Scientific, engineering and organizational challenges in developing countries.
\r\n\tThe fundamental research areas of Evolutionary Psychology can be divided into two broad categories: on the one hand, the basic cognitive processes, and the way they evolved within the species, and on the other, the adaptive social behaviors that derive from the theory of evolution itself: survival, mating, parenting, family and kinship, interactions with non-parents and cultural evolution. Indeed, Evolutionary Psychology explains at individual and group level the fundamental behaviors of social life, such as altruism, cooperation, competition, social exclusion, social support, etc. etc. Similar to the mechanisms of natural selection for physical characteristics, not only the mind follows biological laws, but also psychological abilities - such as the theory of mind, the ability to represent the intentions, thoughts, beliefs, and emotions of others - have had to adapt and must make themselves functional to the social life of individuals and groups. In addition, Sociology takes the same aspects into consideration, emphasizing the interaction, symbolic and otherwise, of individuals. The latter investigates the neural mechanisms underlying the same social behaviors that are of interest to evolutionary psychology. To study the neural correlates involved in such behaviors is necessary to understand the biological laws that underlie human behavior and brain functioning.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to open a debate full of theoretical and experimental contributions among the different disciplines in social research, psychology, neuroscience, sociology, useful to give an innovative vision to the present research and future perspective on the topic.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-871-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-870-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-872-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd4df54e3fb185306ec3899db7044efb",bookSignature:"Dr. Rosalba Morese, Dr. Vincenzo Auriemma and Dr. Sara Palermo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10450.jpg",keywords:"Evolutionary Psychology, Human Social Evolution, Human Social Behaviour, Social Cognition, Social Neuroscience, Functional Neuroimaging, Neuropsychology, Altruism, Cooperation, Social Exclusion, Social Support, Social Inclusion",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 18th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Rosalba Morese is carrying out research in the framework of Neuroscience and Social Psychology. She currently works at the Institute of Public Health of Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and at the Faculty of Communication, Culture, and Society of Università Della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Vincenzo Auriemma's focus is on the study of empathy in human interactions. He studied at the University of Essex in England, the University of Pisa, Genoa, Rome in Italy, and the University of Italian Switzerland in Switzerland. He is the principal responsible for the 'PERSEO' research which analyzes the reasons for the 'drop-out' in psychology.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Researcher of the EUROPEAN INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP on Active and Healthy Ageing and Assistant Specialty Chief Editor for Frontiers in Psychology - Neuropsychology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214435/images/system/214435.jpg",biography:"Rosalba Morese obtained a degree in psychology at the University of Parma. She subsequently held various\nteaching positions at the Department of Psychology and the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery of the\nUniversity of Parma.\nHer training continued with the attainment of the title of PhD in Neuroscience at the University of Turin,\nduring which she acquired and developed interdisciplinary skills and point of view through the application\nof bioimaging and psychophysiological methods to investigate the neurophysiological mechanisms involved\nduring communication and social interactions.",institutionString:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"338363",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Auriemma",slug:"vincenzo-auriemma",fullName:"Vincenzo Auriemma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:'He is pursuing a PhD in Sociology from the University of Salerno, Italy. He is a researcher of sociology and neurosociology at the University of Salerno, Italy. His focus is on the study of empathy in human interactions and he studied at the University of Essex in England, the University of Pisa, Genoa, Rome 3 in Italy and the University of Italian Switzerland in Switzerland. He has participated in national and international conferences with about 25 reports/communications. He is the principal responsible for the "PERSEO" research which analyzes the reasons for the "drop-out" in psychology, using the methodology of the Gounded Theory and analyzing empathy, fear and panic. He is Co-Editor for Frontiers. He is also a member of the Italian Society of Sociology (AIS).',institutionString:"University of Salerno",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salerno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233998/images/system/233998.jpeg",biography:"Sara Palermo is a MSc in Clinical Psychology and a PhD in Experimental Neuroscience. Moreover, she obtained the National Scientific Enabling Certificate for Associate Professorship in April 2017 (ASN-2017). She is an expert in experimental neuroscience, clinical neuropsychology and advance neuropsychological testing. Moreover, she performs multidimensional geriatric evaluation and basic neurological symptomatology detection in patients with neurodegenerative disorders. She is also engaged in Activation Likelihood Estimation meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies.\r\nShe worked as a postdoc research fellow at the Department of Neuroscience 'Rita Levi Montalcini” in Turin until July 2017. Since then she works as research fellow at the Department of Psychology in Turin. To date, she owns three research Group memberships at the University of Turin (Italy). She is a member of the 'Center for the Study of Movement Disorders” (research area: Neurology) and the 'Placebo Responses Mapping Group” (research area: Physiology) at the Department of Neuroscience, and a member of the 'Neuropsychology of cognitive impairment and central nervous system degenerative diseases Group” at the Department of Psychology (Research Area: Psychobiology and physiological psychology).\r\nThe main topics of her research are the study of awareness of illness, metacognitive-executive deficits in neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders, physical and cognitive frailty in the elderly, and placebo/nocebo phenomena. Interestingly, all of them may represent appealing perspectives from which to study how neuropsychological abnormalities can be explained in terms of brain activities and with the use of neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological batteries considering a neurocognitive approach. Given her research interests and scientific publications, she has been an ordinary member of the Italian Society of Neuropsychology (SINP), of the Italian Association of Psychogeriatrics (AIP), of the Italian Society of Neurology for Dementia (SiNdem), and – finally – of the international Society for Interdisciplinary Placebo Studies (SIPS). Importantly, she is a member of the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Aging (EIP on AHA), for which she is involved in the Action Group A3 Functional decline and frailty. \r\n\r\nSara Palermo is Panel Editor for 'EC Psychology and Psychiatry'. She was recently appointed as Specialty Chief Editor for 'Frontiers in Psychology - Neuropsychology'.",institutionString:"University of Turin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"259492",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Gojević-Zrnić",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259492/images/7469_n.png",email:"sara.