Summary of Africa’s Total Energy Production (Ktoe) 2000–2015.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8069",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Protected Areas, National Parks and Sustainable Future",title:"Protected Areas, National Parks and Sustainable Future",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book aims to examine the context and practice of national parks regarding a countries’ obligations to safeguard biodiversity through the protection and management of forest-protected areas. The book examines the wider impacts of national parks within the scope of an integrated environmental hub at the global and regional level and eventually delves into the country case. Three areas are covered: theoretical underpinnings and concepts related to national parks, exploring their various modalities and integrated concerns for the environment; an empirical review in lieu of effective management of protected areas as defined by the World Conservation Union IUCN, addressing the efficient use of human and material resources, including national/agency-protected area regulations and legislation, policies, international conventions and designations, management plans, and/or agreements associated with those areas; and evaluation of challenges underlying a country’s intention to gauge the potential of a national park and pinpoint adequate attention on exploiting new strategies for national park management.",isbn:"978-1-78984-230-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-229-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-372-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77900",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"protected-areas-national-parks-and-sustainable-future",numberOfPages:134,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,hash:"cbfa2f8e9e9e6d0383298f88b71b4108",bookSignature:"Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar and Mohd Nazip Suratman",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8069.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2742,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"216294",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:"Naqiyuddin",surname:"Bakar",slug:"ahmad-bakar",fullName:"Ahmad Bakar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216294/images/system/216294.png",biography:"Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar, CMILT (UiTM, IIUM, Exeter, Hull), is an associate professor at the Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. He is currently rector of the UiTM Johor branch. Prior to this, he was Head of the Research and Publication Unit at the Malaysia Institute of Transport after having previously served as Head of Institutional Research under the Strategic Planning and Information (CSPI) Centre at the Office of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) of UiTM. He is also a senior research fellow at the Centre for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, UiTM. He holds a Professional Certificate in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) in Policy Management. Much of his research work is focused on public policy, sustainable community development and biodiversity, and human capital management.",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"MOHD NAZIP",middleName:null,surname:"SURATMAN",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"MOHD NAZIP SURATMAN",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144417/images/system/144417.jpg",biography:"Mohd Nazip Suratman is a senior professor of forestry in the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. He earned a BSc degree in Forestry from the Universiti Putra Malaysia, an MSc from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA, and a PhD from the University of British Columbia, Canada, specializing in remote sensing for forest resources management. His current research interests include biodiversity conservation and combining remote sensing and forest inventory for biomass modeling. Throughout his academic career, he has acquired many national and international research grants and carried out a number of research projects that have led to publications in leading journals, books, and chapters in books. He was the recipient of the best researcher award of UiTM for 2015 in recognition of his outstanding research work in science, technology, and medicine cluster. He is currently the Deputy Vice-Chancellor for Research and Innovation at UiTM, Malaysia, since 2018.",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"859",title:"Conservation",slug:"conservation"}],chapters:[{id:"70132",title:"Introductory Chapter: Today’s National Parks (NPs) and Protected Areas (PAs) for a Sustainable Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90107",slug:"introductory-chapter-today-s-national-parks-nps-and-protected-areas-pas-for-a-sustainable-future",totalDownloads:219,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70132",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70132",authors:[{id:"313268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Bakar",slug:"ahmad-bakar",fullName:"Ahmad Bakar"}],corrections:null},{id:"66123",title:"The Effect of Forest Institution Connectedness, Incentive Participation Program, and Social Capital on Public Participation and Welfare as Mediators of Forest Management in Baluran National Park",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84674",slug:"the-effect-of-forest-institution-connectedness-incentive-participation-program-and-social-capital-on",totalDownloads:334,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Adil Siswanto and Djumilah Hadwidjojo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66123",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66123",authors:[{id:"279061",title:"Dr.",name:"Adil",surname:"Siswanto",slug:"adil-siswanto",fullName:"Adil Siswanto"},{id:"279124",title:"Prof.",name:"Djumilah",surname:"Hadiwidjojo",slug:"djumilah-hadiwidjojo",fullName:"Djumilah Hadiwidjojo"}],corrections:null},{id:"67239",title:"Prescribed Burning to Restore Eastern White Pine Forests of La Mauricie National Park of Canada",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86224",slug:"prescribed-burning-to-restore-eastern-white-pine-forests-of-la-mauricie-national-park-of-canada",totalDownloads:323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Christian Hébert, Éric Domaine and Louis Bélanger",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67239",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67239",authors:[{id:"280949",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Hébert",slug:"christian-hebert",fullName:"Christian Hébert"},{id:"281634",title:"MSc.",name:"Eric",surname:"Domaine",slug:"eric-domaine",fullName:"Eric Domaine"},{id:"281635",title:"Prof.",name:"Louis",surname:"Bélanger",slug:"louis-belanger",fullName:"Louis Bélanger"}],corrections:null},{id:"67721",title:"Institutionalizing Co-Management for a Sustainable Future of Protected Areas: The Case of Xuan Thuy National Park, Vietnam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86930",slug:"institutionalizing-co-management-for-a-sustainable-future-of-protected-areas-the-case-of-xuan-thuy-n",totalDownloads:369,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Nguyen Kim Dung",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67721",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67721",authors:[{id:"283626",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Kim Dung",slug:"nguyen-kim-dung",fullName:"Nguyen Kim Dung"}],corrections:null},{id:"65802",title:"On the Road to Sustainability? A Review of a Half-Century of Biodiversity Conservation Successes in Nepal and Some Thoughts on Future Needs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84617",slug:"on-the-road-to-sustainability-a-review-of-a-half-century-of-biodiversity-conservation-successes-in-n",totalDownloads:419,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,signatures:"Joel T. Heinen, Nabin Baral, Prakash K. Paudel and Jay P. Sah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65802",authors:[{id:"139181",title:"Prof.",name:"Joel",surname:"Heinen",slug:"joel-heinen",fullName:"Joel Heinen"},{id:"290389",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabin",surname:"Baral",slug:"nabin-baral",fullName:"Nabin Baral"},{id:"290390",title:"Dr.",name:"Prakash",surname:"Paudel",slug:"prakash-paudel",fullName:"Prakash Paudel"},{id:"290391",title:"Dr.",name:"Jay",surname:"Sah",slug:"jay-sah",fullName:"Jay Sah"}],corrections:null},{id:"66280",title:"Parks and Reserves in Madagascar: Managing Biodiversity for a Sustainable Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85348",slug:"parks-and-reserves-in-madagascar-managing-biodiversity-for-a-sustainable-future",totalDownloads:797,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Patrick O. Waeber, Serge Rafanoharana, H. Andry Rasamuel and Lucienne Wilmé",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66280",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66280",authors:[{id:"219544",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"O. Waeber",slug:"patrick-o.-waeber",fullName:"Patrick O. Waeber"},{id:"286538",title:"MSc.",name:"H. Andry",surname:"Rasamuel",slug:"h.-andry-rasamuel",fullName:"H. Andry Rasamuel"},{id:"286539",title:"MSc.",name:"Serge C.",surname:"Rafanoharana",slug:"serge-c.-rafanoharana",fullName:"Serge C. Rafanoharana"},{id:"286540",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucienne",surname:"Wilmé",slug:"lucienne-wilme",fullName:"Lucienne Wilmé"}],corrections:null},{id:"66198",title:"Noninvasive Sampling: Monitoring of Wild Carnivores and Their Parasites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85227",slug:"noninvasive-sampling-monitoring-of-wild-carnivores-and-their-parasites",totalDownloads:283,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Laís Verdan Dib, João Pedro Siqueira Palmer, Camila de Souza Carvalho Class de Lima, Otilio Machado Pereira Bastos, Claudia Maria Antunes Uchôa, Maria Regina Reis Amendoeira, Augusto Cezar Machado Pereira Bastos and Alynne da Silva Barbosa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66198",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66198",authors:[{id:"287902",title:"Prof.",name:"Lais",surname:"Dib",slug:"lais-dib",fullName:"Lais Dib"},{id:"293207",title:"Mr.",name:"João Pedro",surname:"Palmer",slug:"joao-pedro-palmer",fullName:"João Pedro Palmer"},{id:"293208",title:"Ms.",name:"Camila",surname:"Lima",slug:"camila-lima",fullName:"Camila Lima"},{id:"293209",title:"Dr.",name:"Otilio",surname:"Bastos",slug:"otilio-bastos",fullName:"Otilio Bastos"},{id:"293210",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Uchôa",slug:"claudia-uchoa",fullName:"Claudia Uchôa"},{id:"293211",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Regina",surname:"Amendoeira",slug:"maria-regina-amendoeira",fullName:"Maria Regina Amendoeira"},{id:"293212",title:"MSc.",name:"Augusto",surname:"Bastos",slug:"augusto-bastos",fullName:"Augusto Bastos"},{id:"293213",title:"Dr.",name:"Alynne",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"alynne-barbosa",fullName:"Alynne Barbosa"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"865",title:"Perspectives on Nature Conservation",subtitle:"Patterns, Pressures and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a4d39cf2a0c2a9416049331b508aa88",slug:"perspectives-on-nature-conservation-patterns-pressures-and-prospects",bookSignature:"John Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/865.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1698",title:"Topics in Conservation Biology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"170be1c5efa6b1d9f0b8012c72613f45",slug:"topics-in-conservation-biology",bookSignature:"Tony Povilitis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1698.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103004",title:"Dr.",name:"Tony",surname:"Povilitis",slug:"tony-povilitis",fullName:"Tony Povilitis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6359",title:"Wildlife Management",subtitle:"Failures, Successes and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e85617f2bd2d0e93188963552f6f2c8f",slug:"wildlife-management-failures-successes-and-prospects",bookSignature:"Jafari R. Kideghesho and Alfan A. Rija",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106119",title:"Prof.",name:"Jafari",surname:"Kideghesho",slug:"jafari-kideghesho",fullName:"Jafari Kideghesho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"59773",slug:"corrigendum-to-systematic-study-of-ethylene-vinyl-acetate-eva-in-the-manufacturing-of-protector-devi",title:"Corrigendum to: Systematic Study of Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA) in the Manufacturing of Protector Devices for the Orofacial System",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59773.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59773",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59773",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59773",chapter:{id:"56614",slug:"systematic-study-of-ethylene-vinyl-acetate-eva-in-the-manufacturing-of-protector-devices-for-the-oro",signatures:"Reinaldo Brito e Dias, Neide Pena Coto, Gilmar Ferreira Batalha and\nLarissa Driemeier",dateSubmitted:"January 25th 2017",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 14th 2018",book:{id:"5951",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",publishedDate:"February 14th 2018",bookSignature:"Leszek A. Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5951.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"204968",title:"Dr.",name:"Neide",middleName:null,surname:"Pena Coto",fullName:"Neide Pena Coto",slug:"neide-pena-coto",email:"neidecoto@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"56614",slug:"systematic-study-of-ethylene-vinyl-acetate-eva-in-the-manufacturing-of-protector-devices-for-the-oro",signatures:"Reinaldo Brito e Dias, Neide Pena Coto, Gilmar Ferreira Batalha and\nLarissa Driemeier",dateSubmitted:"January 25th 2017",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 14th 2018",book:{id:"5951",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",publishedDate:"February 14th 2018",bookSignature:"Leszek A. Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5951.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"204968",title:"Dr.",name:"Neide",middleName:null,surname:"Pena Coto",fullName:"Neide Pena Coto",slug:"neide-pena-coto",email:"neidecoto@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"5951",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",publishedDate:"February 14th 2018",bookSignature:"Leszek A. Dobrzański",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5951.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15880",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek A.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobrzański",slug:"leszek-a.-dobrzanski",fullName:"Leszek A. Dobrzański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8069",leadTitle:null,title:"Protected Areas, National Parks and Sustainable Future",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book aims to examine the context and practice of national parks regarding a countries’ obligations to safeguard biodiversity through the protection and management of forest-protected areas. The book examines the wider impacts of national parks within the scope of an integrated environmental hub at the global and regional level and eventually delves into the country case. Three areas are covered: theoretical underpinnings and concepts related to national parks, exploring their various modalities and integrated concerns for the environment; an empirical review in lieu of effective management of protected areas as defined by the World Conservation Union IUCN, addressing the efficient use of human and material resources, including national/agency-protected area regulations and legislation, policies, international conventions and designations, management plans, and/or agreements associated with those areas; and evaluation of challenges underlying a country’s intention to gauge the potential of a national park and pinpoint adequate attention on exploiting new strategies for national park management.",isbn:"978-1-78984-230-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-229-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-372-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77900",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"protected-areas-national-parks-and-sustainable-future",numberOfPages:134,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbfa2f8e9e9e6d0383298f88b71b4108",bookSignature:"Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar and Mohd Nazip Suratman",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8069.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2742,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"216294",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:"Naqiyuddin",surname:"Bakar",slug:"ahmad-bakar",fullName:"Ahmad Bakar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216294/images/system/216294.png",biography:"Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar, CMILT (UiTM, IIUM, Exeter, Hull), is an associate professor at the Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. He is currently rector of the UiTM Johor branch. Prior to this, he was Head of the Research and Publication Unit at the Malaysia Institute of Transport after having previously served as Head of Institutional Research under the Strategic Planning and Information (CSPI) Centre at the Office of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) of UiTM. He is also a senior research fellow at the Centre for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, UiTM. He holds a Professional Certificate in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) in Policy Management. Much of his research work is focused on public policy, sustainable community development and biodiversity, and human capital management.",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"MOHD NAZIP",middleName:null,surname:"SURATMAN",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"MOHD NAZIP SURATMAN",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144417/images/system/144417.jpg",biography:"Mohd Nazip Suratman is a senior professor of forestry in the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. He earned a BSc degree in Forestry from the Universiti Putra Malaysia, an MSc from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA, and a PhD from the University of British Columbia, Canada, specializing in remote sensing for forest resources management. His current research interests include biodiversity conservation and combining remote sensing and forest inventory for biomass modeling. Throughout his academic career, he has acquired many national and international research grants and carried out a number of research projects that have led to publications in leading journals, books, and chapters in books. He was the recipient of the best researcher award of UiTM for 2015 in recognition of his outstanding research work in science, technology, and medicine cluster. He is currently the Deputy Vice-Chancellor for Research and Innovation at UiTM, Malaysia, since 2018.",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"859",title:"Conservation",slug:"conservation"}],chapters:[{id:"70132",title:"Introductory Chapter: Today’s National Parks (NPs) and Protected Areas (PAs) for a Sustainable Future",slug:"introductory-chapter-today-s-national-parks-nps-and-protected-areas-pas-for-a-sustainable-future",totalDownloads:219,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"313268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Bakar",slug:"ahmad-bakar",fullName:"Ahmad Bakar"}]},{id:"66123",title:"The Effect of Forest Institution Connectedness, Incentive Participation Program, and Social Capital on Public Participation and Welfare as Mediators of Forest Management in Baluran National Park",slug:"the-effect-of-forest-institution-connectedness-incentive-participation-program-and-social-capital-on",totalDownloads:334,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"279061",title:"Dr.",name:"Adil",surname:"Siswanto",slug:"adil-siswanto",fullName:"Adil Siswanto"},{id:"279124",title:"Prof.",name:"Djumilah",surname:"Hadiwidjojo",slug:"djumilah-hadiwidjojo",fullName:"Djumilah Hadiwidjojo"}]},{id:"67239",title:"Prescribed Burning to Restore Eastern White Pine Forests of La Mauricie National Park of Canada",slug:"prescribed-burning-to-restore-eastern-white-pine-forests-of-la-mauricie-national-park-of-canada",totalDownloads:323,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"280949",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Hébert",slug:"christian-hebert",fullName:"Christian Hébert"},{id:"281634",title:"MSc.",name:"Eric",surname:"Domaine",slug:"eric-domaine",fullName:"Eric Domaine"},{id:"281635",title:"Prof.",name:"Louis",surname:"Bélanger",slug:"louis-belanger",fullName:"Louis Bélanger"}]},{id:"67721",title:"Institutionalizing Co-Management for a Sustainable Future of Protected Areas: The Case of Xuan Thuy National Park, Vietnam",slug:"institutionalizing-co-management-for-a-sustainable-future-of-protected-areas-the-case-of-xuan-thuy-n",totalDownloads:369,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"283626",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen",surname:"Kim Dung",slug:"nguyen-kim-dung",fullName:"Nguyen Kim Dung"}]},{id:"65802",title:"On the Road to Sustainability? A Review of a Half-Century of Biodiversity Conservation Successes in Nepal and Some Thoughts on Future Needs",slug:"on-the-road-to-sustainability-a-review-of-a-half-century-of-biodiversity-conservation-successes-in-n",totalDownloads:419,totalCrossrefCites:3,authors:[{id:"139181",title:"Prof.",name:"Joel",surname:"Heinen",slug:"joel-heinen",fullName:"Joel Heinen"},{id:"290389",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabin",surname:"Baral",slug:"nabin-baral",fullName:"Nabin Baral"},{id:"290390",title:"Dr.",name:"Prakash",surname:"Paudel",slug:"prakash-paudel",fullName:"Prakash Paudel"},{id:"290391",title:"Dr.",name:"Jay",surname:"Sah",slug:"jay-sah",fullName:"Jay Sah"}]},{id:"66280",title:"Parks and Reserves in Madagascar: Managing Biodiversity for a Sustainable Future",slug:"parks-and-reserves-in-madagascar-managing-biodiversity-for-a-sustainable-future",totalDownloads:797,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"219544",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"O. Waeber",slug:"patrick-o.-waeber",fullName:"Patrick O. Waeber"},{id:"286538",title:"MSc.",name:"H. Andry",surname:"Rasamuel",slug:"h.-andry-rasamuel",fullName:"H. Andry Rasamuel"},{id:"286539",title:"MSc.",name:"Serge C.",surname:"Rafanoharana",slug:"serge-c.-rafanoharana",fullName:"Serge C. Rafanoharana"},{id:"286540",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucienne",surname:"Wilmé",slug:"lucienne-wilme",fullName:"Lucienne Wilmé"}]},{id:"66198",title:"Noninvasive Sampling: Monitoring of Wild Carnivores and Their Parasites",slug:"noninvasive-sampling-monitoring-of-wild-carnivores-and-their-parasites",totalDownloads:283,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"287902",title:"Prof.",name:"Lais",surname:"Dib",slug:"lais-dib",fullName:"Lais Dib"},{id:"293207",title:"Mr.",name:"João Pedro",surname:"Palmer",slug:"joao-pedro-palmer",fullName:"João Pedro Palmer"},{id:"293208",title:"Ms.",name:"Camila",surname:"Lima",slug:"camila-lima",fullName:"Camila Lima"},{id:"293209",title:"Dr.",name:"Otilio",surname:"Bastos",slug:"otilio-bastos",fullName:"Otilio Bastos"},{id:"293210",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Uchôa",slug:"claudia-uchoa",fullName:"Claudia Uchôa"},{id:"293211",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Regina",surname:"Amendoeira",slug:"maria-regina-amendoeira",fullName:"Maria Regina Amendoeira"},{id:"293212",title:"MSc.",name:"Augusto",surname:"Bastos",slug:"augusto-bastos",fullName:"Augusto Bastos"},{id:"293213",title:"Dr.",name:"Alynne",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"alynne-barbosa",fullName:"Alynne Barbosa"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"287827",firstName:"Gordan",lastName:"Tot",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287827/images/8493_n.png",email:"gordan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"865",title:"Perspectives on Nature Conservation",subtitle:"Patterns, Pressures and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a4d39cf2a0c2a9416049331b508aa88",slug:"perspectives-on-nature-conservation-patterns-pressures-and-prospects",bookSignature:"John Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/865.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1698",title:"Topics in Conservation Biology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"170be1c5efa6b1d9f0b8012c72613f45",slug:"topics-in-conservation-biology",bookSignature:"Tony Povilitis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1698.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103004",title:"Dr.",name:"Tony",surname:"Povilitis",slug:"tony-povilitis",fullName:"Tony Povilitis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6359",title:"Wildlife Management",subtitle:"Failures, Successes and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e85617f2bd2d0e93188963552f6f2c8f",slug:"wildlife-management-failures-successes-and-prospects",bookSignature:"Jafari R. Kideghesho and Alfan A. Rija",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106119",title:"Prof.",name:"Jafari",surname:"Kideghesho",slug:"jafari-kideghesho",fullName:"Jafari Kideghesho"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68969",title:"Politics of Renewable Energy in Africa: Nature, Prospects, and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89019",slug:"politics-of-renewable-energy-in-africa-nature-prospects-and-challenges",body:'
“Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much”
Quote attributed to Helen Keller, American Writer and Social Activist.
It is strongly believed that the United Nations (UN) member states were thinking just like Keller when they came up with the sustainable development goals (SDGs) as a means of combining their efforts to confront global developmental challenges of droughts, famine, poverty, climate change, and the likes. Following this, states are expected to “act locally” to ensure that the global SDG agenda is achieved by 2030. Since the discussion here focuses on renewable energy, rehashing Goal 7 of the SDGs is appropriate and situates this discussion in its proper context. The Goal 7 provides that member states should ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all [1]. These include but not limited to ensuring universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services; increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix; double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency; enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology. The above targets consistently mention and encourage cleaner energy which makes the discussion on renewable energy timely and relevant.
Furthermore, the renewables agenda has become necessary because of global warming evidenced through storms and ice melts, droughts and hunger, unrest and migration [2]. This realization has led to a growing consensus directed at the transition to renewable energy systems, which has come to be known as a process of fuel substitution, a crucial way to addressing the climate crisis [2]. Renewable energy may refer to a form of energy that when used replaces itself and can last indefinitely when well-managed. The principal types of renewable energy consist of solar, thermal, photovoltaics, bioenergy, hydro, tidal, wind, wave, and geothermal [3].
