Mean differences in job characteristics.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book is intended to discuss several aspects, starting from the plate tectonics to the sedimentary basins. Main aspects of the plate tectonics include the continental drift, the palaeo-magnetism and the morphologic setting of the oceans. The continental drift is linked to the name of the German geophysicist Alfred Wegener, who suspected that the continents should move laterally, observing the correspondence between the shorelines of both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tHe hypothesized that a great continent, namely the Pangea, broke up and was divided into great blocks, which after started to drift on the earth's surface. The isostatic adjustments of the earth's crust necessarily require vertical movements of the continental blocks in order to compensate the variations of loading on the earth's crust.The oceanic expansion has been supported by the polarity reversals, recognized for the first time in the lava flows by having directions of the palaeomagnetic field divergent of 180°. This allowed a chronological scale generation of the geomagnetic reversals, based on a uniform rate of expansion in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The topography of the oceans is characterized by three main physiographic provinces, including the oceanic ridge surrounding the oceanic basins, adjacent to the continental margins. The earth's crust is the part of the earth overlying the Moho discontinuity and may be divided in oceanic crust, transitional crust, and continental crust. This book intends to provide new insights concerning the geological implications of plate tectonics, including the sequence stratigraphy of passive continental margins, the sedimentological and palaeoceanographic aspects and the marine geology of the continental margins. New contributions on the continental margins (passive, active and transcurrent) are also acknowledged. Another main topic of this book is represented by the ophiolites, a sequence characterized by the vertical association of pillow lavas, radiolarites, and peridotites. The ophiolitic sequence is often overlain by sedimentary rocks (radiolarites, pelagic limestones) and may be associated with chromite bodies and rocky bodies, both intrusive and effusive. They represent allochtonous fragments of old oceanic crust. Also, contributions in terms of sedimentation and tectonics and their general concepts are also welcome. Finally, a basic topic of this book is represented by the sedimentary basins in different geodynamic settings, including the spreading related settings, the subduction related settings and the continental collision related settings.
Please check the hierarchy of section headings.
Asians constitute the largest non‐White group in academic Science and Engineering (S&E) in the United States (USA). According to recent S&E indicators report, in 2014, Asian faculty members, being born in the United States or foreign born, occupied close to 16% of full‐time positions in US academic institutions, up from 4% in 1973. These people come from countries such as Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Note that the use of faculty does not imply an academic department or organizational unit rather refers to academic personnel (tenured and nontenured academic staff members) working at a university. These numbers are much higher in disciplines like computer sciences where over one‐third (35%) of faculty members are of Asian origin [1]. According to the 2014 S&E Indicators report, “of the 46,000 US‐trained Asian or Pacific Islander S&E doctorate holders employed in academia in 2010, 10% were native‐born US citizens, 39% were naturalized US citizens, and 51% were noncitizens. In 2010, Asians or Pacific Islanders represented 52% of the foreign‐born S&E faculty employed full‐time in the United States [2].
\nOf the foreign‐born faculty members, scholars of Chinese (22%) and Indian (15%) origin occupy more than a third of the full‐time positions at 4‐year colleges and universities in the United States [3]. Despite these statistics, there are no systematic studies examining the job satisfaction of Asian faculty members working in science and engineering departments in the United States. Most of the studies by race/ethnicity combine individuals of Asian descent into one category irrespective of their citizenship status Faculty members born in the United States or naturalized through the immigration process experience very different levels of satisfaction toward their job when compared with foreign‐born faculty members on temporary status [3]. This study thus separates Asians by their citizenship status (i.e., Asian‐non‐US citizens and US citizens) and compares their satisfaction to other‐noncitizens and other‐US citizens. Data for this study comes from the 2003 Survey of Doctorate Recipients conducted by the National Science Foundation (NSF).
\nThe academic sector in the United States is to a large extent dependent on the scientific contributions made by foreign‐born scientists and engineers [4–6]. However, there is seldom a study exclusively focused on citizenship status and race. Even though many parallels can be drawn between the experiences of US‐born Asians and foreign‐born Asians, their achievements/barriers in the US labor market are likely to differ, mostly because immigrants from Asian countries arrive with different cultural, educational, and English language abilities. Retaining this group of scientists is important not only because they contribute to the scientific and technological growth of this country but also are a source of diversity [6]. The temporary nature of the citizenship among Asian scientists is concerning.
\nThe governments of nations such as China, India, South Korea, and Taiwan who are the top exporters of talent to the United States are devising policies to attract thousands of their graduates back from the United States, creating newer economic opportunities for their returnees and the nation [7]. Traditionally, the United States has witnessed close to 85–95% stay rates among foreign‐born scientists and engineers of Chinese and Indian origin; this number is on the decline, however. The percentage of India‐born US‐trained PhDs in science and engineering on temporary visa who continued to stay in the United States dropped from 85% in 2005 to 79% in 2009 [8]. The stay rates among Chinese born with identical visa status and educational training have dropped 4 percentage points during the 4‐year period (93% in 2005 and 89% in 2009) [8]. There is evidence that between 1992 and 2003, more than eight thousand foreign‐trained scholars returned to mainland China on short visits funded by the Chinese government to lecture and engage in research collaborations [9]. Taiwan reported an 11% point decrease of stay rates from 2005 to 2009, while the highest drop is witnessed among South Korean scientists during the same time period (57% to 42%) [8]. Further, in 2008 of the 39,000 Asian/Pacific Islander PhDs employed in academia, 9% were native‐born US citizens, 44% were naturalized US citizens, and 47% were non‐US citizens [10]. Thus, Asian scientists on temporary visas (noncitizens) are the largest contributors to academic science and engineering.
\nThe temporary nature of Asian scientists in S&E is thus an important aspect of the scientific enterprise of the United States. A recent article indicated that the Chinese government is providing research money and setting up labs for the returnees to continue their research. China recently launched the “Thousand Talents Programme” that aims at offering top scientists grants of 1 million yuan (about $146,000) along with generous lab funding [11]. India, on the other hand, has not moved as quickly as China, but the Department of Science and Technology recognizes that creating an environment that will facilitate the return of scientists and engineers of Indian origin is crucial in building and fostering collaborative ties with the international scientific world and meeting the human capital demands in higher education. Given the competition in science and technology with other nations and the efforts made by countries, such as South Korea, China, and, to some extent, India, to reclaim their highly skilled faculty members, matters of faculty satisfaction, retention, and persistence will take a front seat among policy makers and university administrators. Thus the purpose of this study is to analyze how Asian‐non‐US citizens and Asian‐US citizens compare with other groups of members of S&E faculties in their satisfaction levels.
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The perception of “model minority” is attributed to factors such as college graduation rates, socioeconomic status, and higher representation in science and engineering disciplines [18]. The author also argues that Asian‐Americans are more likely to graduate from college when compared with other minority groups (African‐Americans and Hispanics). Further, they have family support that keeps them motivated to be successful and thus achieve higher paying jobs that translate into improved socioeconomic status. This group has the highest representation in science and engineering disciplines as demonstrated by the success of the American immigration policy targeting high‐skilled science and engineering professionals [21]. Given the high rates of representation of people of Asian descent in science and engineering, the National Science Foundation no longer includes this group as a minority since 1989. The minority categories in subsequent years include members of the following ethnic groups: Alaskan Native, Native American, African‐American, and Hispanic. Thus, the “model minority” image reduces Asian‐Americans as a racial group free of any challenges or racism—touted as the American success story [22].
\nRecent research has however criticized the “model minority” status glorified by several scholars [13–15, 23–25]. Studies show that this group faces challenges of income disparity and upward mobility in their jobs owing to their “outsider” perception [19, 20, 26]. A recent study shows that Asian‐Americans have a 12% higher poverty rate than their white counterparts [27] despite the high median income reports [26].