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5810",title:"Socialization",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bfac2e9c0ec2963193e9d15d617c6a01",slug:"socialization-a-multidimensional-perspective",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo and Juri Nervo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5810.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7818",title:"Social Isolation",subtitle:"An Interdisciplinary View",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db3b513d7d35476f333a0d4a3147935b",slug:"social-isolation-an-interdisciplinary-view",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo and Raffaella Fiorella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7818.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8262",title:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29bf235aa7659d3651183fe9ea49dc0d",slug:"the-new-forms-of-social-exclusion",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese and Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8262.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. 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The relevant property or properties are determined by property testing or where applicable, concentration based criteria. Hazardous wastes are materials which are discarded after use from e‐products, vehicles, clinical and medical products, fuel products (e.g. oil), gas exploration and extraction. Scientific research indicates that these include materials such as industrial solvents, waste oils, industrial sludges and chemical wastes. Households, small businesses, farms, and the healthcare and construction sectors also generate quantities of hazardous waste including batteries, electrical equipment, healthcare risk waste, solvent based paint and varnish waste, sheep dip, and fluorescent lamps [2]. Hazardous waste not only poses risks to the surrounding air, water, and soil, but also do harm to the ecological environment and human health through diversified channels [3]. Developed countries (such as United States and some European Union members states) are the main producers of hazardous waste in the world [4]. The management of hazardous wastes is of great importance due to environmental health, social, and economic impacts. During the past two decades the world experienced a dramatic increase in the amount of hazardous waste generated [5]. In developing countries, the management of hazardous is exacerbated by lack of comprehensive legislation, unauthorized scrap yards dealing with e‐waste, and end of life vehicles. Poor conduct and inappropriate disposal methods exercised during the handling and disposal of hazardous wastes are increasing significant health hazards and environmental pollution due to the harmful nature of the waste [6].
\nPast research studies [5, 6] have established that the key driver to hazardous waste management is the involvement of all the stakeholders including waste generators, regulators, decision makers, waste processors, and informal and formal sectors. These stakeholders have a crucial role in improving the system by ensuring the development and delivery of an effective and efficient hazardous waste management program. The aim of this book chapter is to describe the management of hazardous waste in developing countries, in terms of treatment, prevention of hazardous waste, and the best practices of hazardous waste management.
\nIn recent decades, researchers have defined and classified hazardous waste as waste with inherent chemical and physical characteristics, such as toxicity, ignitability, corrosivity, carcinogenicity, or other properties [6]. Nevertheless, in developing countries there is insufficient definition and classification, which leads to difficulties in identifying the needs of treatment and disposal of hazardous waste. For instance, in China, hazardous waste has been classified into three types, household hazardous waste, industrial hazardous waste, and medical waste [7]. It has been established that in many developing countries, only industrial hazardous and medical waste are disposed separately [8]. Other hazardous waste type, such as household hazardous waste (HHW) are somewhat neglected. Thus, in the developing countries, there is limited classification carried out in terms of the composition, type, and purpose.
\nIn developing countries, the quantities of hazardous wastes has not been documented because these waste streams are incorrectly managed, thereby posing greater environmental impacts than reported. Based on the 2013 environmental statistics annual report released by the Ministry of Environmental Protection of China, it has been observed that the Chinese industries produced 31.57 million tons of hazardous wastes belonging to 49 types in 2013. Furthermore, 53.9% of these hazardous wastes is recycled and reused, while 22.2 % is treated and disposed, and 25.7% is stored [11]. Therefore, determining the accurate estimates of hazardous is not an easy task [6]. As a result, this waste stream may end up mixed with general domestic or commercial, or disposed of in an uncontrolled manner through burning, burying, or discharged to sewer, water, or ground surface. Currently, in developing countries there are limited options for generators of hazardous waste to manage it appropriately [8]. In some cases, there are no commercial hazardous waste collection services, retail take back systems and periodic drop‐off services provided by the municipalities. In terms of responsibilities, developing countries have not designed and implemented producer responsibility for hazardous waste materials including human and farm animal medicines, waste oil, oil filters, paint and paint containers, pesticides and herbicides (household), ink and ink containers from publishing organizations [9]. In particular, there are no national take back schemes for unused or expired human medicines and e‐products considering the widespread consumption of medicines and e‐products. In addition, no pilot schemes have been carried out focusing on collection of hazardous waste such as plant protection product containers, unused or out‐of‐date animal health medicines and pesticides, waste oils, oil, filters, empty cartridges, aerosols, e‐waste, paints, batteries, and other hazardous waste [10].
\nThe Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal is the most important regulatory framework for the management of hazardous waste. However, other developing countries such as China has adopted several regulations and standards based on the international safety standards in combination with the Chinese situation. These are developed in order for waste producers to:\n
Minimize waste in fuel production and fuel cycles, materials classification and purification.
Guarantee a high volume reduction [7].
