confirm the complete sterilization [2, 14]. Also, manure can be recycled for bedding and to produce methane [2].
Manure biosecurity programs should include measures to prevent the manure equipment used to handle feed, the environment infestation with files and intestinal parasites (manure must be removed frequently to prevent the pest life cycles completion), manure run-off or transfer from adults to calves, and feed contamination by manure-covered wheels of farm vehicles [14].
Manure spreaders and slurry handling equipment are high-risk equipment and should be brought to the farm after proper cleaning or disinfection [1].
The manure cleaning of vehicles and equipment must be done in areas specially designed for this purpose, where water or disinfectants would not splash onto feed or into drinking water. Throughout the entire cleaning and disinfection process, the equipment will be inspected visually to dispel any suspicion of cross-contamination [2].
The development and implementation of biosecurity programs in dairy farms improve cattle health, welfare, and productivity. These programs must be monitored and evaluated continuously to identify new methods of control and new effective critical control points and to further improve the program to prevent the introduction and spread of infectious agents on the farm. The biosecurity program should be focused on the decision and adapted to the specific situations of each dairy farm. Many of the problems encountered can be prevented or minimized with the support of veterinary services. Staff and visitors should be trained on biosecurity measures applied on the farm.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. 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