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Studying satisfaction rates is important because faculties have high levels of job autonomy and they have the discretion to decide how they spend their time and resources. Dissatisfaction with any aspect of their job can result in lower productivity and quality of work [38]. A well‐functioning faculty would not only impact the morale and quality of faculty members but also influence future faculty members and students. Past studies have shown various barriers faced by minority groups, impacting on their job satisfaction rates [39]. Foreign‐borns of a faculty are likely to face challenges due to their citizenship status, cultural differences, the stereotypes they encounter, and varied levels of English language skills.
\nLower satisfaction was reported among Asian and Middle Eastern faculty members in relation to job autonomy, decision‐making authority, salary and benefits, job security, opportunities for career advancement, and outside consulting [40]. In another study, Asian‐Indian individuals working in the academic and nonacademic sector in the United States (and a few who had returned to India) faced a glass ceiling at work, albeit they constitute a large proportion of the S&E workforce. Whites in S&E are ahead of Asian‐Indian immigrants in management positions because of the cultural advantage they hold over Asians [41].
\n“The result is a promotion sequence that amounts to an uninterrupted, non‐Hispanic White male succession, and a tendency to ignore structural conditions that create obstacles for Asian‐Indian immigrants in the S&E workforce (p. 111).” [41]
\nOne of the biggest reasons for Asian‐American immigrants to be absent from upper management levels is due to the perceived lack of leadership qualities and poor English language skills. As one of the faculty members pointed out:
\n“Suppose you apply for a dean’s position. You have good credentials and excellent English, but you also have an accent. I bet you will not be offered the job. The hiring committee will not see you as having language qualifications suited for the American system, though they will not say this openly (p. 103).” [41]
\nThese factors can cause stress and lower one’s level of job satisfaction. Asian‐non‐US‐citizen scientists also experience lower satisfaction when spending greater amounts of time in teaching‐related activities. A qualitative study of 20 engineering faculty members from China and India employed at a Research I University aimed at measuring their job satisfaction found that these individuals expressed greater frustration because of lack of recognition and concern with balancing teaching and research [42]. Other studies reported that Asian faculty members reported the least satisfaction among all ethnic groups. Despite the challenges faced by foreign‐born faculty members, higher productivity rates were reported compared with native‐born faculty members [3–6, 43–45].
Data for this study comes from the 2003 Survey of Doctorate Recipients (SDR) conducted by the National Science Foundation. This dataset was chosen because it has a large sample size and is highly recommended for data sampling. It has rich information on demographics, citizenship, nationality, educational background, employment, wages, scholarly activities, and job satisfaction. Such a large coverage reduces the risk of sampling error. In addition, the 2003 SDR data have information about the visa status of the doctoral recipients. This will help further break down the analyses of foreign‐born faculty members based on visa status.
\nThe survey was funded by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. The actual survey was conducted by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) at the University of Chicago. The data were collected from doctorate recipients with a degree from a US institution in the fields of science, engineering, or health sciences in June 2002. All the participants were under 76 years of age as of October 1, 2003, which was taken as the survey reference week. A total of 40,000 individuals with doctoral degrees were sampled in the 2003 survey.
\nThe unit of analysis for this study is the individual academic scientist; hence, respondents with nonacademic jobs are filtered before beginning the analysis. For this filtering process, academics are counted as those faculty members working in a 4‐year college or university during the reference week of October 2003. The data analysis is further limited to (1) full‐time faculty employers and (2) faculty members employed in the real of science and engineering disciplines: biological, agricultural, and environmental life sciences; computer and information sciences; mathematics and statistics; physical sciences; and engineering. Individuals reporting psychology, social sciences, and health as the field of their first S&E degree were eliminated since the sample was very small for the Asian group to conduct any meaningful analyses. The original unweighted sample size was 29,915 and the weighted sample size was 685,296. The final sample resulted in 6375 (unweighted) and 141,625 (weighted) after following the various filtering stages outlined in this section. Data analysis is conducted by race/ethnicity and citizenship status. Information about race/ethnicity of individual’s parents is not available. The respondents self‐identify into a specific racial group.
\nIt is important to mention that citizenship data is classified into four categories: US citizens, naturalized citizens, legal permanent residents (LPR), and temporary residents. Naturalized citizens are combined with US‐born faculty members into one category (citizens), and LPR and temporary residents are classified as non‐US citizens.
Comparisons are made across four subgroups of faculty members: Asian‐US citizens (10.7%), Asian‐US noncitizens (4.2%), other‐US citizens (80.4%), and other non‐US citizens (4.7%). Other noncitizens are faculty members belonging to African‐American, Hispanic, White, and other racial/ethnic groups born outside the United States. The majority of Asian‐non‐US citizens are from China (39.9%) followed by India (26.1%), Korea (8.2%), and Taiwan (6%). Table 1 presents the mean differences between Asian‐US citizens, Asian‐non‐US citizens and US citizens, and other‐US‐citizen groups. Across the four major groups, the highest number of female faculty members belongs to Asian‐US citizens (32%), followed closely by other‐non‐US citizens (30%). Over 75% of all faculty members in all four groups are married. Asian‐non‐US citizens are the youngest group of faculty members with an average age of 39 years, while other‐US citizens are the oldest with an average age of 49 years.
Asian‐non‐US citizens (N = 268, 4.2%) | Other‐non‐US citizens (N = 302, 4.7%) | Asian‐US citizens (N = 680, 10.7%) | Other‐US citizens (N = 5,125 80.4%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Research productivity | ||||
Average number of articles published between 1998 and 2003 | 8.12 | 9.48 | 9.90* | 8.64 |
Average number of books published between 1998 and 2003 | 0.56 | 0.39 | 0.76 | 0.58 |
Average number of conference presentations between 1998 and 2003 | 11.10 | 12.02 | 12.22 | 11.25 |
Percent named as a patent inventor | 15.0% | 12.0% | 18.0%** | 13.0% |
Percent granted a federal grant | 57.0% | 55.0% | 60.0% | 57.0% |
Career trajectory | ||||
Recognition—holding dean/department chair position | 2.2% | 3.0% | 6.6%** | 10.4% |
Responsibility—supervising others | 49.6% | 49.0% | 60.0%** | 66.0% |
Full professor | 7.0%*** | 17.0% | 34.0%** | 39.0% |
Associate professor | 17.0% | 17.0% | 22.0% | 24.0% |
Assistant professor | 46.0% | 44.0% | 24.0%+ | 21.0% |
Instructor/lecturer | 4.0% | 6.0% | 3.0% | 3.0% |
Other ranks | 25.0%* | 17.0% | 17.0%** | 12.0% |
Tenure status | ||||
Tenured | 19.0%** | 31.0% | 50.0%** | 55.0% |
On tenure track but not tenured | 37.0% | 36.0% | 19.0% | 18.0% |
Not on tenure track | 17.0% | 14.0% | 13.0%* | 10.0% |
Tenure not applicable | 27.0%* | 18.0% | 19.0% | 17.0% |
Job characteristics | ||||
Research and development | 62.0%** | 51.0% | 51.0%*** | 40.0% |
Teaching | 24.0%** | 35.0% | 29.0%*** | 40.0% |
Institution type | ||||
Research I/II universities | 56.0% | 56.0% | 55.0%** | 50.0% |
Doctoral I/II university | 12.0% | 11.0% | 10.0% | 11.0% |
Comprehensive I/II university | 11.0%* | 18.0% | 14.0%** | 19.0% |
Liberal arts I/II university | 2.0% | 4.0% | 4.0%*** | 8.0% |
Others | 19.0%* | 12.0% | 17.0%** | 13.0% |
Academic discipline | ||||
Biology | 37.7%** | 26.0% | 43.5% | 45.0% |
Mathematics and statistics | 12.0%* | 18.0% | 9.0% | 10.0% |
Physical science | 18.0%** | 27.0% | 20.0%** | 25.0% |
Computer and information sciences | 10.0% | 8.0% | 7.0%*** | 3.0% |
Engineering | 23.0% | 22.0% | 21.0%** | 17.0% |
Salary | $62,922+ | $66,778 | $83,842 | $81,870 |
Years of experience | 7.09** | 9.15 | 15.45*** | 17.73 |
Demographics | ||||
Female | 25.0%* | 30.0% | 32.0%*** | 24.0% |
Married | 81.0%+ | 74.0% | 83.0% | 82.0% |
Age | 39.4** | 41.4 | 46.8*** | 48.7 |
Children living with parents | 63.0%** | 51.0% | 55.0%** | 50.0% |
Mean differences in job characteristics.