The literature on renewable energy have mostly centered on three key academic fields i.e. political science, policy studies and energy transitions. However, Hughes and Lipsky [4] acknowledge that in political science the subfield of energy politics is “relatively underdeveloped.” They continue that most of the studies fall within the 1970s and 1980s with prime focus on international political economy and oil geopolitics. It is in recent times that there is a gradual shift with new studies relating renewable energy to public opinion [5, 6, 7], electoral dynamics [8], coalitional politics [9], and green industrial constituencies [10]. Also, in the policy literature, scholars analyze renewable energy policymaking with theories such as the Multiple Streams Model, Punctuated Equilibrium theory and the Advocacy Coalition Framework. These studies emphasize windows of opportunity for policy change, especially following acute “focusing events” such as oil and nuclear crises [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. The energy transition literature has centered on the technical, economic, and policy aspects of energy transitions [16, 17] with the political dynamics receiving less attention [4, 6]. It is suggested that since energy policy change threaten incumbent industries and impose substantial costs [18], enacting and sustaining policies require considerable political support. Even though it is widely acknowledged that barriers to energy transition are primarily political, there is a lack of cohesive literature on the politics that drive, constrain, and shape renewable energy policy particularly in developing countries [8, 19]. This study builds on the energy transition literature by exploring first, the energy situation in Africa, second, the prospects and challenges from transitioning from non-renewable to renewable, and third, the appropriate lessons that can be drawn to help Africa attain the SDG goal 7. The uniqueness of this study aside the above, is the application of Kingdon’s multiple streams framework (MSF) as an analytical lens at the continental level.
By way of organization, the theoretical framework follows this discussion, followed by the methodology; then, the nature of energy situation in African is also discussed. After this, the discussion on whether conditions are ripe for the transition follows, and then a conclusion is drawn to end the chapter outlining some policy implications for the future.
The multiple streams framework (MSF) is acknowledged to be the handy work of John W. Kingdon, who explains how ideas come into being. In other words what makes important people pay attention to one subject rather than another, how their agendas change from time to time, and how they narrow their choices from a larger set of alternatives to very few [20, 21, 22, 23]. These are the issues that the MSF seeks to explain. MSF views the policy process as composed of three streams of actors and processes. First, a problem stream consists of data about various problems and the proponents of various problem definitions. It may also consist of perceptions, opinions, and attitudes held by various members of the public and policy communities [20, 24]. Second, a policy stream which involves the proponents of solutions to policy problems that originate with communities of policy makers, experts and lobby groups. It is important to mention that the policy stream carries recommendations from researchers, advocates, analysts, who use their expertise to propose prospective solutions to them [24, 25, 26]. Third, a politics stream consists of elections and elected officials [20, 21, 22, 23]. The politics stream also refers to factors such as changes in government, legislative turnover and fluctuations in public opinion. It must be mentioned that the political stream is often associated with contextual attributes such as the composition of ideas and values comprising national “moods” and the power shifts produced by legislative and executive turnover following events such as elections and cabinet shuffles that rotate the composition of policy-makers and affect important events through the composition of political and legislative timetables [24, 27].
According to Kingdon [21], the streams normally operate independently of each other, except when a “window of opportunity” permits policy entrepreneurs to couple the various streams. The success of the policy entrepreneurs in the coupling venture may result in a major policy change [20, 24, 27]. These policy entrepreneurs are vested stakeholders who strategically engage with the streams to open or seize windows of opportunities to advance their favored solutions [23]. In this framework, it is observed that policy development towards addressing a socio-economic problem does not occur automatically; rather, it emerges from the complex interaction and intersection of the three streams, which leads to certain issues being taken up by governments [24]. In this study we seek to explore the politics, problem and policy streams in the renewable energy sector of Africa and whether these streams are being strategically linked to enhance the acceptance of governments or policy makers. Figure 1 illustrates the model.
Multiple Streams Framework. Source: Zahariadis [25].
This study adopts a desk research methodology or desktop qualitative descriptive method. Desk research refers to the use of secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. To most people it suggests published reports and statistics. In the context of this paper, the term is widened to include all sources of information that do not involve a field survey. These include searching libraries and the internet for data or information.
Data Sources: This paper benefitted extensively from text data on energy situation in SSA countries, renewable energy and its potential in Africa and other jurisdictions outside of Africa on the internet and in the libraries of University of Ghana and the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA).
Data Analysis: The information from the various sources of data were thoroughly studied and analyzed. Analysis was done with the objectives of the study at the background alongside the literature review.
The Organization of African Unity (OAU) which is currently known as the African Union (AU) established the African Energy Commission (AFREC) through the Convention of the African Energy Commission (CAEC) adopted in Lusaka, Zambia, on 11 July 2001 and entered into force on 13 December 2006. After the Convention’s adoption, it was expected that all member countries of the AU will be part of it, but as at January 14, 2019, only 35 countries had consented to its enforcement. Article 4 of the CAEC indicates that the AFREC is expected to map out energy development policies, strategies and plans based on sub-regional, regional and continental development priorities and recommend their implementation in member countries. This energy commission architecture is hoped to propel Africa’s energy situation to its peak but the continent still records the lowest share in terms of access to power by its citizens. World Bank [28] records that the percentage of SSA population with access to electricity is pegged at approximately 44.6%, which suggests that a lot still needs to be done for the people of Africa. It is observed that Africa’s energy sector is dominated by fossil fuels, hydro, nuclear and biomass (see Table 1).
Category | 2000 | 2005 | 2010 | 2015 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Production of electricity from biofuels and waste | 135 | 163 | 187 | 349 |
Production of electricity from fossil fuels | 29,921 | 37,321 | 44,975 | 62,212 |
Production of nuclear electricity | 1,119 | 971 | 1,101 | 1,221 |
Production of hydro electricity | 6,607 | 8,107 | 9,738 | 12,495 |
Production of geothermal electricity | 37 | 77 | 126 | 329 |
Production of electricity from solar, wind, etc. | 20 | 128 | 326 | 1,086 |
Summary of Africa’s Total Energy Production (Ktoe) 2000–2015.
Source: Extracted from AFREC [29].
Further, it must be pointed out that traditional biomass energy use (wood, charcoal, agricultural residues and animal waste) and fossil fuels contribute to respiratory illnesses in highland areas of sub-Saharan Africa because of the excess CO2 emissions [30]. This however calls for the need to look at other sources of clean energy supply. Tables below show the renewable energy potential of African countries (see Tables 2 and 3). Additionally, various types of renewable energy have been identified to exist and can be tapped by African countries, these include geothermal, hydropower, wind energy, solar and bioenergy. It must be pointed out that some countries have already taken the lead in tapping these forms of renewable energy (see Table 4).
Country | 2009 (MW) | 2018 (MW) |
---|---|---|
Congo DR | 2514 | 2750 |
Egypt | 3354 | 4813 |
Ethiopia | 1443 | 4326 |
Ghana | 1187 | 1659 |
Morocco | 1520 | 3263 |
Mozambique | 2198 | 2235 |
Nigeria | 2087 | 2143 |
Sudan | 1681 | 2136 |
Zambia | 1723 | 2446 |
Renewable energy capacity (MW) (leading African countries).
Source: Extracted from IRENA [31].
Country | 2009 (GWh) | 2017 (GWh) |
---|---|---|
Angola | 3308 | 7897 |
Cameroon | 4017 | 5106 |
Congo DR | 7940 | 9287 |
Cote D’Ivoire | 2132 | 2054 |
Egypt | 15942 | 15957 |
Ethiopia | 3593 | 12585 |
Ghana | 6893 | 5672 |
Kenya | 3923 | 8407 |
Malawi | 1813 | 1915 |
Morocco | 2976 | 4706 |
Mozambique | 16994 | 14127 |
Namibia | 1405 | 1526 |
Nigeria | 7454 | 7803 |
South Africa | 1648 | 10453 |
Sudan | 3379 | 9484 |
Tanzania | 2738 | 2611 |
Uganda | 1458 | 3745 |
Zambia | 10604 | 12537 |
Zimbabwe | 5517 | 4214 |
Renewable energy production (GWh) (leading African countries).
Source: Extracted from IRENA [31].
Renewable energy | Leading African countries with capacity (MW) | Leading African countries in production (GWh) |
---|---|---|
Geothermal | Ethiopia, Kenya | Kenya |
Hydropower | Congo DR, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Zambia | Angola, Cameroon, Congo DR, Cote D’Ivoire, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe. |
Wind | Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, South Africa, Tunisia. | Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, South Africa, Tunisia. |
Solar | Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Reunion, South Africa | Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Reunion, South Africa |
Bioenergy | Eswatini, Ethiopia, South Africa, Sudan, Zimbabwe | Angola, Egypt, Eswatini, Kenya, Mauritius, Reunion, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe |
Types of renewable energy capacity and production in Africa.
Source: Extracted from IRENA [31].
This section of the chapter discusses the MSF perspective with respect to the identified constructs of the framework; problem stream, policy stream, politics stream, policy entrepreneurs and policy window. This is followed by an attempt to discuss the extent to which the three streams are being coupled for an effective energy transition on the African continent.
Proponents of the MSF are of the view that for a policy to be considered, it should be politically and technically feasible. Additionally, its capacity to address the corresponding problem that it is expected to address should be relevant. MSF Proponents have pointed out clearly that the problem stream may refer to policy problems in society that potentially require attention [22, 23, 24, 25]. In the case of this study, it is observed that Africa’s economy is growing at unprecedented rate, and one of the core challenges associated with this economic growth is related to energy constraints. Specifically, economic growth, changing lifestyles and the need for reliable modern energy access require energy supply to be at least doubled by 2030 [32]. An investment of about US$43–55 billion per year is needed until 2030–2040 to meet demand and provide universal access to electricity. However, the present investment situation in the energy sector is about US$8–9.2 billion which is woefully inadequate [33]. Furthermore, it is estimated that over 645 million people do not have access to electricity. Again, out of the world’s 20 countries with the least access to electricity, 13 can be found in Africa, including Nigeria, Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, (the former) Sudan, Mozambique, Madagascar, Niger, Malawi, Burkina Faso, and Angola [33]. This has however heightened the need to focus on tapping the enormous renewable energy potential in Africa that is untapped [33].
Again, energy security is a socio-economic and political factor that contributes to sustainable development (SD) in any nation. Currently, the world is dominated by the usage of non-renewable energy such as fossil fuels. The use of non-renewable energy leads to the emission of large amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs), which is considered to be the principal cause of climate change. Accordingly, the use of clean energy sources to reduce the release of carbon emissions is a key goal in reducing global warming and promoting sustainable development [33, 34, 35, 36].