Based on the previous scientific research, it has been established that in developing countries, the Basel Convention is not adequately implemented [8]. Consequently, hazardous waste from developed is still received by the developing countries. As noted by some scholars, some of the problems related to legislation in developing countries include: unambiguousness in waste classification due to the subsuming unspecific nature of the waste codes, and the liberty given to waste generators to choose their own names for the wastes they generate; potential overlapping of source‐based and constituent‐based waste codes [12]. Furthermore, there are no identification standards of ignitable and reactive characteristics for hazardous wastes [10]. Therefore, the present methods and standards continue to hamper and impede the development of sustainable management systems in the developing countries.
\nThe treatment of hazardous waste should take place under regulated and controlled conditions [13]. Hazardous waste management includes the possession, transportation, handling, storage, and ultimate disposal of waste. However, in developing countries the treatment of hazardous waste takes place in unregulated or uncontrolled conditions, and in some cases hazardous waste are exported to developing countries by the developed countries [14]. It has been established that for most parts, hazardous wastes are treated in unlicensed facilities using conventional methods such as landfilling. The remainder of the waste stream is treated at authorized facilities with low technologies and low environmental standards [15]. These include incineration plants, landfills and oil recovery. An important fraction of hazardous wastes is still mixed with non‐hazardous wastes, being mainly landfilled and producing serious environmental impacts regarding heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants content in landfill leachate, thus creating a great health risk to municipal workers, the public, and the environment. The main problems affecting the management of hazardous waste in developing countries include the following:\n
Lack of necessary rules, plans, regulations, and instructions on different aspect of collections and disposal of waste.
Lack of policy directions or incentives for existing local authority or private sector landfill operators.
Inadequate Institutional capacities.
Lack of hazardous waste prevention activities.
Shipment of hazardous to developing countries from developed countries.
Mixing of hazardous waste with domestic waste or commercial waste.
Lack of collection facilities for hazardous waste.
Failure to quantify the hazardous waste generated in reliable records.
Existing environmental permits mostly fail to contribute to Best Available Technology (BAT).
Not all regional environmental authorities register the generated waste types in the permit using waste classification codes.
Information about waste production rates corresponding to the recorded waste generation is usually missing. The developing countries waste information system is not detailed enough to gather information about concentrations of hazardous substances, only total mass.
Lack of enforcement of and compliance with the existing regulations.
Lack of priority sectors for prevention of hazardous waste.
Lack of conformance with the best international practices on hazardous waste management.
Inadequate infrastructure and self‐sufficiency in hazardous waste management.
Absence of dedicated waste managers and committees, as well as plans responsible for monitoring hazardous waste practices.
Absence of dedicated national facilities.
Lack of guidance, awareness, capacity building training on the management of sectoral hazardous waste management.
Absence of specific policies dedicated to the management of hazardous household waste.
This suggests that integrated strategies for hazardous wastes recovery are needed in the developing country industry that may reduce the disposal rate of these wastes in communal landfills and impulse resource recovery and recycling of valuable materials of these wastes. Therefore, it is necessary to develop high technologies; promoting recovery and recycling centers and hazardous waste management strategies, which are environmentally, socially, economically, and technically feasible.
\nDoing so recognizes the proximity of best international practices to manage hazardous waste: maximizing the reuse, recycling, and recovery of potential materials, precious metals and where practical through the provision of a range of local treatment options; ensuring the availability of recovery and disposal outlets and stimulating green economy opportunities within nations.
\nCurrently, many developing countries have no dedicated hazardous landfill disposal facilities. A few countries such as South Africa have hazardous landfill disposal facilities [16]. However, in many developing countries there are considerable challenges to develop hazardous waste landfills, including social acceptance, regulatory, technically skilled manpower, financial resources, limited technology or provision of such infrastructure. It is demonstrated that while landfill is the least favoured option on the waste hierarchy, it is recognized that for some non‐recoverable or non‐combustible hazardous wastes it will need to be considered [15].
\nSatisfactory infrastructure and monitoring of movement of hazardous waste are non‐existent [17]. Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste materials such as e‐waste, used oil, poses major environmental problems including the soil contamination and threat to animals. Hazardous wastes such as wastewater from healthcare facilities are often discharged into storm channels, which are not periodically cleaned. Monitoring of the health and environmental risks associated with these practices is not done due to the lack of technically skilled manpower, health and safety personnel.
\nAlso, scientific, engineering, and organizational challenges, which need to be taken care, are indicated in Table 1. What is so worrying here is that the recycling base in the developing countries is very weak.
\nEngineering challenges | \nScientific challenges | \nOrganizational challenges | \n
---|---|---|
| \n
| \n
| \n
Scientific, engineering and organizational challenges in developing countries.