Note: t‐Test comparisons across groups are statistically significant at various levels:
***p < 0.001,
**p < 0.01,
*p < 0.05, and
+p < 0.1.
Majority of the faculty members among Asian‐non‐US citizens were employed at research I/II universities. A majority of Asian‐US citizens received their highest degree in Biology (43.5%), similar to other‐US‐citizen groups (45%). Asian‐non‐US citizens have the highest percentage of faculty members with a degree in computer science (10%) and engineering (23%). These statistics are not surprising given that the majority of Asians come to the United States to get their doctoral degrees in these disciplines [1].
\nInterestingly, though the same percentage (56%) of faculty members belonging to both non‐US‐citizen groups (Asian and non‐Asian) report working at a Research university, Asian‐non‐US citizens far surpass the other groups in the time they report spending on research and development (62% vs. 51%), while the reverse is true for time spent teaching (24% vs. 35%).
\nOn analyzing the rank of faculty members by citizenship and race, it is interesting to note that 7% of Asian‐non‐US citizens are full professors, while about 17% are full professors among other‐non‐US‐citizen groups. These differences are statistically significant between the two groups. One possible explanation for this disparity is that other‐non‐US‐citizen faculty members have 2 years more experience than Asian‐non‐US citizens. However, Asian‐US citizen and other‐non‐US‐citizen groups have equal proportions of faculty members employed in associate professor positions (17%). As others have argued, this could also be a result of glass ceiling experienced by Asian faculty members while climbing the academic ladder [20, 46, 47]. The difference in tenure rates between these two groups of faculty members is important (19% Asian‐non‐US citizens and 31% other‐non‐US citizens) and statistically significant. Significant differences in tenure rates are also seen between Asian‐US citizens and other‐US citizens. Further investigation is required to determine whether Asian‐non‐US citizens are faced with barriers while trying to move up or whether they are experiencing lower promotion rates due to their temporary citizenship status. Similar patterns emerge when comparing Asian and other citizen groups, with fewer Asians‐US citizens in leadership and full‐professor positions.
Though Asians have been touted as “model minorities,” the results of this study show otherwise. Despite being faced with career trajectories that are not on par with other‐US‐citizen/non‐US‐citizen groups, Asian‐US citizens are the most productive. They produced the highest number of annual peer‐reviewed journal articles, books, and conference papers. Asian‐US citizens also are most likely to be named as inventors of a patent and awarded a federal grant when compared with the remaining three groups. Despite higher productivity, the average difference in salaries between Asian‐US citizens and other‐US citizens is not statistically significant.
\nAlongside comparing productivity and career trajectories, the aim of this study is to analyze the satisfaction of scientists and engineers by citizenship and race. The data in Table 2 suggests that on average Asian‐non‐US citizens (3.20) and Asian‐US citizens (3.38) express significantly lower overall satisfaction with their job than other‐non‐US‐citizen (3.41) and US‐citizen (3.46) groups.
Work satisfaction measuresa, b | Asian‐non‐US citizens (N = 268, 4.2%) | Other‐non‐US citizens (N = 302, 4.7%) | Asian‐US citizens (N = 680, 10.7%) | Other‐US citizens (N = 5,125, 80.4%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Overall job satisfaction | 3.20*** | 3.41 | 3.38** | 3.46 |
Opportunities for advancement | 3.01 | 3.06 | 2.99 | 3.04 |
Benefits | 3.08*** | 3.31 | 3.19* | 3.26 |
Intellectual challenge | 3.38* | 3.53 | 3.53* | 3.59 |
Degree of independence | 3.54* | 3.64 | 3.65* | 3.70 |
Location | 3.10*** | 3.34 | 3.36* | 3.42 |
Level of responsibility | 3.29** | 3.45 | 3.40*** | 3.55 |
Salary | 2.74*** | 2.97 | 2.88*** | 2.99 |
Job security | 3.10+ | 3.22 | 3.35 | 3.40 |
Contribution to society | 3.46 | 3.52 | 3.58 | 3.58 |
Mean differences in job satisfaction by race and citizenship.
a Results are in response to the following statement: “Thinking about your principal job held during the week of October 1, 2003, please rate your satisfaction with that job’s ….”.
b Possible responses: 1 = very dissatisfied, 2 = somewhat dissatisfied, 3 = somewhat satisfied, and 4 = very satisfied
***p < 0.001.
**p < 0.01.
*p < 0.05.
+p < 0.1.
Satisfaction is further analyzed as a measure of nine different factors: opportunities for advancement, benefits, intellectual challenge, degree of independence, location, level of responsibility, salary, job security, and contribution to society. On analyzing satisfaction by various factors, Asian‐non‐US citizens express the least average satisfaction on all factors but opportunities for advancement when compared with the three groups, other‐non‐US citizens (3.06), Asian‐US citizens (2.99), and other‐US citizens (3.04). Furthermore, Asian‐non‐US citizens and Asian‐US citizens experience significantly lower levels of responsibility at work than other‐non‐US‐citizen and US‐citizen groups.
\nDissatisfaction with level of responsibility is evident by the lower numbers of Asian‐US citizens in dean/chair/full‐professor positions when compared with other‐US citizens. The results are in line with past research that focuses on the existence of the glass ceiling to upward career mobility experienced by Asians [20, 46, 47]. These studies question the portrayal of Asians in the US media as a “model minority.” Instead, they argue that despite their achievements, Asians have not reached a level in which they participate in policy and decision‐making responsibilities [41]. Additionally, both groups of Asian faculty members (US citizens and non‐US citizens) express significantly lower satisfaction with salary and benefits when compared with other‐non‐US‐citizen and US‐citizen groups.
\nAsian‐non‐US citizens also express significantly less satisfaction with location when compared with other non‐US citizens. The location of faculty members and its impact on their job satisfaction have not been studied in detail. The geographic location of faculty members is especially of importance when foreign‐born faculty members are the subject of the study. The choice of location is generally limited among foreign‐born faculty members, especially faculty members on nonimmigrant visa status. These groups of faculty members have fewer opportunities to find academic employment with visa sponsorship and are thus more likely to take up a tenure‐track position irrespective of the location as compared with US citizens. Additionally, Asian‐non‐US citizens also express lower satisfaction with job security (p < 0.1) when compared with other‐non‐US citizens.
\nJob security is an important issue for non‐US‐citizen faculty members. Citizens of Indian and Chinese origin experience the longest delays in processing their permanent residency. An estimate suggests that there are over half a million skilled individuals waiting to get permanent residency in the United States [48]. Under the employment‐based immigration category (EB2), as of October 2016, applications filed in the year 2007 and later are being processed for immigrants from India [49]. The massive backlog in acquiring permanent residency is adding to the frustration faced by these groups of scientists. Challenges with acquiring a legal permanent residence (LPR) can serve as a deterrent for faculty members who would like to stay in the United States. The desire to acquire permanent residency along with existing pressures of being on a tenure‐track position can result in lower satisfaction with job security and opportunities for advancement among Asian‐non‐US citizens. Other‐non‐US citizens do not face similar challenges with acquiring permanent residency and/or citizenship; the processing times are drastically shorter than Indian and Chinese immigrants [50].