The policy stream in the view of MSF proponents pertains to the many potential policy solutions that originate with communities of policy makers, experts and lobby groups. This may also include recommendations from researchers, advocates, analysts, and others in a policy community examining problems and using their (sometimes self-proclaimed) expertise to propose prospective solutions to them [24, 37, 38]. Many international energy organizations and researchers have proposed tapping the untapped African renewable resources in confronting the continent’s energy challenge [32, 33, 36]. Table 2 shows African countries that have renewable capacity of 1000 MW and above. Additionally, Table 4 shows five key renewable energy sources such as geothermal, hydropower, wind, solar and bioenergy alongside corresponding African countries with capacity to be tapped. It is however important to state that some African countries have already begun this effort but more attention should be geared toward that direction.
The third of the streams according to proponents of the MSF is the politics stream. Here, emphasis is placed on factors such as changes in government, legislative turnover following events such as elections and cabinet shuffles that rotate the composition of policy makers and fluctuations in public opinion [24, 25]. Although efforts were made in the early 2000s at the continental level with the adoption of the Convention of African Energy Commission, the renewables agenda has gained momentum in recent times due to the adoption of the AU Agenda 2063. This agenda is a shared framework for inclusive growth and sustainable development for Africa to be realized in the next fifty years. A new crop of African leaders have realized that African problems can only be solved by Africans, and so they agreed in 2013 through the 50th Anniversary Solemn Declaration during the commemoration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to bring forth the Agenda 2063 which consist of seven aspirations [39]. This is to guide individual member states in their own development planning. This has also led to some reforms in the AU especially the shift to self-financing of the AU policies and programs [40].
Policy entrepreneurs are vested stakeholders who strategically engage with the streams to open or seize windows of opportunities to advance their favored solutions [23]. The literature reveals that various bodies within member countries are in charge of energy in general and renewable energy to be specific [30, 41]. Aside the AFREC which is supposed to carry out research activities and inform policy directions of AU member states in the energy sector, many other international institutions and NGOs either directly or indirectly influence Africa’s energy governance with their activities. Some of these actors include the International Energy Agency (IEA), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the World Bank, the European Renewable Energy Council (EREC), the OPEC, African Development Bank, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP) and the Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) [42]. Some of the strategies adopted by these actors include for example the World Bank and AfDB may target their lending activities to projects related to energy or renewable energy. The IRENA on the other hand may adopt innovative strategies to promote renewable energy by concentrating on a narrowly defined set of goals with regards to the deployment of renewables and additionally provide epistemic services as well [42]. The study shows that the policy entrepreneurs to push the renewable energy agenda are vast and wide, with some of them already in the process (WB, AfDB, IRENA, UNEP, and AFREC).
MSF proponents are of the view that policy windows present opportunities that pave the way for policy entrepreneurs to push their policy ideas to the policy makers/governments [24]. The AU Agenda 2063 is one of the continental policy windows with regards to the adoption of a renewable energy policy. The first aspiration of Agenda 2063 posits “a prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development” [39]. It could be argued that this aspiration opens doors to discuss issues of renewable energy which could aid in inclusive growth and sustainable development. Another important policy window is the rise in population growth which has shifted focus on alternative sources of energy. Again, in recent times the increase in oil prices and the sustainable development Goals has further heightened interests in the call for renewable energy. As stated earlier, Goal 7 enjoins all UN member states to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all [1].
Aside the above policy windows, two important global environment initiatives have also stimulated greater interest in renewables in Africa. The first was the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. At this Conference, an ambitious environment and development document entitled “Agenda 21” was reviewed by one of the largest gathering of Government Heads of States and endorsed by a large number of multi-nationals companies. Agenda 21 sought to operationalize the concept of sustainable development. In addition, the Rio Conference provided the venue for the second important event, the signing of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) by 155 Governments. The Convention came into force in early 1994 after ratification by 50 States. Renewables featured in both Agenda 21 and the Climate Change Convention. In addition, renewables featured high on the agenda of the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002. In the UN-led implementation plan of action for the WSSD, dubbed WEHAB (which stands for Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and Biodiversity), top priority was given to the renewables and other alternative forms of energy services. One of the targets proposed at WSSD was for every country to commit itself to meeting 10% of its national energy supply from renewables [30].
The multiple streams framework suggests that the ability of a policy entrepreneur(s) to strategically couple the streams of problem, policy and politics through a window of opportunity and with the consent of policy makers, gives a high possibility for a policy to be adopted or an issue to get to the agenda stage [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. The ensuing discussion clearly reveals that all the necessary factors are in place as proposed by the MSF. The question to ask then is: Has coupling of the streams been successful on the continental level? The discussions above points to the fact that prospects are high especially when you want to focus on Goal 7 of the SDGs, that proposes that member states should ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all [1]. The contribution of Africa to ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services, to increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix and to enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy are yet to be realized, as it is recorded that the percentage of Sub-Saharan African population access to electricity is still below average [28] and then the existence of substantial potential of renewable energy resources that also remain untapped [31, 33]. It must be quickly pointed out that these are early days yet as the SDGs were born barely 4 years ago and the AU Agenda 2063 also about 6 years when it was agreed upon. This suggests that Africa has not been idle and it will be unfair on our part to gloss over the modest efforts being pursued by member countries of the AU.
However, despite the above, it is appropriate to focus attention on the factors that are likely to work against the efforts of African countries. First, it is observed that African countries differ in a number of ways, for example institutional frameworks and governance systems differ greatly. Some have open systems whereas others still practice a closed system. According to Gordon [43], the Ethiopian state is tightly controlled by the ruling coalition, the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The EPRDF is made up of four constituent parties based on ethnic groups, consisting of the Tigrayan People’s Liberation Front (TPLF), the Amhara National Democratic Movement (ANDM), the Oromo Peoples’ Democratic Organization (OPDO), and the Southern Ethiopian People’s Democratic Movement (SEPDM). Ethiopia is regarded as a country with a very high public investment rate but a low private investment rate. As a result the largest companies in the country are state-owned; those found to be private are owned by close allies of powerful political elites. On the other hand, in Kenya for example, private companies have been present for decades and the country has become a hub for innovation in commercial off-grid and micro-grid systems [43]. These experiences reflect different political, regulatory, and security environment and therefore poses contextual challenges to push for a collective renewable agenda without a comprehensive assessment and understanding of AU member states.
The legislative and regulatory constraints in many African countries make it difficult to embark on a sustainable energy policy that would be workable in national jurisdictions. Different states have their own strategies in dealing with similar issues. And so a one size fits all renewable energy strategy will not suffice. Again, electoral related conflicts and other forms of ethnic-based violence in places like Congo DR, Sudan, Cote D’Ivoire, Kenya, Somalia, etc. poses security risks. Gordon [43] reports that the risk of protests represents the greatest physical threat to renewable energy assets. He recounts that between 2015 and 2018, protests recurred in Oromia, Amhara, and to a lesser extent in Addis Ababa and the Somali region. Protests often attracted thousands of people, and in Oromia and Amhara led to attacks on foreign businesses, particularly those that were either associated with the ruling party or those that were central to the government’s economic policy. Additional challenge is the overreliance on international financing. This comes with a lot of conditionalities that are sometimes unfavorable to the socio-economic and political environment of most African countries. This calls for carefulness and due diligence in international business transactions but at the same time to reduce undue delays in contract performance. A classic case is the Lake Turkana Wind Power Project in Kenya which took nine years to reach financial closure. There are other ongoing projects like the Corbetti Geothermal project in Ethiopia which has taken 7 years and still counting [43].
Also, the issue of infrastructure and skilled human resources leave much to be desired in this venture. It is observed that majority of infrastructure projects on the continent were financed by large international agencies because of the large costs involved. Also, the unstable economic environments highlighted in currency exchange rate fluctuations, depreciation and high interest rates do not provide opportunities for indigenous businesses to thrive.
Additionally, inadequate planning policies, lack of co-ordination and linkage in the Renewable Energy Technology program, weak dissemination strategies, poor baseline information and, weak maintenance service and infrastructure [30] are crucial challenges that should not be ignored. It is important to state that there is always an advantage in cooperation, and so the prospects to consider renewable energy as a very important energy source in Africa’s energy mix should be sustained at worst and intensified at best if Africa is to make any meaningful contribution to the SDGs and its own Agenda 2063.
This study has added to the extant literature on energy transition by exploring the situation in Africa and how best the continent can increase its energy mix with a focus on renewable energy. The study has clearly demonstrated that the energy situation in Africa has been dominated by fossil fuels which cause excessive emission of CO2 in to the atmosphere leading to climate change with its attendant consequences. A number of development opportunities have opened the door for discussions on renewable energy in Africa and the world at large. Excerpts of these opportunities include the famous SDGs, the AU Agenda 2063, the Earth Summit in Rio, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa in the year 2002 and other important multilateral and bilateral treaties. Again, the study has revealed that the dominant renewable energy resources on the continent include geothermal, hydropower, wind energy, solar and bioenergy; and that many countries have already taken the lead in exploiting these resources [31].
Moreover, the study has shown that from the MSF perspective, the prospects of transitioning to renewable energy is high, in the sense that, the problem has been clearly defined as the huge gap in energy supply to the growing African population, the cost and scarcity associated with fossil fuels, and the excessive emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere leading to climatic changes by fossil fuels. African political elites and international actors have all agreed that renewable energy is not a bad idea and can add significantly to the energy mix in Africa. However, the challenge of political insecurity, infrastructural inadequacies, confusion in regulatory and institutional frameworks in some African countries, lack of skilled manpower, initial cost and investment risks are but a few of these challenges that require enormous attention if progressed is to be witnessed in the renewable energy venture.
Furthermore, in order to make significant progress in attaining the renewable energy objective as reflected in SDG Goal 7 by African countries, five main policy implications are worth considering. First, there should be conscious efforts of planning and developing a comprehensive renewable energy implementation framework for African countries with AFREC providing a supervisory role to ensure that AU member states are prioritizing renewable energy considerations in their domestic energy policies and programs. Second, efforts should be made to carefully select renewable energy technologies that are conducive to the African environment. In doing this, there should be a deliberate attempt by governments to train Africans in various aspects of renewable energy technologies. Third, the economic environment should be made conducive to attract and support indigenous Africans who are interested and want to embark on renewable energy investments. Fourth, governments should take it upon themselves to ensure that regulatory and institutional frameworks are harmonized, made simple, easily accessible and easily understood to clearly define the parameters for investors, governments and the citizens/indigenous people. Fifth, AU member states can and should explore the option of trading electricity among themselves to widen the market base for renewables and curb the challenge of intermittent power supply. In conclusion, renewable energy comes along with many prospects in promoting national development; as a result, serious attention should be given to it at the national, sub-regional and continental levels.