Industrial hazardous waste is defined as waste generated from industrial sectors and pose immediate danger to the environment and the public [17]. Industrial hazardous wastes are characterized in terms of toxicity (acute, chronic, and extrinsic), inflammability, reactivity, and corrosiveness. The main important sources of industrial hazardous wastes are mining, chemical, mechanical, pulp and paper industries, cement production facilities, wood remanufacturing facilities, etc. Important industrial hazardous wastes include used oil and oil contaminated materials, spent solvent [14]. Industries in developing countries such as Lebanon are estimated to generate 3000 to 15,000 tons/year of hazardous wastes due to deficient physical infrastructure and absence of environmental management plans, which will inevitably amplify environment impacts associated with industrial activities [18]. Nevertheless, there is limited data on the quantities of industrial hazardous waste, where is going, where it is generated and disposed of. However, due to the accelerated development of economies, mass manufacturing and processing industries and less strict standards on environmental quality assessment, the quantities of industrial hazardous waste (IHW) will continuously increase. Meanwhile, in developing countries it has been confirmed that an important fraction of hazardous waste is still mixed with non‐hazardous wastes, mainly through landfilling, and producing serious environmental impacts regarding heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants content in landfill leachate [16]. Scientific research has observed that wastes are not separated in origin into hazardous and non‐hazardous materials. Furthermore, non‐hazardous are also not separated into recyclables, non‐recyclables, and domiciliary. In fact, scientific research has found that developing countries lack regulations that specifically deal with industrial hazardous wastes. In addition, in the developing countries there are no hazardous waste management plans and authorized facilities to manage, treat, and eliminate hazardous wastes. The separation of all the waste streams for possible waste reuse is not implemented in the developing countries. This suggest that there is an urgent need to establish policies geared towards stimulating industries, commerce and societies to manage hazardous waste in a sustainable manner; encouraging the shift from traditional waste management practices to “cradle-to-cradle”, and a reduction of the problem of management of hazardous wastes.
\nMedical waste is waste generated from health‐related facilities such as hospitals, clinics, health centre, research institute, etc. [19, 20]. It contains toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and may contain substances that are genotoxic or radioactive, pathological waste, sharps (e.g. needles, syringes, scalpels, knives, broken glass, etc.), infectious waste, bulk human blood and blood products. Presently, in developing countries, there is no statistical data on medical waste. However, in most cases, the estimated quantities of medical waste are extrapolated using bed occupancy and number of beds in health institutions [16]. For instance, in Bangladesh, Dhaka City, it is reported that 37±5 tonnes of medical waste is generated from hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare facilities [21]. However, scientific studies have shown that secure disposal of medical waste remains quite lower in several developing countries [22]. Meanwhile, significant fraction of medical waste is disposed as municipal solid waste (MSW) or discharged without monitoring and control; incineration is the only predominant formal way to treat medical waste. In addition, in developing countries, majority of the incineration facilities are not fully maintained and operational; use primitive technologies and simple equipment, which may consequently cause pollution [23].
\nIn the home, it has been pointed out that there are several jobs which generate hazardous waste because of the product used may contain hazardous substances. It has been confirmed that such products include paints, cleaners, stains and varnishes, car batteries, motor oil, and pesticides [13, 24]. As a result, the used leftover contents from such consumer products are known as household hazardous waste. Other HHW include e‐waste. It is estimated that developing countries will discard 400‐700 million obsolete computers by 2030. Most of the waste is sent to Africa or Asia under false pretences as donations from developed countries, especially Europe and the United States. Currently, in developing countries, it has been observed that a few national and local regulations have been developed and/or drafted for HHW management [25]. Due to the lax enforcement and monitoring, valuable hazardous wastes such as lead batteries, waste mineral oils, photographic chemical wastes, waste mercury lamps, and certain electronic waste containing heavy metals and printed circuit boards (PCBs) are improperly disposed of, thereby causing significant negative impacts on public health and the environment. Furthermore, in developing countries some HHW is almost managed as municipal solid waste [26]. The informal recyclers are the dominant sector recovering and recycling valuables. Table 2 presents hazardous waste and country practice in developing countries. Most importantly, in developing countries, safe disposal methods of hazardous wastes including incineration, landfilling, and special treatment (e.g. microwave, sterilization, etc.) are not well‐founded. Thus, this inevitably accelerates pollution of HHW.
\nWaste | \nPractice | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Equipment availability | \nLegal framework | \nPublic awareness | \nTechnology | \nInventory | \nSeparation of hazardous waste | \nIncentives or penalties | |
HHW | \n– | \nNascent or non‐existent | \nLack of capacity and awareness | \nLow technology incineration | \nLack of information on HHW | \nUnfriendly environmental collection, treatment and disposal system | \nLow incentives or penalties | \n
Medical waste | \n– | \nNo specific policy | \nLack of capacity and awareness | \nLow technology incineration | \nLack of information on medical waste | \nInadequate collection, treatment and disposal system | \nLow incentives or penalties | \n
Industrial hazardous waste | \n– | \nNo specific policy | \nLack of capacity and awareness | \nLow technology incineration | \nLack of information on industrial waste | \nComingled with MSW | \nLow incentives or penalties | \n
Hazardous wastes and country practice.
Scientific research studies have proven that in waste management, prevention is at the top of the hierarchy and represents the preferred policy approach to materials management and an alternative to reduce the wastage of materials or resources. As a result, it is substantiated that prevention of waste is preferable to its generation and to the monetary and environmental costs incurred as a result of its generation. It is proven that radioactive waste will continue to be a priority in order to achieve greater resource efficiency [27]. For this reason, an integrated approach should be adopted to design programs, and agencies to lead and coordinate a wide range of prevention initiatives to reduce the potential environmental and public health impacts [16]. These should include development of programs focusing on a number of strategic objectives in order to achieve the goal of prevention which will include the prevention of radioactive and hazardous wastes. This suggests that to reduce the public health and environmental impacts of radioactive and hazardous wastes, a range of regulations and innovative processes must be developed to control the content of these potentially hazardous and harmful substances.