To further explore the differences in satisfaction, four OLS regression models were run, and the results of which are presented in Table 3. The dependent variable is job satisfaction. Most of the studies use a global variable to measure faculty members’ job satisfaction [34, 44, 51]. The questions are generally “yes” or “no” or are on a Likert scale with responses varying from “very satisfied” to “very dissatisfied.” Single item measures of job satisfaction overestimate the percentage of satisfied vs. dissatisfied employees. On the other hand, multiple‐item measures are better for estimating satisfaction levels [29]. This study thus uses nine questions that measure different aspects of work satisfaction to create the dependent variable job satisfaction. Participants used a 1‐to‐4 rating scale numbered from 1 (very satisfied) through 4 (very dissatisfied). Scores were subsequently reverse‐coded with lower scores signifying lower levels of satisfaction and higher scores indicating more job satisfaction. The total job satisfaction scores range from 9 through 36 (α = 0.79).
Model 1 Asian‐non‐US citizens (N = 268, 4.2%) | Model 2 other‐non‐US citizens (N = 302, 4.7%) | Model 3 Asian‐US citizens (N = 680, 10.7%) | Model 4 other‐US citizens (N = 5,125, 80.4%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Research productivity | ||||
Annual number of articles published | 0.063** | -0.014 | 0.134*** | 0.097*** |
Annual number of books published | 0.284*** | -0.362* | 0.011 | 0.089* |
Annual number of conference presentations | -0.030* | -2.874E‐4 | 0.114*** | 0.059** |
Percent named as a patent inventor | 0.538*** | 0.828*** | -1.198*** | 0.017 |
Percent granted a federal grant | 0.865*** | 0.954*** | 0.146+ | 0.676*** |
Career trajectory | ||||
Recognition—holding dean/department chair position | 2.284*** | 2.892*** | 0.904*** | 0.597*** |
Full professor (reference group) | ||||
Associate professor | 1.211*** | -0.476** | -0.570*** | -0.685*** |
Assistant professor | 0.420** | -0.373 | -0.524*** | -1.520*** |
Instructor/lecturer | 0.764** | 0.651** | -1.582*** | -0.824** |
Tenure status—tenured (reference group) | ||||
On tenure track but not tenured | 1.005*** | -0.576* | 1.163*** | 1.127*** |
Not on tenure track | -0.808*** | -2.804*** | -2.406*** | -1.258*** |
Tenure not applicable | 0.472* | -3.551*** | -1.205*** | -1.011*** |
Years of experience | 0.023* | -0.087*** | 0.051*** | 0.027*** |
Job characteristics | ||||
Research and development (reference group) | ||||
Teaching | -0.599*** | 0.482*** | -0.975*** | -0.345*** |
Institution type—research I/II universities (reference group) | ||||
Doctoral I/II university | 1.034*** | -0.653*** | -0.326** | 0.622*** |
Comprehensive I/II university | 1.250*** | -1.796*** | -0.483*** | -0.850*** |
Liberal arts I/II university | -1.649*** | -3.240*** | -0.988*** | 0.925*** |
Others | -0.606*** | -0.556*** | -0.031 | 0.057 |
Discipline—biology (reference group) | ||||
Mathematics and statistics | -1.713*** | -0.532*** | 0.113 | 0.017 |
Physical science | -0.164 | -0.49*** | 0.071 | 0.073 |
Computer and information sciences | 0.720*** | -0.104 | 0.282+ | -0.177 |
Engineering | 0.289* | -0.847*** | -0.236* | -0.881*** |
Salary | 2.583E‐5*** | 2.751E‐5*** | 6.000E‐6*** | 1.069E‐5*** |
Demographics | ||||
Male | -0.234* | -0.309* | -0.088 | -0.022 |
Married (reference group) | ||||
Never married | 0.906*** | 0.360* | -0.407** | -1.007*** |
Divorced and separated | 1.005*** | 1.132*** | 0.354* | -0.640*** |
Children living with parents | -0.247* | -0.629*** | -0.352*** | 0.191* |
Pacific region | 0.755*** | 1.450*** | 0.101 | 0.145 |
Linguistic distance | -1.918*** | 0.053 | -3.190*** | 0.956** |
Adjusted R square | 0.218 | 0.247 | 0.216 | 0.167 |
Job satisfaction by race and citizenship.
Dependent variable: job satisfaction index
***p < 0.001.
**p < 0.01.
*p < 0.05.
+p < 0.1.
The regression uses several sets of independent variables, which are classified into three major categories (a) research productivity, (b) career trajectory, and (c) job characteristics. Demographics are included as controls. Model 1 focused on Asian‐non‐US citizens and explained about 22% of variance in job satisfaction. Model 2, which included the other‐non‐US‐citizen group, explained 25% of the variance, the highest of all groups. Model 3 focused on Asian‐US citizens and explained 21.6% of the variance in job satisfaction. Lastly, model 4 with faculty members belonging to non‐Asian‐US‐citizen group explained the least variation in job satisfaction (16.7%).
\nAs seen in Table 3, the annual number of articles published has a positive and significant impact on the satisfaction of faculty members belonging to all groups, except other‐non‐US citizens. Interestingly, presentations made at conferences lowered the satisfaction of Asian‐non‐US citizens, a finding that was different for Asian‐US citizens and other‐US‐citizen groups. Conference presentations, although an important part of scholarly life, can take time away from faculty members’ work and time spent on research. Except Asian‐US citizens, all other groups of faculty members experienced positive satisfaction when named as a patent inventor. All groups of scientists and engineers reported higher satisfaction when awarded a federal grant. Grant activity is an integral part of faculty members working in science and engineering disciplines. Being awarded a federal grant not only enhances the visibility of the individual scholar but also the department and ultimately the institution.
Furthermore, as seen in Table 3, Asian‐non‐US citizens in assistant, associate, and instructor/lecturer positions express higher levels of satisfaction than full professors. Contrary to popular literature [52], both groups of non‐US‐citizen faculty members in part‐time (instructor/lecturer) positions express greater satisfaction with their jobs. Higher satisfaction is reported among part‐time faculty members since these faculty members choose not to be on tenure‐track positions and are content with their decision, possibly engaged in activities they enjoy the most—teaching and administration [53]. Full‐professor position results in the greatest satisfaction among Asian‐US citizens and other‐US‐citizen groups. All but other‐non‐US‐citizen groups of scientists reported higher satisfaction with more experience.
\nFor all groups, except other non‐US citizens, greater time spent on teaching‐related activities resulted in lower job satisfaction. As faculty members spend more time on teaching, it takes time away from research, thus lowering their job satisfaction. The results confirm past findings [37, 54]. Asian‐non‐US citizens, employed at doctoral and comprehensive universities, express greater satisfaction that those at research universities. Faculty members not working in research universities might experience a greater balance between research and teaching, thus leading to higher job satisfaction [55, 56]. However, faculty members across all four groups employed at liberal arts colleges, where teaching is greatly emphasized, reported lower job satisfaction than faculty members in research universities.
\nAsian‐non‐US citizens employed in engineering and computer science disciplines experience greater satisfaction than faculty members employed in biology. The results are in stark contrast to other‐US‐citizen and non‐US‐citizen groups. The findings are interesting and suggest that satisfaction is in part a measure of similar groups working together. Given that one‐third of Asian‐non‐US citizens are employed in these disciplines (computer science and engineering), scientists belonging to this group might experience a sense of belongingness, which serves as an intrinsic motivator, further enhancing satisfaction at work [57].
Male faculty members are significantly less satisfied than female faculty members in both noncitizen groups (Asian‐non‐US‐citizen and other‐non‐US‐citizen groups) (see Table 3). The findings of this study differ from several studies that have indicated female faculty members in S&E intend to quit as a result of lower job satisfaction [32, 33, 37, 38, 58, 59]. Past studies also indicate that male faculty members derive greater satisfaction from the amount of financial support they receive for their research in comparison with female faculty members who get satisfaction from peer support. Although this study does not report satisfaction with various aspects of work by gender, the findings in the literature are interesting, suggesting that women seek supportive work environments leading to higher intrinsic satisfaction [28].