AfDB | African development bank – An international Bank for African countries that aims to encourage sustainable economic development and social progress thus contributing to poverty reduction. |
AFREC | African energy commission – This body was set up by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) now known as AU to map out energy development policies, strategies and plans based on sub-regional, regional and continental development priorities and their implementation. |
AREF | African renewable energy fund – This is a fund established to support small to medium scale independent power producers (IPPs) across sub-Saharan Africa. It is managed by Berkeley Energy, an experienced renewable energy fund manager active in Asian and African emerging markets. |
AU | African Union – An intergovernmental organization with African Countries as members. It was formed in 2002 for mutual cooperation to replace the defunct Organization of African Unity. |
EREC | European renewable energy council – This was created in the year 2000, and it is the umbrella organization of the major European renewable energy industry, trade and research associations active in the field of photovoltaics, small hydropower, solar thermal, geothermal, etc. |
GWh | Giga Watts per hour – A unit of energy representing one billion watt hours and equivalent to one million kilowatts hour. It is used as a measure of the output of large electricity power stations. |
IEA | International Energy Agency – An intergovernmental organization that ensures reliable, affordable and clean energy for its 30 member countries and beyond. Their mission is focused on 4 main areas: energy security, economic development, environmental awareness and engagement worldwide. |
InfraCo Africa | InfraCo Africa is part of the multilateral Private Infrastructure Development Group (PIDG). InfraCo Africa seeks to alleviate poverty by mobilizing private investment into infrastructure projects in sub-Saharan Africa’s poorest countries to the highest standards. |
IPCC | Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – This is the UN body for assessing the science related to climate change. It provides regular assessments of the scientific basis of climate change, its impacts and future risk and options for adaptation and mitigation. |
IRENA | International Renewable Energy Agency – An intergovernmental organization that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy and serves as the principal platform for international co-operation, a center of excellence, and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy. |
Ktoe | Kiloton of Oil Equivalent – This is a unit to measure the amount of Energy released by burning a thousand tonnes of crude oil. |
MSF | Multiple streams framework – A theory developed by John Kingdon to explain agenda setting in the policy making process. |
MW | Mega Watt – This is a unit of power equal to one million watts, especially as a measure of the output of a power station. |
PIGD | Private Infrastructure Development Group – It encourages and mobilizes private investment in infrastructure in the frontier markets of sub-Saharan Africa, south and south-east Asia, to help promote economic development and combat poverty. Since 2002, PIDG has supported 154 infrastructure projects to financial close and provided 222 million people with access to new or improved infrastructure. |
REEEP | Renewable energy and energy efficiency partnership – A body that develops innovations, efficient financing mechanisms to advance market readiness for clean energy services in low and middle-income countries. |
SE4ALL | Sustainable energy for all – An independent not for profit international organization with headquarters in Vienna, Austria. Some of its priority areas include electricity for all in Africa, energy for displaced people, energy and health, etc. |
UNEP | United Nations Environment Programme – It is part of the UN system. It is the arm of the UN that takes charge of all environment-related issues. |
UNFCCC | United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – It is part of the UN system, and established in 1992. It is tasked with supporting the global response to the threat of climate change. |
Multiple myeloma (MM), a malignancy of plasma cells, ranks second among all blood cancers in the U.S., representing about 1% of all diagnosed malignancies. In 2020, an estimated 32,270 individuals (54.3% male), the majority over age 65, will be diagnosed with the disease and approximately 12,830 will succumb to it [1]. Classical symptoms of active MM include hypercalcemia, renal insufficiency, anemia, and bone lesions (CRAB) and often are preceded by an asymptomatic stage referred to as monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS). The risk of progression from MGUS to MM is about 1% per year [2] and may include another asymptomatic state known as smoldering myeloma [3]. Current guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of MM have been published by the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) [4]. Treatment modalities for MM have seen enormous advances since the beginning of the current century with the introduction of drugs working by different mechanisms, e.g., proteasome inhibition (bortezomib, carfilzomib, and ixazomib) and immunomodulation (lenalidomide and pomalidomide), which were added to the long-established treatments based on alkylating agents (melphalan and cyclophosphamide) and corticosteroids (dexamethasone). These measures, together with autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT), first introduced for MM in the 1990’s, have increased the five-year survival rate for the disease from 24% in the mid-1970s to 55% in the 2010–2016 period [5]. Furthermore, the relatively recent arrival on the scene of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), beginning with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of daratumumab in 2015, has greatly expanded the therapeutic options available to treat MM. However, in spite of these advances, MM remains incurable as patient relapse and refractoriness to treatment continue as major issues. This review focuses on the contributions made by those mAbs currently approved for MM, as well as on those under investigation as potential future therapies for this disease.
CD38 is a multifunctional 45 kDa type II transmembrane glycoprotein, lacking an internal signaling domain, that is expressed at high levels on both malignant and normal plasma cells and has attracted much interest as a target for drug development in MM [6]. It also is found normally, but at lower levels, on the surfaces of T and B lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, and monocytes. Among its several roles, CD38 acts as a receptor for CD31 (platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule; PECAM-1) [7] and as a cyclic ADP ribose hydrolase, an ectoenzyme whose reaction products play an essential role in regulation of intracellular calcium levels [8].
Antibodies directed against CD38 kill myeloma cells by a number of possible mechanisms, chief among them being antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP), and complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC). Intracellular signal cascade disruption, the result of crosslinks formed between myeloma cell CD38 and Fcγ receptors on effector cells, may also play an important role in initiating apoptotic events in myeloma cells [9]. In addition, anti-CD38 antibodies have been shown to exhibit immunomodulatory effects that cause blockage of regulatory T- and B-cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells [10].
Daratumumab (Darzalex®), a fully human IgG1κ mAb targeting CD38, initially was approved for the management of MM in patients who had relapsed following at least three prior therapies including an immunomodulator and a proteasome inhibitor [11]. Approval was supported by the results of two phase III trials - POLLUX (NCT02076009) and CASTOR (NCT02136134) - in which daratumumab/dexamethasone was combined respectively with either lenalidomide [12] or bortezomib [13]. Further encouraging data from phase III trials, demonstrating deeper and more sustained responses combined with good tolerability, soon enabled daratumumab/corticosteroid combinations with immunomodulators or proteasome inhibitors to assume an important role in even earlier courses of treatment [14, 15], as well as in newly diagnosed patients, whether ASCT-eligible [16] or -ineligible [17, 18]. Several network meta-analytic studies of random controlled trials covering a number of different settings, including in patients with newly diagnosed disease, have demonstrated the benefits of daratumumab-containing regimens in MM therapy with respect to efficacy and safety [19]. Furthermore, several reports have indicated the efficacy of daratumumab monotherapy in patients who have failed earlier lines of anti-myeloma therapy [20], as well as in patients with smoldering MM [21]. Also, the FDA recently has approved a subcutaneous formulation of daratumumab plus hyaluronidase, which enables shorter infusion times without compromising safety or efficacy [22].
Isatuximab (Sarclisa®, SAR650984) is a chimeric mouse-human IgG1κ CD38-targeting mAb that was approved by the FDA in March 2020 for the treatment of relapsing and/or refractory MM (RRMM) in combination with pomalidomide and dexamethasone in patients who have received at least two prior therapies, including lenalidomide and a proteasome inhibitor [23]. Approval was predicated primarily on the results of the phase III ICARIA-MM trial (NCT02990338) in which addition of isatuximab to a pomalidomide/dexamethasone regimen resulted in a five month increase in median progression free survival (PFS), from 6.5 to 11.5 months [24]. Upper respiratory infections and diarrhea were the most frequently encountered adverse events noted in both groups. Although infusion reactions (mostly, grades 1 and 2) were reported in 38% of patients in the isatuximab cohort, this reaction was not noted in any patients in the pomalidomide/dexamethasone group. An additional five phase III trials that include isatuximab/dexamethasone currently are in progress for: newly diagnosed MM (NDMM) (NCT03617731 and NCT03319667 IMROZ - lenalidomide/bortezomib; NCT04483739 - lenalidomide/carfilzomib); RRMM (NCT03275285 IKEMA - carfilzomib); and high-risk smoldering MM (NCT04270409 - lenalidomide).
The mechanism of action of isatuximab exhibits some significant differences from that of daratumumab. For example, the former appears to work principally through ADCC with only minor contributions from CDC [25]. Also, unlike daratumumab, crosslinking induced by isatuximab is not a prerequisite for initiation of target cell apoptosis [26]. Moreover, isatuximab is a much more potent inhibitor of ectoenzyme activity although the significance of this is unknown [27].
MOR202 (MOR03087, TJ202) is a fully humanized IgG1λ mAb that exhibited an objective response rate (ORR) of 29% in a phase II trial with dexamethasone in patients who had previously received four lines of therapy [28]. In addition, this drug has shown some promising efficacy when combined with immunomodulators [29, 30]. MOR202 also appears to offer the advantage of requiring reduced infusion times and is associated with reduced infusion-related reactions compared to daratumumab or isatuximab, possibly due to its lack of dependency on CDC as a function of its activity. However, the drug’s sponsor, MorphoSys AG, recently decided to discontinue further development of MOR202 for MM. Two additional anti-CD38 mAbs from Takeda Oncology currently are in the early stages of clinical development for RRMM: TAK-573, an IgG4 antibody conjugated to an attenuated form of interferon α [31], and TAK-079, a fully humanized IgG1λ mAb [32].
A group of surface proteins belonging to the signaling lymphocytic activation molecule family (SLAMF) has elicited considerable interest in recent years due to the high expression of four family members (SLAMF2, 3, 6, and 7) on both normal plasma cells and those from MM patients at all stages of disease. No trials of SLAMF2-targeting mAbs have been initiated and clinical studies of the SLAMF3 and SLAMF6 mAbs SGN-CD48A and azintuxizumab vedotin (ABBV-838), respectively, both were halted early in phase I trials. On the other hand, SLAMF7 (CS1 or CD319) has emerged as the principal focus for new anti-myeloma mAb development in this group of targets with the introduction of elotuzumab (Empliciti®), a humanized IgG1κ mAb [33]. Preclinical studies revealed that the anti-myeloma activity of elotuzumab is the result of ADCC involving direct activation and engagement of NK cells [34]. FDA approval in 2015 of elotuzumab, which lacks activity as a single agent, was the result of the ELOQUENT-2 trial (NCT01239797) involving 646 randomly assigned RRMM patients who received the mAb plus dexamethasone with or without lenalidomide. The cohort receiving elotuzumab exhibited a PFS of 19.4 months and an ORR of 68% at one year and 41% at two years, compared to 14.9 months and 57% and 27% for the control [35]. These results were confirmed further by a subsequent four-year follow-up study [36]. Similar benefits of elotuzumab in RRMM were observed in combination with pomalidomide-dexamethasone in the ELOQUENT-3 trial (NCT02654132) [37], which included patients refractory to both lenalidomide and a proteasome inhibitor and resulted in the 2018 FDA approval of this combination [38]. Favorable data also have been generated in a trial (NCT01478048) in which bortezomib-dexamethasone was included with elotuzumab [39].