\nThe negative environmental and public health impacts caused by hazardous wastes as well as the use of complex equipment, infrastructure, sophisticated controls, and dangerous processes have encouraged developing countries to develop innovative processes to treat these wastes. These innovative processes play a critical role in the final treatment of hazardous wastes, including the protection of the surrounding soil where these wastes are disposed of, and such technologies are cost‐effective, easy to operate in the face of limited infrastructure, technical knowledge and expertise, and suitable for developing countries. One of these innovative processes is phytoremediation. Phytoremediation involves the planting of trees to prevent and repair environment from hazardous wastes, including restoration of degraded soil, and conservation. It is used in China, India, Pakistan, etc. However, scientific research has found that phytoremediation has limitation of long lasting and of low efficiency [28, 29]. Therefore, there is an urgent need for long lasting and high efficiency processes for the treatment of hazardous wastes.
\nIt is important to note that policy makers, regulators, product producers, generators, and holders of hazardous waste need to play a critical role in ensuring that such materials are prevented, minimized, collected, and treated properly in accordance with the waste hierarchy or “cradle-to-cradle” [12, 29]. The best practices in managing radioactive and hazardous waste include the following:\n
Adopting alternative strategies (e.g., physico‐chemical treatment).
Treatment with or without heat recovery. For instance, in Chile, used oil and spend solvents are used as raw materials for alternative fuels production [16].
Making new regulations where necessary and appropriate.
Ensuring that other government departments and public bodies fulfill their roles and responsibilities identified in hazardous waste management.
Facilitating a two‐way communication with sectoral and stakeholder interests.
Municipalities fulfill their important role in providing small‐scale collection services and generally raising awareness in hazardous waste management.
Prevention: engaging with priority sectors on hazardous waste prevention waste activities through cleaner technologies and better compliance with regulation.
Devising future new policies on the management of hazardous waste by also taking into consideration the generation rates of these types of wastes and potential savings from recovery of these wastes [30].
This book chapter discusses hazardous waste management in developing countries, with emphasis on industrial hazardous waste, medical waste, and household hazardous waste. It identifies the current situation on hazardous waste management. In developing countries there is lack of information on the quantities of hazardous waste generated, lack of capacity and awareness; low incentives or penalties; lack of clear roles and responsibilities for stakeholders; limited infrastructure; and inadequate institutional framework. Other challenges include: lack of technically skilled manpower, financial resources, know‐how, testing facilities, and equipment; and the absence of an integrated framework regarding the monitoring and management of hazardous wastes. Also, inadequate collection, treatment and disposal system; and the lackadaisical response by the government makes it difficult for the local authorities to identify targets to be achieved either annually or strategically on a long term basis for solid waste management. For the successful implementation of best practices of hazardous waste management, there is an urgent need to consider the experiences of developed countries and this should be combined with the socio‐economic context of the developing countries. Waste minimization through source reduction, reuse, and recycling has to be effectively implemented to decrease the amount of hazardous waste generated and disposed of. For this achievement, there is the need for a drastic reform of the current regulations in the developing countries.
\nThe environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes is becoming a major concern in developing countries due to the diversity of the waste stream and toxic material within it, as well as the negative environmental and public health impacts caused. Hence, several practical recommendations are suggested which include the following:\n
Creation of public awareness of the potential of recycling hazardous wastes.
Source reduction.
Capacity building and human resources development for hazardous wastes recycling.
Monitoring and evaluation of hazardous wastes management systems as well a reporting programmes.
Development of appropriate infrastructure, technical knowledge, and expertise.
Strengthening and reforming existing regulatory frameworks.
Development of decision support for identifying appropriate technologies for treatment of hazardous wastes.
Provision of funding for identification of emerging best and state‐of‐the art technologies.
Development of regional hazardous waste management system.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this book chapter.
\nIn the last decade, we observed a massive upsurge of studies in the field of extracellular vesicles (EVs) [1]. As it is known now, EVs can be loaded with different therapeutic molecules and transport them to recipient cells with little interrogation by the immune system. This property of EVs prompts new possibilities for treatment in various clinical settings [2, 3, 4]. In this chapter, we review the biology of EVs as a universal cellular component from a broader perspective, and afterward provide an updated view on red blood cell extracellular vesicles (RBCEVs), their merits and potential applications in therapeutics [5].
\nWolf was the first to discover small procoagulant structures derived from activated platelets in human blood and named them “platelet dust” in 1967. He separated the small structures by ultracentrifugation and further characterized them using an electron microscopy [6]. In 1987, Johnstone further studied the formation of such vesicles in the duration of sheep reticulocytes maturation in vitro. He was able to identify more activities and characteristics of the vesicles. However, he did not name the small vesicles or discover how they were generated in detail [7]. Both of these findings were important milestones in the field, which allowed for further studies on the function of these small vesicles. Today, we call these small vesicles as EVs. Valadi and colleagues were the first who discovered the natural delivery of microRNAs and mRNAs in EVs in mast cells. Later on, nucleic acid transport via EVs was also observed in many other cell types as an essential manner of intercellular communication [8, 9, 10]. We now have a much more profound understanding in the field of EVs due to the continuous efforts of various scientists throughout many decades.
\nEVs are a heterogeneous class of cell-derived structures with a lipid bilayer membrane, which comprise exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. They are either of the endosomal origins or are shed from the plasma membrane under physiological and pathological conditions. Additionally, they are present in almost all biological fluids, such as blood, urine, breast milk, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, semen, etc. [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. Further characterizations are based on the different sizes and biogenesis of EVs. Exosomes generally range from 50 to 150 nm in diameter and are secreted from endosomal multivesicular bodies, whereas microvesicles are larger vesicles ranging from 100 to 500 nm in diameter and are formed through a budding or exocytosis process of the plasma membrane [11, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Apoptotic bodies are much larger, ranging from 800 to 5000 nm in diameter, and are generated by blebbing of plasma membrane from cells undergoing apoptosis. Hence, apoptotic bodies represent the fragments of dying cells and differ from exosomes and microvesicles in property (Figure 1) [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. In this chapter, we will collectively term both exosomes and microvesicles as EVs with apoptotic bodies excluded.