\nMarriage lowered the job satisfaction among Asian and other non‐US‐citizen groups when compared with citizen groups. Although several studies have shown the positive impact of marriage on job satisfaction, a few have suggested that marriage can negatively impact satisfaction. This is especially true in the case of female faculty members who are constantly faced by the challenges of balancing career and family. Women married with children are often forced into juggling two separate lives, hence putting them at a disadvantage in their professional careers [60, 61]. However, scientists belonging to citizen groups (Asian and non‐Asian), who are unmarried, report lower satisfaction than their married counterparts. One possible explanation for opposite findings for US‐citizen and non‐US‐citizen groups is that marriage is related to the age of faculty members [62]. Asian‐non‐US citizens and other‐noncitizen scientists are typically younger and on tenure‐track positions but not tenured. The demands to achieve tenure along with family responsibilities might result in lower job satisfaction among married non‐US‐citizen groups of scientists. However, the opposite is true for US‐citizen groups.
\nAsian‐non‐US‐citizen and other‐non‐US‐citizen faculty members employed in the Pacific region of the United States report higher job satisfaction. Location did not impact the satisfaction of Asian‐US‐citizen and other‐US‐citizen groups. The Pacific region, according to the 2000 Census Bureau, is the most ethnically diverse region in the country, with less than 60% of the population being White alone. This confirms the results from previous studies, which suggest that minorities employed in ethnically diverse regions are likely to express greater job satisfaction as compared with faculty members employed in less diverse parts of the country [44, 51]. Further, Asian‐non‐US citizen and Asian‐US citizens with lower English language skills report negative job satisfaction, a finding that supports previous work by [63].
This study compared the job satisfaction of four groups of scientists employed at research universities in the United States. With high proportion of S&E Asian immigrant faculty members (US citizens and non‐US citizens) employed in the American academy, the study focused on comparing the job satisfaction of Asian‐non‐US‐citizens to other non‐US‐citizen groups and Asian‐US citizens to other‐US citizens. Comparing the career trajectories, research productivity, and job satisfaction of these groups helped debunk the “model minority” myth. While Asian‐US citizens can be considered a “model minority” when comparing research productivity with all groups of scientists, they are far from being problem‐free and without encountering challenges. Both Asian groups (US citizens and non‐US citizens) express lower degrees of overall job satisfaction, benefits, level of responsibility, salary, intellectual challenge, and degree of independence than other‐US‐citizen and non‐US‐citizen faculty members. Though Asian‐US citizens are the most productive, they are less likely to be in leadership roles, a finding that requires further investigation. Further, the lower job satisfaction reported among Asian‐non‐US citizens is concerning given that satisfaction impacts retention rates [30, 31, 64]. These faculty members play an important role in the scientific, technological, and economic growth of the United States.
\nAccording to [8], the percentage of doctorate recipients from Asian countries such as China, India and South Korea, and Taiwan are on temporary visas but have hopes and plans to stay in the United States. Their numbers have decreased to an average of 9 percentage points between 2005 and 2009 for those with definite plans to stay in the United States [8]. Losing them in the form of reverse migration can add to the challenges faced by the scientific enterprise in the United States. The cost of replacing these faculty members could be enormous considering that institutions at a typical research university invest anywhere from $300,000 to $500,000 in start‐up costs for an assistant professor and well over a million dollars to attract and retain senior faculty members [65]. The results of this research might aid university administrators to rethink their diversity programs. In addition to increasing the numbers of Asian prospective doctorates, there is a need to understand their behavior, their level of uncertainty and attitudes, as well as the difference of satisfaction when looking at those who are US citizens and are of Asian descent (race). This study is a step in that direction.
\nWe argue that further research between US scientists and Asian‐non‐US‐citizen scientists would be helpful in determining the importance of this group. Current data lacks variables on collaboration, environmental factors such as collegial relationships, work environment, and peer and student interactions, which impact faculty members’ job satisfaction [34]. Future studies should include these variables for a better comprehension of the issues. Additionally, official statistics should determine Asian faculty members by their country of origin. This would provide a further understanding of the career trajectories and satisfaction of this important group and perhaps clarify the myth of the “model minority,” something we attempted to do.
Please provide the volume for Refs. [9,15,23,27,38,63].
Please provide volume number and page range for Ref. [11].
Please provide publisher location for Refs. [20-22,28,39,40,47,48,51,61].
Please provide publisher details for Refs. [42-44,48,52,57,65].
Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and sulfur is a growing and significant problem for the environment in many parts of the world. However, in urban areas it has become a concern due to the increase in atmospheric emission of gases and particulate that entails consequences for the environment and for the health of population. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), and ammonia (NH3) are usually produced by anthropogenic activities. Industrial activities, vehicular emissions, and the burning of biomass are just some of the main sources of these pollutants in the atmosphere. The deposition of S and N occurs as a result of removal processes, either from precipitation (wet deposition) or from the deposit of particulate material or gas adsorption (dry deposition), and is associated with the acidification of soils and surface waters. Deposition of sulfur compounds results in the modification of the chemistry and biology of soil and water bodies such as the decrease in pH. On the other hand, the deposition of nitrogen compounds causes changes through the direct acidification of soils and natural water, or the saturation of nitrogen in vegetation species, which leads to the loss of vitality of diverse ecosystems. In addition, the deposition of N and S can cause deterioration to historical monuments and diverse materials [1]. Despite its importance, in Mexico, the monitoring of the deposition of these compounds, as well as the evaluation of their spatial and temporal distribution, and the estimation of their effects on ecosystems have not been sufficiently studied. Although in Mexican territory there are many cities with significant urban and industrial development, many of which are close to valuable historical heritage or important ecological zones, with the exception of the surrounding areas to the metropolitan zone of the Valley of Mexico, there are few air pollution studies available [2] One of the main reasons that limits the study of wet atmospheric deposition is that their study requires expensive automatic samplers that require compliance with certain specifications for installation and operation; while, in the case of dry deposition, standardized techniques are not available. In this regard, some authors [3] have proposed the use of passive samplers based on ion exchange resins for the monitoring of atmospheric deposition, this type of device allows to study several points simultaneously due to its low cost and simple design.
\nOn the other hand, the state of Nuevo Leon has been characterized by its accelerated urban and industrial growth, which places it within the three main metropolitan areas of the country and the second with the greatest territorial extension. Additionally, the city of Monterrey is the second city in the country with the highest reports of air pollution and subsequent effects not only on public health but also on ecosystems. Previous studies in this region have shown significant correlations between the wind direction and temperature inversions and contaminant transport from regional sources. That is, the pollutants in the MAM have a seasonal component as a result of the influence of these transport processes, resulting in a greater concentration and deposition of pollutants at certain climatic periods of the year. Likewise, in addition to the contribution by regional transport, there are also significant emissions from local industrial sources and vehicular sources that may result in background levels above the reference values considered as acceptable. However, since in the case of atmospheric deposition, it is not a criterion contaminant, that is, there is not a standard or reference value that regulates it, it is necessary to carry out monitoring studies at a medium or long term to establish a baseline that allows to perform an environmental diagnosis of the area and infer its possible effects. Notwithstanding, in the MAM, some authors [4, 5, 6, 7] have measured wet and dry atmospheric deposition; these studies have been carried out at a short term and systematic measurements that allow a proper diagnosis considering the seasonal and spatial components are not available. Therefore, the present work focuses on the mapping and study of the seasonal and spatial variability of N and S atmospheric deposition in the metropolitan area of Monterrey (MAM), Nuevo Leon, during three climatic seasons (dry, rainy, and cold fronts) using passive samplers based on ionic exchange resin at ten points distributed throughout nine municipalities of MAM.