The cytokines BAFF (B-cell activating factor) and APRIL (a proliferation-inducing ligand) have received much attention in recent years for their roles in the pathophysiology of autoimmune diseases [40]. In addition, there is evidence that these two homologous members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily play roles in myeloma cell viability and proliferation [41]. Two other TNF family members - transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI) and B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA), located on the surface of myeloma cells, serve as ligands for both BAFF and APRIL [42]. While the respective BAFF and APRIL inhibitors, atacicept and tabalumab (LY2127399), as well as the anti-APRIL mAb BION-1301, showed poor efficacy in MM trials [43, 44, 45], BCMA has surfaced as a compelling target in anti-myeloma drug research [46].
BCMA normally plays a key role in B-cell differentiation into plasma cells [47]. Myeloma cells, whether from cell lines or patient samples, exhibit not only consistent and virtually exclusive elevation of BCMA levels and its mRNA during malignant transformation but also at similar levels during the various stages of MM from previously untreated to relapse [48]. A soluble form of BCMA (sBCMA), which results from the shedding of BCMA from the plasma cell surface by the action of γ-secretase, is an important factor that, by lowering the density of the target antigen while also providing a soluble decoy, potentially limits the efficacy of BCMA blockers in clinical development, accounting for the inclusion of γ-secretase inhibitors in a number of BCMA-targeted trials [49].
Removal of several of the fucosyl groups normally found in the N-linked biantennary complex oligosaccharides in the Fc region of IgG antibodies is a well-established approach for enhancing ADCC through binding of FcγIIIa receptors on NK cells [50]. One such anti-BCMA mAb is the afucosylated antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) belantamab mafodotin (Blenrep®, GSK2857916), in which the antibody is coupled to the microtubule inhibitor monomethylauristatin F (MMAF) through a protease-resistant maleimidocaproyl linker. While the antibody component disrupts BAFF/APRIL myeloma cell signaling by binding to the BCMA receptor to induce ADCC, the MMAF component causes cell cycle arrest at the G2/M interface [51]. Belantamab mafodotin continues to be the subject of the DREAMM series of trials in RRMM patients. An early exploratory study (NCT02064387, DREAMM-1) found an ORR of 60% in 35 heavily pre-treated RRMM patients when the immunoconjugate was used as a single agent [52]. This encouraging response level dropped to 31% (30/97) in RRMM patients refractory to proteasome inhibitors, immunomodulators, and/or anti-CD38 therapy, who received the drug as monotherapy at 2.5 mg./Kg. in the ensuing phase II DREAMM-2 trial (NCT03525678) [53]. However, the efficacy level was considered comparable to that observed with other therapies for RRMM patients with similar numbers of prior therapies. Analysis of adverse event data in the DREAMM-2 trial concluded that belantamab mafodotin exhibits an acceptable safety profile with ocular toxicity, primarily in the form of keratopathy as the most commonly reported adverse event and attributable to the microtubule-inhibitor payload [54], presenting the greatest concern. Based on these data, in August, 2020, belantamab mafodotin was approved by the FDA, under the provisions of accelerated review, as monotherapy for RRMM patients who have received at least four prior treatments that included an immunomodulator, a proteasome inhibitor, and an anti-CD38 monoclonal antibody [55]. In addition to these two milestone studies, a phase II trial (NCT04126200; DREAMM-5) has been initiated that includes belantamab mafodotin monotherapy with two T-cell costimulatory agonist mAbs – the OX40-targeting GSK3174998 and the inducible co-stimulator (ICOS) GSK3359609, along with nirogacestat (PF-03084014), a γ-secretase inhibitor [56]. The ADC plus low-dose dexamethasone also is incorporated into four phase III investigations that include standard therapies such as: pomalidomide (NCT04162210; DREAMM-3, RRMM); bortezomib and daratumumab (NCT04246047; DREAMM-7, RRMM); pomalidomide and bortezomib (NCT04484623; DREAMM-8, RRMM); and lenalidomide and bortezomib (NCT04091126; DREAMM-9, NDMM) [57].
Another BCMA-targeted ADC that has elicited much interest for its anti-myeloma action is MEDI2228, which is comprised of a fully human mAb attached to a minor-groove binding pyrrolobenzodiazepine (tesirine) payload via a protease-cleavable valine-alanine linker [58]. Release of the warhead following internalization of the immunoconjugate and trafficking to the lysosome results in DNA damage and subsequent apoptosis. Preclinical studies in mice revealed this agent’s potent anti-myeloma activity even when clinically significant levels of sBCMA were present [59]. Currently, MEDI2228 is the subject of a phase I clinical trial (NCT03489525) to determine appropriate dosing as monotherapy in RRMM patients; however, no results have been reported as yet. Another anti-BCMA ADC that has entered clinical studies for MM is AMG 224 (NCT02561962), comprised of a maytansine analog connected to a non-cleavable 4-(N-maleimidomethyl) cyclohexane-1-carboxylate linker [60]. CC-99712 is yet another BCMA-targeted ADC (undisclosed composition) that recently entered a clinical trial (NCT04036461) for RRMM. Other anti-BCMA ADC mAbs that have demonstrated promise in preclinical work but for which human studies have not yet begun include two proprietary products, referred to as BCMA-077 and BCMA-024 [61], and HDP-101, in which the conjugate is the potent RNA polymerase II subunit A (POLR2A) inhibitor α-amanitin [62].
The T-cell-engaging bispecific antibody (T-BsAb) concept, originally developed by Nisonoff in 1961 [63], is based on the design of a dual-targeting antibody whereby one arm initially binds to the T-cell CD3 co-receptor complex while the other arm is subsequently directed to a tumor-associated antigen. The immunological synapse created between the two cells causes release of two cytolytic-initiating proteins: perforin, which causes formation of transmembrane pores in the malignant cell and granzyme B, which traverses the pores thus produced to initiate tumor cell apoptosis. The T-BsAb strategy differs from normal T-cell mediated cytotoxicity by removing requirements for costimulatory signals, formation of an antigen-major histocompatibility complex (MHC), and for ex vivo T-cell manipulation, thus permitting the possibility of “off-the-shelf” product manufacture. Furthermore, persistent T-cell activation enables polyclonal expansion of T memory cells. In addition, the therapeutically relevant properties of constructs may be fine-tuned to optimization by altering biodistribution characteristics and the relative binding affinities of each arm for their respective targets [64].
Amgen’s proprietary BiTE® platform represents an innovative subclass of T-BsAb in which tandem single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) provide the cross-link [65]. The first successful application of BiTE® technology was the CD3-CD19 cross-linking construct blinatumomab (Blincyto®), which was approved by the FDA in 2014 for Philadelphia chromosome-negative B-cell precursor acute lymphocytic leukemia (B-cell ALL). Although a single trial (NCT03173430) of blinatumomab in RRMM patients had to be terminated because of “slow patient accrual”, the majority of myeloma-related work using BiTE® constructs have been based on recombinant antibodies designed to cross-link surface tumor-specific T-cell CD3ζ chains and targeted myeloma cell BCMA.
Initial results with the BCMAxCD3 BiTE® product AMG 420 (BI-836909), which was accorded fast-track status by the FDA in 2018, showed an ORR of 31% in 42 RRMM patients, including seven of ten patients refractory to at least two lines of therapy who received the maximum tolerated dose of 400 μg/day. Infections and polyneuropathy were the most serious adverse events noted in this trial. Cytokine release syndrome (CRS; cytokine storm), predominantly grade 1, was observed in 38% of patients in the study [66, 67]. Monotherapy with AMG 701, a related BiTE® construct with a longer serum half-life than AMG 420, currently is the focus of a phase I trial (NCT03287908) for RRMM. Data generated in a preclinical investigation suggests that future consideration of a trial of AMG 701 in combination with an immunomodulator may be warranted [68]. In addition, two other BCMAxCD3 bispecific antibodies from Regeneron, REGN5458 (NCT03761108) and REGN5459 (NCT04083534), are in phase I RRMM studies. Preliminary data on the first three patients treated with the former agent have been reported [69].
Following favorable safety results in a monkey model [70], two phase I RRMM clinical trials of the BCMAxCD3 bispecific teclistamab (JNJ-64007957) have been initiated. In addition to a dose-escalation study (NCT03145181), this agent has been incorporated into a trial (NCT04108195) that includes subcutaneous daratumumab and talquetamab (JNJ-64407564), a CD3xGPRC5D bispecific construct. Another BCMAxCD3 formatted product under scrutiny for RRMM is PF-06863135 (PF-3135) (NCT03269136), the result of hinge-mutation engineering of an IgG2a backbone [71]. CC-93269, a T-cell engager whose arms bind in a 2 + 1 arrangement, monovalently to CD3ε and bivalently to BCMA, is another member of this class in a myeloma-based trial (NCT03486067) [72].
TNB-383B, a BCMAxCD3 T-BsAb resulting from collaboration between Tenebio and Abbvie and designated as an orphan drug by the FDA, differs from other drugs in this class in that its structure consists of a single immunoglobulin light chain and two variable heavy chains. The product, which recently began a phase I trial for RRMM (NCT03933735), is noteworthy for its strong T-cell activation kinetics and low affinity anti-CD3 arm, which results in reduced release of cytokines while retaining high cytotoxicity toward myeloma cells [73]. A number of other bispecific antibodies have exhibited promise for RRMM in preclinical work. These include TNB-381 M [74], FPA-151 [74], EM801 [48], and AP163 [75]. HPN217, developed by Harpoon Therapeutics, is a tri-specific antibody possessing three binding domains in a single chain – a C-terminal single-chain CD3ε T-cell receptor-(TCR)-binding component, a human serum albumin-binding central domain, and an N-terminal BCMA-binding portion. This product, which is in a phase I/II trial for RRMM (NCT04184050), has an extended half-life compared to bispecific formats, a property ascribed to its smaller size and flexibility [76]. Moreover, bispecifics based on myeloma surface antigens other than BCMA have been developed as alternative CD3 epitope binding partners. In addition to the aforementioned talquetamab (NCT03399799) [77], these include the CD3xCD38 construct found in GBR 1342 (NCT03309111) [78] and the CD3xFcRH5 design incorporated into BFCR4350A (NCT03275103) [79].
In addition to the BCMAxCD3 bispecific formats noted above, creation of BCMA-targeted constructs directed to receptors on NK cells has been described. Like cytotoxic T-cells, NK cells are known to mediate cytotoxicity through a variety of mechanisms, including granzyme-perforin release and through expression of various apoptosis-inducing ligands [80]. A tri-specific product that binds both BCMA and CD200 on myeloma cells to CD16A on NK cells represents one such drug [81]. Similarly, CTX-4419, which binds BCMA to both NK cell CD16A and p30, has shown initial promise in preclinical models although CD16A binding does not appear to be a requirement for the anti-myeloma activity of this product [82]. Other BCMA-NK cell-engaging antibodies, such as CTX-8573 [83] and AFM26 [84], also have shown some potential as RRMM therapies.