\nBiogenesis and composition of extracellular vesicles. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are composed of exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. Exosomes are typically of endosomal origins and are the smallest among them with 50 to 150 nm in diameter. Microvesicles are larger in size from 100 to 500 nm in diameter and are generated through an outward budding or exocytosis of the plasma membrane. Apoptotic bodies are usually the largest ranging from 800 to 5,000 nm in diameter and are generated by blebbing of plasma membrane from cells undergoing apoptosis. Major components of EVs are lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Due to different biogenesis mechanisms, the compositions of exosomes and microvesicles do vary.
The components of EVs are mainly proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. However, due to different biogenesis mechanisms, the compositions of exosomes and microvesicles do vary slightly [11, 24, 25, 26]. Proteins that are associated with endocytic pathways can be usually found in EVs, such as flotillin and annexin. Some of the biogenesis-associated proteins, such as Tsg101 and Alix, and common tetraspanins, such as CD9 and CD81, are commonly used as EVs markers with CD63 which is mostly regarded as a marker of exosomes. However, currently, there lack well-defined protein markers to distinguish exosomes and microvesicles [11, 24, 25, 26]. Lipid components of EVs include phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingomyelin, cholesterol, and so on, which can be found in plasma membrane as well. As microvesicles are formed by budding from plasma membrame, the lipid composition of microvesicles resembles that of plasma membrane of the cells more while exosomes are of higher levels in sphingomyelin, cholesterol, and phosphatidylserine [27, 28, 29]. It is noteworthy that many nucleic acid species are highly enriched in EVs. The lipid bilayer structure of EVs acts as a natural shelter against degrading nucleases in the extracellular environment and protects the nucleic acid cargo under adverse conditions such as long-term storage and multiple freeze-thaw cycles. In the recent decade, reports have it that many mRNAs, microRNAs, and other non-coding RNAs are discovered in EVs (Figure 1) [30, 31, 32].
\nAs EVs are abundant and widely distributed in biological fluids and carry bioactive cargo, they influence various biological processes of the donor and recipient cells [33]. The intercellular communication can occur between cells by transferring EVs that act as an exchange mediator of proteins, lipids, and RNAs. Thus, EVs have a fundamental role to play in important biological processes such as the exchange of surface membrane and horizontal RNA transport between neighboring and remote cells [18]. This aspect is being extensively investigated in cancers [34], neurodegenerative diseases [35], autoimmune disorders [36], aging [37], and so on. The bioactive cargo encapsulated by EVs contain valuable information from the source of diseases, which can serve as robust biomarkers in diagnostics and status snapshots in treatment monitoring [38, 39]. The endogenous property of transporting molecules by EVs inspires researchers to utilize them as a superb delivery platform of therapeutic agents as well [40].
\nSimilar to EVs released from other cells, EVs in the circulation carry biomarkers originated from the donor cells [41]. Usually EVs contain various markers which indicate their origins, e.g., CD235a (also called GPA) for RBCs, CD41 for platelets, and CD11c for dendritic cells [42, 43, 44]. RBCs express classes of CD59 and DAF, known as complement inhibitors, and signaling of CD47 and SHPS-1 molecules on the cell surface to protect themselves against endogenous elimination [45, 46]. For instance, the RBCs membrane protein CD47 inhibits RBCs phagocytosis via macrophages by binding to the inhibitory receptor signal regulatory protein alpha (SIRPα). The presence of such proteins on the surfaces of RBCEVs may help RBCEVs to escape from the clearance by macrophages if they carry CD47 on their surfaces [47, 48, 49]. Mature RBCs lack nuclei and most of the intracellular membrane structures; hence, EVs released from mature RBCs are microvesicles derived from the plasma membrane (Figure 2). Even with the same cell origins, the protein or lipid compositions of EVs may differ on account of the lateral cell membrane variation. Further proteomic assays have illustrated that to some extent, the proteomic spectrum difference of EVs and the releasing cells can be attributed to the stimulating conditions during EVs biogenesis [50]. Microvesicles derived from RBCs are reported to be different in protein contents when produced naturally in vivo, ex vivo released during cold storage of RBCs, or in vitro by treatment with EVs’ release-inducing chemicals such as calcium ionophore, even though they seem homogeneous merely based on their size and/or surface markers. The most distinctively different proteins are stomatin and flotillin-2 [51].
\nUsing red blood cell extracellular vesicles (RBCEVs) for therapeutic delivery. Calcium ionophore is added to RBCs which simulates the release of microvesicles, the only type of RBCEVs. Naturally, RBCEVs contain hemoglobin, Alix, TSG101, and some microRNAs in their lumen. They also display stomatin (STOM) and glycophorin A (GPA) on their membrane. RBCEVs can be loaded with therapeutic molecules including RNAs, proteins, and chemical drugs for delivery of these molecules to other cell types.