\nThe metropolitan area of Monterrey (MAM) is located to the northeast of the country in Nuevo Leon (25°42′26.53 N, 100°17′29.36 W). In 2015, it registered a total of 4,437,643 inhabitants within a surface of 6357 km2, being the third most populated city in Mexico only after Guadalajara and Mexico City; and the second in territorial extension. Worldwide, MAM occupies the 17th place, while in Latin America, it ranks number 10. Also, it was considered by Forbes in 2010 as the fourth most intelligent city in the world, with a great capacity of sustainable growth. MAM is located 913 km from Mexico City. It is known as “The City of the Mountains” due to the orographic formations existing within and in the surroundings of the city and, because of this, MAM exhibits serious air pollution problems. MAM climate is considered extreme, and according to Köppen climatic classification, it has warm and semi-arid climate (BSh), with an annual precipitation from 431.1 to 1300 mm. To assess the spatial and temporal distribution of N and S deposition fluxes, ten sampling sites were selected along MAM. The location of these sampling sites corresponds to the location of automatic monitoring stations of SIMA (Integral System of Environmental Monitoring of Monterrey). The specific location of these sampling sites and the name of each automatic monitoring station are presented in Figure 1.
\nSampling sites location along MAM.
The characterization of complex spatial patterns as atmospheric deposition of N and S in a given area requires simple monitoring equipment, which is cheap, easy to operate, and does not require frequent visits to the field. Throughfall deposition consists of solute collected in atmospheric deposition. This method is widely used to estimate the inputs of atmospheric deposit to the forests ecosystems, since, they include both, dry and wet deposition; therefore, this kind of passive sampler constitutes a good choice to obtain a reliable estimation of atmospheric inputs of N and S in a given ecosystem [8]. Passive samplers type throughfall are based in collectors of ionic exchange resin (IER). They consist of a funnel connected to a column that contains a mixed bed of ionic exchange resin (Amberlite™ IRN150). Deposition falls on the surface of the funnel, washing toward the inside of the column. The main advantage of this type of device is that it can be used during long periods of time (e.g., months) and the equipment has a very low cost, allowing to increase the number of sampling points in a given area. Therefore, with this kind of collector, it is possible to display a great number of them to characterize spatial patterns in deposition with a high resolution [9]. Nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium (NO3−, SO42− y NH4+.) can be exchanged in IER for cations and anions, respectively, and then be trapped by functional groups with opposite electric charges. In this study, a design of a mixed resin bed was chosen, since this kind of resin captures both, anions and cations.
\nThroughfall deposition was collected in MAM, Nuevo Leon, Mexico, from February 26, 2017, to February 26, 2018, in ten sampling sites (Figure 1) which correspond to automatic monitoring stations of SIMA, by using deposition collectors based on IER operated and built according to [3, 10]. IER devices consist of funnels covered with a mesh (to prevent the fall of solid material such as leaves and insects) that are attached to PVC tubes. Inside these tubes, 30 g of IER are placed (where ions of interest are retained). Each tube is sealed with glass fiber at the bottom (as a platform or support for the resin) and at the top (as a filter). The resin tube is placed inside an outer PVC tube (shadow tube), which protects resin from solar radiation and helps avoid changes in its physical and chemical properties due to solar radiation. The lower end of the inner tube (resin tube) is closed or open by using a PVC valve to allow the hydrological flux to drain or not. Finally, resin tubes were placed in open areas at each sampling site within SIMA facilities. This exposition period allowed to obtain a data set for three seasons of 4 months each, corresponding to dry, rainy, and cold fronts or Norths seasons on an annual basis.
\nTo carry out this process, an extraction system specially designed for this purpose was built. This system consisted of a PVC tube 5 mm (ID) and 15 cm in length, adapted to each collector with the resin to be extracted. Glass fiber is removed with tweezers to verify that the drain hole was not dirty. After this, each resin tube is labeled and it is verified that the PVC valve is closed. All columns are placed in vertical position, and then, the resin tubes are washed with 100 ml of deionized water, allowing a repose of 20 minutes. Simultaneously, the threaded connections are revised to identify leaks. In the case of one leak identification, the joints are tightened, and if necessary, Teflon™ tape is added. Once, 20 minutes have elapsed, the valve opens so that a drip rate of 2 drops by second is obtained. A continuous drip is maintained during 10 minutes until drainage is completed. This rinse is discarded. Then, it is ensured that the PVC valve is closed, and 100 ml of 2 N KCl extraction solution is added, and allowed to repose for 20 minutes. Again, the PVC valve is open so that a drip rate of 2 drops by second is obtained. This continuous drip is maintained for 10 minutes. Finally, the valve is open to allow the remainder solution to leave the resin tube until the drainage is completed. Once, the extracts of the samples are obtained, they are stored and refrigerated at 4°C until analysis.
\nNH4+ was determined by using blue indophenol method, whose color intensity is proportional to the ammonium concentration in the sample. Determination was done by colorimetry at a wave length of 630 nm. Color formation is completed after 10 minutes and remains stable for 24 hours. Once absorbances of the samples are obtained, a quantification process was done to obtain ammonium concentrations by using a calibration curve [11].
\nSulfate ion precipitates with barium chloride in an acid medium (HCl) forming crystals of barium sulfate. The spectral absorption of the barium sulfate suspension is measured at 420 nm by using a UV-Visible spectrophotometer. Sulfate concentration is determined comparing the absorbance lectures with a calibration curve, by using the turbidimetric method [12].
\nNitrate anion present in the sample reacts with alkaloid brucine in an acid medium (H2SO4), oxidizing it and producing cocoteline, with an unstable red color, which changes quickly to yellow, being determined colorimetrically at 410 nm [13].
\nSpeed and wind direction are determining factors in the composition of atmospheric deposition, since depending on the prevailing wind direction, it will have the influence of local continental or regional sources located upwind or the influence of maritime sources. In this study, the analysis of meteorological parameters at surface level was done by using data obtained from SIMA during the study period to identify possible anthropogenic or natural sources influencing the N and S levels found in the sampling sites. Wind roses were built to identify the prevailing wind direction in the study area. To assess the transport mechanism controlling deposition process in the study area by season, back air mass trajectories were estimated by the Lagrangian hybrid model HYSPLIT (Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) from US NOAA (National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration).
\nDatabase for the entire study period for each sampling point was obtained from SIMA of Monterrey for: CO, NO, NOx, NO2, SO2, O3, PM10 y PM2.5. From the obtained data, concentration roses were estimated for each air pollutant and for each sampling point by climatic season to identify if daily concentrations exceeded reference values someday. These concentration roses were useful to visualize in which wind direction there were higher concentrations and, then, to identify the possible sources contributing to these levels.
\nA Friedman test was used to determine if atmospheric deposition fluxes were different among sampling sites, according to land use or between climatic seasons. Friedman test is a non-parametric test that can be used with block design, in which the underlying assumptions are not as restrictive as those of an ANOVA procedure (XLStat v.2017). On the other hand, principal components analysis is a technique used to reduce the dimensionality of a data set. The projection according to which data is better represented is least squares. It converts a data set of variables possibly correlated in a data set of variables without lineal correlation called principal components. Descriptive, multivariate, and principal components analysis were carried out by using XLstat-Pro v. 2017.
\nOne of the main uses of geo-statistical mapping consists in predicting new values from variables from the sample in a given area, which is referred as spatial prediction or spatial interpolation. Spatial distribution of a variable can be modeled either using a continuous model or a discrete or mixed model. On the other hand, temporal variability makes geo-statistical mapping expensive and complex. Taking into account that the seasonal periodicity in this work is regular for the studied environmental parameters, in this case, spatial variability was analyzed for each climatic period: Dry, rainy, and cold fronts or Norths seasons. The coordinates of each sampling site and the values for N and S deposition fluxes were the inputs used to derive the specific points in the maps showing the dispersion and the measured concentration for the different studied chemical compounds. In a second step, the concentrations at neighboring sampling points within the grid were averaged to attribute a value to the point. These points were the input for the interpolation procedure [14]. The deposition contours were smoothed by using the kriging method [15]. Kriging weights were estimated from a variogram, which measures the correlation grade among sampling values in the area as a function of the distance and direction. Digital images for MAM were obtained from INEGI, and these maps were integrated to build a base map in which concentration isolines obtained from Surfer program v. 10.0 were graphed, obtaining deposition fluxes maps in each studied zone by pollutant and by climatic season.