Over the past decade, immune checkpoint blockade has emerged as a principal strategy for new antitumor drug development. This immunotherapeutic approach is based on identification of biomarkers and their cognate ligands that enable the body’s immune system to overcome the capacity of tumor cells to evade immune surveillance and elimination, as well as on the design of mAbs to block these interactions. In its most successful application to date, discoveries made concerning the roles played in this process by cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated protein-4 (CTLA-4), the first member of this class to serve as a clinical target, and the programmed death (PD) receptor, have given momentum to this innovative line of attack on a variety of tumor types [85].
Costimulatory signals resulting from interaction of CD28 on the surface of T-cells with its CD80 (B7–1) ligand on antigen-presenting cells play an important role in activating T-cells. CTLA-4, expressed on the T-cell plasma membrane, competes with CD80-CD28 binding to downregulate T-cell activation and thus represents an important mechanism that suppresses immune responses and, as a consequence, enables tumor cells to evade detection. CTLA-4-directed mAbs, by competing with the CD80-CD28 interaction, enhance the ability of T-cells to generate an antitumor response. This strategic approach was successfully applied to the immunotherapy of advanced melanoma by the anti-CTLA-4 mAb ipilimumab, which was approved by the FDA in 2011 and has been extended since to include a number of other solid tumors [86]. However, the drug has shown less than impressive results in hematologic cancers, such as acute myeloid leukemia [87]. One trial (NCT02681302) of ipilimumab combined with nivolumab that included both lymphoma and MM patients is currently active but so far only preliminary efficacy and toxicity data have been reported [88].
Binding of PD-1, expressed on the surface of T-cells, to PD-L1 or PD-L2 on tumor cells inhibits cytotoxic T lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine secretion while also causing an increase in the T regulatory cell population. These combined effects produce immune tolerance, enabling unrestrained tumor cell growth and survival [89]. Since 2014, the FDA has approved three PD-1 inhibitors – pembrolizumab (Keytruda®), nivolumab (Opdivo®), and cemiplimab (Libtayo®) and three PD-L1 blockers – avelumab (Bavencio®), durvalumab (Imfinzi®), and atezolizumab (Tecentriq®). Pembrolizumab, the first to be approved and the most versatile member of the checkpoint blocker group, has been approved for 17 different indications, many as front-line therapy for solid tumors ranging from melanoma to small-cell lung cancer to metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma [90]. In 2017, the FDA in an unprecedented move approved pembrolizumab for the treatment of solid tumors having a microsatellite instability (mismatched repair deficiency). Known as a tissue agnostic approach to cancer diagnosis and treatment, this marked the first drug approval based on a specific biomarker instead of on the tissue or organ of origin [91].
In terms of hematologic malignancies, pembrolizumab has been approved for treatment of Hodgkin’s lymphoma while both pembrolizumab and nivolumab have been approved for primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma (PMBCL). While studies of checkpoint inhibitors in both chronic and acute leukemias generally have been disappointing [87], work in the area of MM has shown some degree of efficacy but major issues concerning toxicity have arisen. Following favorable results in early phase trials [92, 93], pembrolizumab/dexamethasone was included in two phase III trials with and without the immunomodulators lenalidomide (NCT02579863—KEYNOTE-185; NDMM) and pomalidomide (NCT02576977—KEYNOTE-183; RRMM). However, in July 2017, the FDA placed clinical holds on both trials due to the higher risk of death in the cohorts receiving the PD-1 blocker [94]. This suspension soon was expanded to include partial or full holds on all myeloma trials using combinations of immunomodulators and checkpoint inhibitors, an action that later was reversed in the case of three myeloma trials that employed nivolumab (NCT03023527, NCT01592370, and NCT02612779); however, no data have been forthcoming for these resumed studies. At this point, any future role that checkpoint inhibitor-immunomodulator combinations may play in MM therapy is very much in a state of flux [95]. Other checkpoints that may serve as targets for MM but for which only limited preclinical or clinical studies are currently available include killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) [96], CD47 [97], LAG3 [98], TIGIT [99, 100], and TIM-3 [101]. Table 1 contains a partial list of checkpoint inhibitors currently in clinical trials for MM.
Trial ID [reference] | N | Trial title |
---|---|---|
PD-1 Inhibitors | ||
NCT03848845 [102] | 40 | A phase I/II single arm open-label study to explore safety and clinical activity of GSK2857916 administered in combination with pembrolizumab in subjects with relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma (DREAMM 4) |
NCT03506360 | 41 | Phase II trial of pembrolizumab, ixazomib, and dexamethasone for relapsed multiple myeloma |
NCT04361851 | 33 | Phase II study of daratumumab-pembrolizumab for multiple myeloma patients with ≥ three prior lines of therapy |
NCT03168438 [103] | 20 | NY-ESO-1ᶜ259T alone and in combination with pembrolizumab for multiple myeloma |
NCT03782064 | 25 | A phase II trial of vaccination with dendritic cell (DC)/myeloma fusions in combination with nivolumab in patients with relapsed multiple myeloma |
NCT03292263 [104] | 30 | Autologous stem cell transplantation with nivolumab in patients with multiple myeloma |
NCT04119336 | 50 | A phase II study of nivolumab in combination with ixazomib, cyclophosphamide, and dexamethasone in relapsed and refractory multiple myeloma |
NCT03194867 | 109 | A phase I/II study to evaluate safety, pharmacokinetics and efficacy of isatuximab in combination with cemiplimab in patients with relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma |
NCT03111992 | 26 | Phase I/Ib, multi-center, open-label, study of single agent CJM112 (anti-IL17A mAb), and spartalizumab (PDR001) in combination with LCL161 (SMAC mimetic) or CJM112 in patients with relapsed and/or refractory multiple myeloma |
PD-L1 Inhibitors | ||
NCT02431208 [105, 106] Trial Start: 7/22/15 | 300 | A phase Ib study of the safety and pharmacokinetics of atezolizumab alone or in combination with an immunomodulatory drug and/or daratumumab in patients with multiple myeloma (relapsed/ refractory and post-autologous stem cell transplantation) |
NCT03910439 | 30 | A phase II pilot study of avelumab in combination with hypofractionated radiotherapy in patients with relapsed refractory multiple myeloma |
CD47 Inhibitors | ||
NCT03530683 | 156 | A phase Ia/Ib dose escalation and expansion trial of TTI-622 in patients with advanced relapsed or refractory lymphoma or myeloma |
LAG-3 and TIGIT Inhibitors | ||
NCT04150965 | 104 | A phase I/II assessment of combination immuno-oncology drugs elotuzumab, anti-LAG-3 (BMS-986016) and anti-TIGIT (BMS-986207) |
Selected active trials of checkpoint inhibitors in MM.
Trial start date on or after July 1, 2017, unless otherwise noted.
CD138 (syndecan-1), which is overexpressed in MM [107], is the target of indatuximab ravtansine (BT-062), an ADC whose anti-CD138 mAb is linked to a cytotoxic microtubule destabilizing maytansinoid. This agent has been studied in RRMM both in combination with immunomodulators (NCT01638936) and as a single agent (NCT01001442 and NCT00723359). The 34 patients (median 5 prior therapies) in the monotherapy study who received a multi-dose regimen showed a median PFS of three months and median overall survival (OS) of 26.7 months while diarrhea and fatigue were the most commonly reported adverse events [108]. In addition, an anti-CD138 mAb, known as mAb 1610, has shown some potential anti-myeloma promise in a preclinical study [109].
CD74 plays a key role as a chaperone, enabling the proper folding and trafficking of MHC Class II proteins in antigen-presenting cells. In addition, this type II transmembrane protein activates the NFκB signaling pathway following the binding of its intracellular domain to macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) and translocation to the nucleus where it induces proliferation and survival, especially in B-cells. Elevated expression of CD74 in B cell malignancies, such as non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas and MM, has made this an attractive target for these types of cancer [110]. STRO-001, which has received Orphan Drug status from the FDA, is an anti-CD74 ADC in which an aglycosylated human IgG1 antibody is conjugated to a maytansinoid linker-warhead. A phase I trial (NCT03424603) of STRO-001 in B-cell malignancies, including MM, recently was initiated [111]. Two other CD74-targeting agents, milatuzumab and its doxorubicin-linked ADC, that had been under study in MM, both have been dropped from further consideration.
Another conjugate linked to a maytansine derivative, the anti-CD56 ADC lorvotuzumab mertansine (IMGN901; BB-10901), had been the focus of a phase I trial in CD56-positive RRMM patients (NCT00346255) but insufficient efficacy and dose-related toxicity reportedly led to discontinuation of further studies of this agent [112, 113]. Other mAbs that have been dropped from further consideration in MM following demonstration of only modest efficacy and/or unacceptable toxicity in trials include the following (target in parentheses): dacetuzumab and lucatumumab (CD40); F50067 (CXCR-4); AVE1642 and figitumumab (IGF-R1); IPH 2101 (KIR); PAT-SM6 (GRP-78); BI 505 (intercellular adhesion molecule-1, ICAM-1), and siltuximab (IL-6).
The number of therapeutic options available to treat MM has witnessed a remarkable upsurge since the turn of the current century. The advent of proteasome inhibitors and immunomodulators, in addition to other small molecules working by additional mechanisms, such as histone deacetylase (HDAC) blockade and nuclear export inhibition, has resulted in a major alteration in the clinical approach to the disease. Over the past half-decade, the introduction of mAbs into the fight against this malignancy has further shifted the landscape of how this disease is treated both in newly diagnosed patients and in the relapsed/refractory setting. Chief among these newer entries are daratumumab and elotuzumab, and more recently the anti-CD38 mAb isatuximab and the bispecific antibody belantamab mafodotin. Although employment of mAbs in combination with small molecule agents, such as bortezomib and lenalidomide, has been of immense value in extending patients’ ability to achieve deep and durable remissions, relapse and refractoriness to therapy remain as major obstacles to attainment of a cure. Work on checkpoint inhibitors, which have been employed successfully in several tumor types and had shown early promise in MM, continues to move forward in clinical studies of MM, although tempered by recent setbacks stemming from toxicity concerns when used in combination with immunomodulators.
It is evident that future advances in treating MM will be dependent on gaining even deeper insight into the transformative molecular events leading to the disease. As new biomarkers that drive this unrelenting malignancy are identified, design and discovery of innovative target-based therapeutic approaches that will find their way into clinical practice will be established. The attainments already realized by the advent of mAbs, particularly daratumumab, in recent years offers some prospect for even greater success in the application of mAbs in MM over the coming decade.
Our books are published online and are accessible for free. However, if you are interested in ordering your hardcover copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com. All IntechOpen books are printed on demand in full-colour and delivered in signature packaging through free DHL Express delivery. A selection of our books in soft cover is also available through Amazon.
',metaTitle:"Order Print Copies",metaDescription:"Our books are published online and are accessible for free. However, if you are interested in ordering your printed copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com.\n\nOur hardcover books are carefully designed and printed on wood-free premium quality paper.\n\nThe paper size is 155 mm x 225 mm (6.1 X 8.8 inches).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/order-print-copies",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"InTechOpen contributors can order print books at a special price ranging from:
\\n\\nFor a quote please contact us directly at orders@intechopen.com The quote will be sent to you within 1-2 business days.