There are many studies of RBCEVs under diseased conditions with malaria being frequently reported. Mantel and colleagues illustrated that EVs from human RBCs infected with Plasmodium falciparum parasites contain microRNAs that are able to moderate target genes in recipient cells [52]. The infected RBC-derived EVs in malaria were internalized by endothelial cells and the EVs-encapsulated miRNA-Argonaute 2 complexes repressed miRNA target genes and changed endothelial barrier properties. Furthermore, multiple miRNA species in such EVs were identified [52]. Ankarklev and colleagues reviewed the role of RBCEVs in malaria and found that the development of EVs by Plasmodium sp. is associated with clinical outcomes [53]. Studies have pointed out that elevated EVs levels were detected in patients with severe malaria cases, and increased EV excretion to the endothelium has been linked to infected RBCs [53].
\nChang and colleagues demonstrated the ability of RBCEVs to efficiently deliver ultra-small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles into human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells for cellular magnetic resonance imaging in vitro and in vivo in order to develop successful stem cell therapies [54]. The novel method overcomes the difficulty of relatively low intracellular labeling efficiency and addresses biosafety issues associated in comparison with traditional approaches. RBCEVs were shown to be ultra biosafe and can be used as potential delivery vehicles for clinical applications due to their autologous property to human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells [54]. Usman and colleagues developed a robust delivery system for RNA-based therapeutics using RBCEVs [55]. Using the novel RBCEVs delivery platform, both small RNA, e.g., antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and large RNA, such as Cas9 mRNA, can be electroporated into RBCEVs and transported to target cells in both solid and liquid tumors. In the study, microRNA-125b-ASO-loaded RBCEVs significantly dampened breast tumor growth by intratumoral injection and suppressed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) progression by systemic administration. Genome editing effects were also observed when RBCEVs were loaded with Cas9 mRNA with guide RNAs. The delivery efficiency was higher and far less cytotoxicity was observed as compared to other commercial transfection reagents [55].
\nUp to now, standardized protocols for EVs isolation for either scientific research or clinical application are lacking [56]. One of the commonly used methods to obtain EVs is ultrafiltration with subsequent differential ultracentrifugation. Ultrafiltration followed by liquid size exclusion chromatography suits the large-scale demand of isolating EV for therapeutics as the method results in, on the one hand, a significantly higher EV yield and, on the other hand, the well-preserved biophysical properties of the purified EVs [57]. Usman and colleagues provided a lab-based approach to purify RBCEVs using ultracentrifugation with sucrose cushion. To begin with, RBCs in whole blood were separated from white blood cells and plasma by low centrifugation and using leukodepletion filters. Then, the isolated RBCs were diluted in PBS and treated with 10 mM calcium ionophore overnight which can stimulate the release of RBCEVs and significantly increase the yield. In order to purify RBCEVs, RBCs and cell debris were removed by several rounds of low-speed centrifugation. Later, the resulting supernatants were passed through 0.45 μm syringe filters. Afterward, the RBCEVs were concentrated using ultracentrifugation at 100,000 × g for 70 min. Subsequently, RBCEVs were resuspended in cold PBS and layered above frozen 60% sucrose cushion and centrifuged at 100,000 × g for 16 h. The red layer of RBCEVs above the sucrose was collected and washed again with cold PBS by ultracentrifugation [55]. The approach is cost-effective, features high RBCEVs yield, and can be adopted in most laboratory settings. The use of sucrose cushion is also a highlight as it helps remove the protein contaminants outside RBCEVs, which might trigger unnecessary immune response and protects the integrity and biophysical properties of RBCEVs.
\nFor therapeutic agents to be loaded into EVs, two major strategies currently have been applied. The first option is to load the therapeutic molecules, such as RNAs, into the EVs after EVs isolation, while the second one is conducted during EV biogenesis. These methods are also known as post-loading and pre-loading, respectively. The pre-loading encapsulation approach is also referred to as the endogenous method as it uses the cellular machinery in order to load small RNA into EVs. The pre-loading approach has been shown to work for the packaging of both siRNA and miRNA into EVs. The post-loading method artificially introduces RNAs into EVs, whereas pre-loading is performed in the EVs biogenesis. Post-loading can be subdivided into passive loading, such as by physical incubation, and active loading with instances of electroporation or sonication. Furthermore, the functional small RNAs delivery using electroporated EVs has been shown to be a success in several reports but it depends on the small RNA species [58, 59, 60, 61, 62]. Usman and colleagues used the electroporation method for post-loading of RNAs into RBCEVs [55]. Ideally, various therapeutic molecules including ASOs, siRNAs, gRNAs, mRNAs, plasmid DNA, proteins, peptides, and chemical drug compounds can be loaded into RBCEVs using electroporation (Figure 2). Other post-loading methods such as mild sonication and physical incubation may be applicable to RBCEVs as tested for other types of EVs. Labeling of EVs is then required to examine the efficiency of delivery to target cells. Various methods and techniques have been applied to label EVs, with most common methods being incubation with biotinylated radioisotope, substrate of luciferase, fluorescence lipophilic dye, streptavidin-conjugated fluorescence dyes, or the use of other modified proteins [55, 64, 65, 66].
\nDue to their innate function on cell-cell communication, EVs can be used effectively for drug delivery [12, 67, 68, 69]. The biggest advantage of EVs drug delivery is probably that EVs can be taken from an organism and returned to the same organism in vivo after being loaded with therapeutic agents, which are thought to be nonimmunogenic. Another advantage to deliver nucleic acids with the help of EVs is that EVs can carry molecules through physiological barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier, which are hard to cross using conventional delivery methods. Normally, when exogenous RNAs are introduced into the body directly, they will be cleared before reaching the target tissues or cells of interest through degradation by nucleases, or they will be filtered in the kidneys. Both coding and noncoding RNAs were shown to be transferred by EVs intercellular crosstalks. Additionally, it has been shown that microRNAs can be transported in EVs to various cell types. Thus, EVs can be used as a promising vehicle for delivery of RNA-based drugs. Potential fields for therapeutic use include gene therapy, targeted therapy, vaccination, improvement of pregnancy outcome, newborn medicine, kidney disease, and treatment of autoimmune disease [12, 67, 68, 69].