\nThe mean S deposition flux (as sulfate) during the dry season was 27.30 ± 10.34 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with a maximum value of 47.69 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 in the site labeled as VI (Obispado) at the center of MAM. The average value obtained for the rainy season was 23.65 ± 4.14 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with a maximum of 28.63 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 in site I (Escobedo) located to the north of MAM. On the other hand, the mean value for S deposition flux during the Norths season was 24.15 ± 7.39 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with a maximum value of 31.48 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 in the sampling site labeled as V (Apodaca), located at the northeast side of MAM. From Figure 2a, it was observed that S deposition fluxes showed an evident seasonality, with the highest values during the dry season, and with the lowest values along the rainy season. However, from Friedman test, since p value is major than significance levels (α = 0.05), null hypothesis (H0) cannot be rejected; therefore, it can be concluded that there were no significant differences among S deposition fluxes by climatic season and that sulfate deposition levels have an evident influence from regional transport during all year.
\nSulfate deposition fluxes by: (a) climatic season, (b)sampling site, and (c) land use for MAM during the study period; Nitrate deposition fluxes by: (d) climatic season, (e) sampling site, and (f) land use for MAM during the study period; Ammonium deposition fluxes by: (g) climatic season, (h) sampling site, and (i) land use for MAM during the study period.
In the analysis by sampling site, a mean value for S deposition flux of 25.03 ± 7.63 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 was obtained. According to Figure 2b, it can be observed that S deposition fluxes were higher in the sampling sites labeled as VI and V, which correspond to Obispado and Apodaca at the center and northeast of MAM. By applying Friedman test, p value is major than significance level (α = 0.05), and null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Therefore, it can be concluded that there were not significant differences in S deposition fluxes among sampling sites, suggesting an evident regional influence on MAM.
\nSampling sites were grouped depending on their land use as: Rural (sites II and VII), Urban (sites I, IV, VI, VIII, IX and X), and Industrial (sites III and V). From Figure 2c, it can be observed that S deposition fluxes were higher at sites with an industrial land use (sites III and V), which correspond to San Bernabé and Apodaca, located to the northwest and northeast of MAM. A Friedman test was applied, and since p value is major than significance level (α = 0.05), the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, and it can be concluded that S deposition fluxes did not show significant differences by land use. This fact supports those found in the previous sections, where the regional character of sulfate due to residence time of SO2 was completely evident.
\nThe mean nitrate deposition flux value during the dry season was 3.30 ± 1.43 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with a maximum of 4.38 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 corresponding to the sampling site VIII (San Pedro) located to the southwest of MAM. The average value obtained for rainy season was 6.54 ± 0.58 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with the highest value (7.39) at the sampling site VIII (San Pedro). On the other hand, during the cold fronts season, the mean value for nitrate deposition flux was 3.26 ± 0.21 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with a maximum value of 3.52 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 at site X (Juárez) located to the southeast of MAM. From Figure 2d, it can be observed that nitrate deposition fluxes were higher along the rainy season. From Friedman test, it was found that p value is minor than significance level (α = 0.05); therefore, it can be concluded that there were significant differences in nitrate deposition fluxes between rainy season and the rest of the year (dry and cold fronts seasons). It suggests that reactions in aqueous phase can be important, at the same time.
\nFrom the analysis of results by sampling site, from Figure 2e, it was found that nitrate deposition fluxes were higher in the sites VIII and III: San Pedro to the southwest and San Bernabé to the northwest of MAM. By applying a Friedman test, it was found that p value was minor than significance level (α = 0.05); therefore, null hypothesis must be rejected and it is concluded that there were significant differences between sites. It means that the influence of local sources was important. It agrees with the residence time of NO2 in the atmosphere, since it has been reported that nitrate is a local pollutant.
\nSampling sites were grouped according to their land use as: Rural (sites II and VII), Urban (sites I, IV, VI, VIII, IX and X), and Industrial (sites III and V). From Figure 2f, it can be observed that nitrate deposition fluxes were higher in sampling sites with an urban land use (sites VIII and IX: San Pedro and La Pastora, located to the southwest and southeast of MAM). However, considering extreme values, these were found in sites with an industrial land use (most of the sites: IV, VI, VII, IX, and X). From Figure 2f, a great variability was observed, suggesting that local urban sources were mixed and emissions presented different magnitudes. It agrees with the different kinds of sources (industrial and urban) coexisting in this great metropolitan area. In spite of this, from Friedman test, it was found that p value was major than the significance level (α = 0.05); thus, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, and therefore, it can be concluded that there were not significant differences between sampling sites by land use.
\nThe mean ammonium deposition flux during the dry season was 6.90 ± 3.88 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with a maximum value of 13.31 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 in the sampling site labeled as VII (Santa Catarina) located to the southwest of MAM. During the rainy season, the average of ammonium deposition flux was 2.21 ± 1.49 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with a maximum of 4.08 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 in site X (Juárez) located to the southeast of MAM. Finally, during the cold fronts season, ammonium deposition fluxes presented a mean value of 7.14 ± 3.49 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, with a peak value of 14.04 Kg ha−1 yr.−1 in the sampling site III (San Bernabé) at the northwest side of MAM. From Figure 2g, it is observed that, ammonium deposition fluxes were higher during the dry and cold fronts seasons. Ammonium levels were significantly lower during the rainy season, suggesting a washing effect during this season. From Friedman test, it was found that p value was minor than the significance level (α = 0.05), and the null hypothesis can be rejected; therefore, it is possible to conclude that there were significant differences between dry and cold fronts seasons and the rainy season. It suggests that, during the rainy season, a dilution effect could influence the ammonium deposition fluxes, considering that during the rest of the year, rains are scarce in MAM.
\nFrom Figure 2h, analyzing ammonium deposition fluxes by sampling site, the highest value was found in the sites VII and IV (Santa Catarina and San Nicolás), located to the southwest and northeast of MAM. Applying a Friedman test, it was found that p value is major than significance level (α = 0.05), and therefore, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Then, it can be concluded that there were not significant differences among sampling sites.
\nSampling sites were grouped according to their land use as: Rural (sites II and VII), Urban (sites I, IV, VI, VIII, IX, and X), and Industrial (sites III and V). From Figure 2i, it can be observed that ammonium deposition fluxes were higher in sampling sites with an industrial and urban land use. The emission of amines and NH3 has been reported from vehicles (with the presence of a catalytic convertor that has enough stored hydrogen), where NO is reduced to NH3, and deposited as NH4+. Therefore, vehicular emissions could have an important influence on ammonium deposition in MAM. According to the Friedman test, p value was major than the significance level, thus null hypothesis cannot be rejected, and therefore, it can be concluded that there were not significant differences among sampling sites considering their land use.
\nO3 showed a strong seasonal variation (Figure 3a) with the highest values during the dry season, (0.074–0.095 ppm) exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16]. Both, O3 and PM10 showed highest values when wind direction came from the East. In the case of PM10, Figure 3b shows that PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) exceeded the reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17]. In Figure 3c, it can be observed that PM10 levels during the cold fronts season exceeded the reference value but winds also showed a great variability. In the case of PM2.5 (Figure 3d), its levels (≥75 μg m−3) exceeded the reference value (45 μg m−3) [17] for 24 hours during the cold fronts season when winds showed a great variability. Finally, winds came from the East during dry and rainy seasons (Figure 3e), showing a great variability during the cold fronts season (Figure 3f) with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along the year.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for site I (Escobedo) during the study period: (a) O3 dry season, (b) PM10 dry, and rainy seasons, (c) PM10 cold fronts season, (d) PM2.5 cold fronts season, (e) wind dry and rainy season, (f) wind cold fronts season.