\\n\\nAll of the books and chapters can be browsed online. To obtain InTechOpen's full book catalogue in PDF, please contact us.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\\n\\nPrint copies of our publications are most often purchased as individual purchases by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions. Our books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\\n\\nIndia - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\\n\\nASEAN - Books International
\\n\\nChina Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\\n\\nMallory International Ltd
\\n\\nFor partnership opportunities, please contact orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'InTechOpen contributors can order print books at a special price ranging from:
\n\nFor a quote please contact us directly at orders@intechopen.com The quote will be sent to you within 1-2 business days.
\n\nAll of the books and chapters can be browsed online. To obtain InTechOpen's full book catalogue in PDF, please contact us.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\n\nPrint copies of our publications are most often purchased as individual purchases by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions. Our books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\n\nIndia - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\n\nASEAN - Books International
\n\nChina Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\n\nMallory International Ltd
\n\nFor partnership opportunities, please contact orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10366},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118187},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10656",title:"Intellectual Property",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"135df9b403b125a6458eba971faab3f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and Dr. Suriyaprakash TNK",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10656.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10658",title:"Multilingualism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6bf171e05831c00f8687891ab1b10b5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xiaoming Jiang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10658.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10913",title:"Indigenous Populations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c5e8cd4e3ec004d0479494ca190db4cb",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10913.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10914",title:"Racism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0737383fcc202641f59e4a5df02eb509",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9043",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d21066c7438e459e4c6fb13217a5c8c",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",bookSignature:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5227},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"141",title:"Plant Biology",slug:"environmental-sciences-plant-biology",parent:{title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:84,numberOfWosCitations:173,numberOfCrossrefCitations:68,numberOfDimensionsCitations:223,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"environmental-sciences-plant-biology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8667",title:"Plant Communities and Their Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc25bcd1a48e847f8f7b4e30b4d84641",slug:"plant-communities-and-their-environment",bookSignature:"Manuel T. Oliveira, Feyza Candan and Anabela Fernandes-Silva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8667.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181227",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:"T.",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"manuel-oliveira",fullName:"Manuel Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7005",title:"Theobroma Cacao",subtitle:"Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6db7340ec4aa1fd498381eebc7fc7032",slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",bookSignature:"Peter Osobase Aikpokpodion",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7005.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94033",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:"Osobase",surname:"Aikpokpodion",slug:"peter-aikpokpodion",fullName:"Peter Aikpokpodion"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2252",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f2540f35e6516d6946f6953469c61ff3",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",bookSignature:"Mahmut Çalişkan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2252.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"31476",doi:"10.5772/33073",title:"Genetic Diversity in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and Its Wild Relatives",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-tomato-solanum-lycopersicum-and-its-wild-relatives",totalDownloads:9999,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:66,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Guillaume Bauchet and Mathilde Causse",authors:[{id:"93906",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathilde",middleName:null,surname:"Causse",slug:"mathilde-causse",fullName:"Mathilde Causse"},{id:"104031",title:"Mr.",name:"Guillaume",middleName:null,surname:"Bauchet",slug:"guillaume-bauchet",fullName:"Guillaume Bauchet"}]},{id:"31471",doi:"10.5772/33005",title:"Association Mapping in Plant Genomes",slug:"association-mapping-in-plant-genomes",totalDownloads:8183,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:43,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Braulio J. Soto-Cerda and Sylvie Cloutier",authors:[{id:"93579",title:"Dr.",name:"Braulio",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Soto-Cerda",slug:"braulio-soto-cerda",fullName:"Braulio Soto-Cerda"},{id:"104021",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Cloutier",slug:"sylvie-cloutier",fullName:"Sylvie Cloutier"}]},{id:"31483",doi:"10.5772/35119",title:"Genetic Diversity of Rice Grain Quality",slug:"genetics-of-grain-quality",totalDownloads:4019,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Rosa Paula Cuevas and Melissa A. Fitzgerald",authors:[{id:"103042",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Cuevas",slug:"rosa-paula-cuevas",fullName:"Rosa Paula Cuevas"},{id:"104257",title:"Dr.",name:"Melissa",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"melissa-fitzgerald",fullName:"Melissa Fitzgerald"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67474",title:"Cocoa Plant, People and Profit in Ghana",slug:"cocoa-plant-people-and-profit-in-ghana",totalDownloads:878,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Kenneth Peprah",authors:null},{id:"31491",title:"Characterisation of the Amaranth Genetic Resources in the Czech Gene Bank",slug:"characterisation-of-the-amaranth-genetic-resources-in-the-czech-gene-bank",totalDownloads:3755,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Dagmar Janovská, Petra Hlásná Čepková and Mária Džunková",authors:[{id:"98991",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Janovská",slug:"dagmar-janovska",fullName:"Dagmar Janovská"},{id:"100596",title:"Dr.",name:"Petra",middleName:null,surname:"Hlásná Čepková",slug:"petra-hlasna-cepkova",fullName:"Petra Hlásná Čepková"},{id:"102357",title:"MSc.",name:"Mária",middleName:null,surname:"Džunková",slug:"maria-dzunkova",fullName:"Mária Džunková"}]},{id:"31481",title:"Genetic Diversity in Apricot",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-apricot",totalDownloads:3554,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Kadir Ugurtan Yilmaz and Kahraman Gurcan",authors:[{id:"95067",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadir Ugurtan",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"kadir-ugurtan-yilmaz",fullName:"Kadir Ugurtan Yilmaz"},{id:"130537",title:"Dr.",name:"Kahraman",middleName:null,surname:"Gurcan",slug:"kahraman-gurcan",fullName:"Kahraman Gurcan"}]},{id:"65131",title:"Diversity of Cacao Pathogens and Impact on Yield and Global Production",slug:"diversity-of-cacao-pathogens-and-impact-on-yield-and-global-production",totalDownloads:932,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Dele Adeniyi",authors:null},{id:"31486",title:"Living on the Edge: Various Modes of Persistence at the Range Margins of Some Far Eastern Species",slug:"living-on-the-edge-various-modes-of-persistence-at-the-range-margins-of-some-far-eastern-species",totalDownloads:2193,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Elena Artyukova, Marina Kozyrenko, Olga Koren, Alla Kholina, Olga Nakonechnaya and Yuri Zhuravlev",authors:[{id:"41168",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Zhuravlev",slug:"yuri-zhuravlev",fullName:"Yuri Zhuravlev"},{id:"102685",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:"V.",surname:"Artyukova",slug:"elena-artyukova",fullName:"Elena Artyukova"},{id:"104308",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Kozyrenko",slug:"marina-kozyrenko",fullName:"Marina Kozyrenko"},{id:"104319",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Koren",slug:"olga-koren",fullName:"Olga Koren"},{id:"104322",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Nakonechnaya",slug:"olga-nakonechnaya",fullName:"Olga Nakonechnaya"},{id:"104325",title:"Dr.",name:"Alla",middleName:null,surname:"Kholina",slug:"alla-kholina",fullName:"Alla Kholina"}]},{id:"31469",title:"Isolation of High-Quality DNA from a Desert Plant Reaumuria soongorica",slug:"isolation-of-high-quality-dna-from-a-desert-plant-reaumuria-soongorica",totalDownloads:3486,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Xiaohua Wang, Honglang Xiao, Xin Zhao, Caizhi Li, Juan Ren, Fang Wang and Lei Pang",authors:[{id:"116889",title:"Prof.",name:"Honglang",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",slug:"honglang-xiao",fullName:"Honglang Xiao"},{id:"116891",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohua",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaohua-wang",fullName:"Xiaohua Wang"},{id:"118242",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"xin-zhao",fullName:"Xin Zhao"},{id:"118243",title:"Dr.",name:"Caizhi",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"caizhi-li",fullName:"Caizhi Li"},{id:"118244",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Ren",slug:"juan-ren",fullName:"Juan Ren"},{id:"118245",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"fang-wang",fullName:"Fang Wang"},{id:"118246",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Pang",slug:"lei-pang",fullName:"Lei Pang"}]},{id:"31487",title:"Founder Placement and Gene Dispersal Affect Population Growth and Genetic Diversity in Restoration Plantings of American Chestnut",slug:"founder-placement-and-gene-dispersal-affect-population-growth-and-genetic-diversity-in-restoration-p",totalDownloads:1530,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Yamini Kashimshetty, Melanie Simkins, Stephan Pelikan and Steven H. Rogstad",authors:[{id:"99663",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Rogstad",slug:"steven-rogstad",fullName:"Steven Rogstad"},{id:"151542",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephan",middleName:null,surname:"Pelikan",slug:"stephan-pelikan",fullName:"Stephan Pelikan"},{id:"151543",title:"Dr.",name:"Melanie",middleName:null,surname:"Simkins",slug:"melanie-simkins",fullName:"Melanie Simkins"},{id:"151544",title:"Dr.",name:"Yamini",middleName:null,surname:"Kashimshetty",slug:"yamini-kashimshetty",fullName:"Yamini Kashimshetty"}]},{id:"31470",title:"Olive Tree Genetic Resources Characterization Through Molecular Markers",slug:"olive-tree-genetic-resources-characterization-through-molecular-markers",totalDownloads:4634,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Sónia Gomes, Paula Martins-Lopes and Henrique Guedes-Pinto",authors:[{id:"72207",title:"Prof.",name:"Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Martins-Lopes",slug:"paula-martins-lopes",fullName:"Paula Martins-Lopes"},{id:"93419",title:"Dr.",name:"Sónia",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"sonia-gomes",fullName:"Sónia Gomes"},{id:"102337",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrique",middleName:null,surname:"Guedes-Pinto",slug:"henrique-guedes-pinto",fullName:"Henrique Guedes-Pinto"}]},{id:"67634",title:"Cacao Growth and Development Under Different Nursery and Field Conditions",slug:"cacao-growth-and-development-under-different-nursery-and-field-conditions",totalDownloads:581,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Idowu Babadele Famuwagun and Samuel Ohi Agele",authors:null},{id:"31480",title:"Determination of Genetic Variation Between Populations of Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmulleriana Mattf According to Some Seed Characteristics",slug:"determination-of-genetic-variation-between-populations-of-abies-nordmanniana-subsp-bornmulleriana-ma",totalDownloads:2354,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Hakan Sevik, Zeki Yahyaoglu and Ibrahim Turna",authors:[{id:"93082",title:"Dr.",name:"Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Sevik",slug:"hakan-sevik",fullName:"Hakan Sevik"},{id:"102914",title:"Prof.",name:"Zeki",middleName:null,surname:"Yahyaoglu",slug:"zeki-yahyaoglu",fullName:"Zeki Yahyaoglu"},{id:"102915",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Turna",slug:"ibrahim-turna",fullName:"Ibrahim Turna"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"environmental-sciences-plant-biology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/136089/willian-aperador",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"136089",slug:"willian-aperador"},fullPath:"/profiles/136089/willian-aperador",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()