\nIt has been reported that diversified types of cells, including RBCs, endothelial cells, monocytes, granulocytes, and platelets, release EVs. Additionally, EVs can be isolated by various methods from cell culture media, plasma, and other biofluids [23, 41, 70, 71]. Although several research groups have demonstrated the advantages of using EVs for RNA delivery, there are still issues with EVs generated from fibroblasts and dendritic cells being not permanently available from all subjects [69, 72]. RBCs are readily obtainable from any human subject and easy to store, and blood transfusion has been a relatively safe, well-established, and routine medical procedure for decades which makes RBCEVs easy to obtain and safe to use. Thus, EVs from whole plasma are easily accessible and substantially present, but these EVs are derived from various cell types, e.g., nucleated cells which represent a risk for horizontal gene transfer [63]. Therefore, obtaining ultrapure RBCEVs solely derived from RBCs is highly preferred as RBCs lack both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, which means that RBCEVs for pharmaceutical purpose avoid the risk of horizontal gene transfer. RBCEVs formation has been extensively investigated and described in the recent years. Therefore, with such knowledge, RBCEVs are safer and less complicated to use [73, 74, 75, 76].
\nConsequently, RBCEVs possess several features which make them better suitable for clinical applications than EVs from other cell types. First of all, blood units are easily accessible from existing blood banks. A large scale of RBCEVs can be produced at low cost as RBCs are the most abundant cell type in the body (84% of all cells) and, during their 120-day lifespan, RBCs continue to release RBCEVs, leading to an approximate 20% loss in RBCs volume and an increase of around 14% in hemoglobin concentration [23, 77, 78, 79]. Additionally, RBCEVs are obtainable for allogeneic and autologous transfusion from the patients’ own blood. A large number of RBCs (~1012 cells/L) are obtainable from each blood unit. Thus, there exists no need to expand cells in culture and no risk of the emergence of mutations in vitro. In addition, no cGMP-qualified media or supplements are required, which are financially desirable. Large-scale amounts (1013–1014) of RBCEVs can be isolated from RBCs (per unit) when treated with calcium ionophore, which is a scalable strategy to obtain EVs. Secondly, RBCEVs are safer compared to EVs from other cell types, because the enucleated RBCs contain no DNA, unlike EVs from nucleated cell types which represent a potential risk for horizontal gene transfer. As plasma EVs are heterogeneous with unpredictable contents, RBCEVs are safer than plasma EVs for allogeneic treatments of cancer because cancer cells and immune cells are known to release large amounts of cancer-promoting EVs into their environment [80, 81]. Thirdly, RBCEVs are nontoxic; hence, they are safer as compared to the toxic synthetic transfection reagents which are typically used. As mentioned before, RNAs in RBCEVs are stable and completely functional in vitro and in vivo for both liquid and solid cancers. Fourthly, RBCEVs are presumably nonimmunogenic via blood type matching, unlike adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, lentiviruses, nanoparticles, and various synthetic transfection reagents. Last but not least, RBCEVs can be frozen and thawed many cycles without affecting their integrity or efficacy. This fact suggests that RBCEVS can be developed into stable pharmaceutical products in the future, but further research needs to be done. Compared to most other current methods for programmable RNA drug therapies, which are unsuitable for the clinical use because of the low uptake efficiency and high cytotoxicity, RBCEVs show promising future prospects [55].
\nEVs are shed from the plasma membrane or released by endosomal pathways under both physiological and diseased conditions. Intercellular communication is one of the best known functions of EVs by far, which provides the possibility to utilize the EVs natural vehicle property of transporting nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids for drug delivery. Recent studies demonstrate that human RBCEVs can be developed as robust delivery platform for multiple therapeutic RNAs in cancer treatment. RBCEVs feature multiple benefits as compared to EVs from other cell types. They are easily obtainable in large amounts, can be frozen and thawed multiple times without significant compromise, are nontoxic and nonimmunogenic, can reach remote tissues in the body with minimal hindrance by physiological barriers, and do not contain DNA or other unpredictable contents which could result in horizontal gene transfer. By obtaining RBCEVs directly from the patient, they are safe to use allogeneic treatments and possess no risk of emerging mutations during expansion by cell culture. Thus, RBCEVs show promising advantages in overcoming various limitations of cell-based therapeutics. All in all, RBCEVs need further research in order to establish them as a new source and promising approach for practical therapeutics in clinical use.
\nWe would like to thank our colleagues at City University of Hong Kong including Chin Siew Mei, Waqas Muhammad Usman, Tin Chanh Pham, Luyen Tien Vu, Boya Peng, Thach Tuan Pham, Abdullah Faqeer, Yeokyeong Kim, Seongkyeol Kim, Likun Wei, Ching Yee Moo, Ru Zhen, and Migara Kavishka Jayasinghe for their support. We are grateful to the generous funding from the Hong Kong Health, and Medical Research Fund (grant 03141186) and the Hong Kong Research Grants Council (grant 21106616).
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
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\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
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\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
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\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
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\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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