From Figure 4a and b, it can be observed that O3 levels (0.074–0.095 ppm) were higher during the dry and rainy seasons, exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16] when wind came from the East. PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) were high during all year, exceeding reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17], mainly when winds came from Northeast (Figure 4c and d). Finally, winds came from the East-Northeast during dry and rainy seasons (Figure 4e), showing a great variability during the cold fronts season (Figure 4f) with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along the year. Both O3 and PM10 showed highest levels when winds had an East-Northeast component.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for site II (García) during the study period: (a) O3 dry season, (b) O3 rainy season, (c) PM10 dry and rainy seasons, (d) PM10 cold fronts season, (e) wind dry and rainy season, (f) wind cold fronts season.
O3 levels (0.074–0.095 ppm) were higher during all year, exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16] when winds came from East-Southeast (Figure 5a and b). In addition, PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) also exceeded the reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17] during all year, but showing highest values and a great variability in wind direction during the cold fronts season (Figure 5c and d). Finally, winds came from the East-Southeast during dry and rainy seasons (Figure 5e), showing a great variability during the cold fronts season (Figure 5f) with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along the year. Both O3 and PM10 showed highest levels when winds had an East-Southeast component.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for site III (San Bernabé) during the study period: (a) O3 dry and rainy season, (b) O3 cold fronts season, (c) PM10 dry and rainy seasons, (d) PM10 cold fronts season, (e) wind dry and rainy seasons, (f) wind cold fronts season.
O3 levels (0.074–0.095 ppm) were high during all year, exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16] when winds came from North and East (Figure 6a–c). In addition, PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) also exceeded the reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17] during all year when winds came from East and North, but showing highest values and a great variability in wind direction during the cold fronts season (Figure 6d–f). Finally, winds came from the North during dry season and from East during the rainy season (Figure 6g and h), showing a great variability during the cold fronts season (Figure 6i) with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along the year. Both O3 and PM10 showed highest levels when winds had a North and East component.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for site IV (San Nicolás) during the study period: (a) O3 dry season, (b) O3 rainy season, (c) O3 cold fronts season, (d) PM10 dry season, (e) PM10 rainy season, (f) PM10 cold fronts season, (g) wind dry season, (h) wind rainy season, (i) wind cold fronts season.
From Figure 7a, it can be observed that O3 levels (≥0.095 ppm) were higher during the dry season when winds came from Northeast, exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16]. PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) were high during all year, exceeding reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17]; mainly when winds came from North and Northwest (Figure 7b and c). PM2.5 levels (≥44 μg m−3) were high during rainy and cold fronts seasons when wind direction was from North, exceeding the reference value (45 μg m−3) [17] for 24 hours (Figure 7d). Winds came from the Northwest and North during dry and wet (rainy and cold fronts) seasons, respectively (Figure 7e and f), with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along these seasons. O3, PM10, and PM2.5 showed highest levels when winds had a North-Northwest component.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for site V (Apodaca) during the study period: (a) O3 dry season, (b) PM10 dry season, (c) PM10 rainy and cold fronts seasons, (d) PM2.5 rainy and cold fronts seasons, (e) wind dry season, (f) wind rainy and cold fronts seasons.
From Figure 8a, it can be observed that O3 levels (≥0.095 ppm) were higher during the dry season when winds came from Northeast, exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16]. PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) were high during all year, exceeding reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17], mainly when winds came from Northeast and Southwest (Figure 8b). PM2.5 levels were ≥44 μg m−3 during all year when wind direction was from Northeast, exceeding the reference value (45 μg m−3) [17] for 24 hours (Figure 8c and d). In addition, winds came from the Northeast during all year, showing a great variability during cold fronts season (Figure 8e and f), with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along this season. O3, PM10, and PM2.5 showed highest levels when winds had a Northeast component.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for site VI (Obispado) during the study period: (a) O3 dry, rainy and cold fronts seasons, (b) PM10 dry, rainy and cold fronts seasons, (c) PM2.5 dry and rainy seasons, (d) PM2.5 cold fronts season, (e) wind dry and rainy season, (f) wind cold fronts season.
O3 levels (≥0.095 ppm) were high during all year, being higher during the dry and rainy seasons, exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16] when winds came from North (Figure 9a and b). In addition, PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) also exceeded the reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17] during all year and mainly when winds came from North (Figure 9c). PM2.5 levels were ≥44 μg m−3 during dry season when wind direction was from North, exceeding the reference value (45 μg m−3) [17] for 24 hours (Figure 9d). According to Figure 9e, O3 levels decreased significantly during the rainy season without showing exceedances to reference value. Finally, winds came from the North during all year (Figure 9f), with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along the year. O3, PM10, and PM2.5 showed highest levels when winds had a North component.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for Site VII (Santa Catarina) during the study period: (a) O3 dry and rainy seasons, (b) O3 cold fronts season, (c) PM10 dry, rainy and cold fronts seasons, (d) PM2.5 dry season, (e) PM2.5 rainy season, (f) wind all year.
From Figure 10a and b, it can be observed that O3 levels (0.074–0.095 ppm) were higher during the dry season when winds came from East-Northeast, exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16]. PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) were high during all year, exceeding reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17]; mainly when winds came from East-Northeast (Figure 10c and d). Finally, winds came from the Northeast during all year, showing a great variability during cold fronts season (Figure 10e and f), with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along this season. Both O3 and PM10 showed highest levels when winds had a Northeast component.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for Site VIII (San Pedro) during the study period: (a) O3 dry and rainy seasons, (b) O3 cold fronts season, (c) PM10 dry and rainy seasons, (d) PM10 cold fronts season, (e) wind dry and rainy seasons, (f) wind cold fronts season.
O3 levels (0.074–0.095 ppm) were high during dry and rainy seasons, exceeding the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16] when winds came from North-Northeast (Figure 11a). In addition, PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) were high during all year and also exceeded the reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17], when winds came from North-Northeast (Figure 11b). PM2.5 levels were ≥44 μg m−3 during all year, being higher during cold fronts season, and when wind direction was from North-Northeast, exceeding the reference value (45 μg m−3) [17] for 24 hours (Figure 11c). Finally, winds came from the North-Northeast during all year (Figure 11d–f) with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along the year, and showing a greater variability in wind direction during cold fronts season. O3, PM10, and PM2.5 showed highest levels when winds had a Northeast component.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for site IX (La Pastora) during the study period: (a) O3 dry, rainy and cold fronts seasons, (b) PM10 dry, rainy, and cold fronts seasons, (c) PM2.5 dry, rainy, and cold fronts seasons, (d) wind dry season, (e) wind rainy season, (f) wind cold fronts season.
Figure 12a shows that CO levels (8.5–11 ppm) were higher during cold fronts season, reaching the upper limit value established in the air quality standard (11 ppm) for 8 hours [18]. From Figure 12b and c, it can be observed that O3 levels (≥0.095 ppm) were high during dry season when winds came from Southeast, exceeding in both cases, the reference value for 8 hours (70 ppb) [16]. PM10 levels (≥75 μg m−3) were high during all year, exceeding reference value for 24 hours (75 μg m−3) [17], when winds came from Southeast during dry and rainy season (Figure 12d) and from Northwest and Southeast during cold fronts season, showing a greater variability in wind direction (Figure 12e). Finally, winds came from the Southeast during dry and rainy seasons, and from Northwest during cold fronts season (Figure 12f), with maximum wind speeds >7.9 m s−1 along the year. O3 and PM10 showed highest levels when winds had a Southeast component most part of the year and a Northwest component during cold fronts season, suggesting a seasonal behavior for these pollutants. However, in the case of CO behavior, it was completely different, with the highest levels (even exceeding the air quality standard) during cold fronts season with winds coming from Southeast and Northwest.
\nCriteria air pollutants and meteorological conditions for site X (Juarez) during the study period: (a) CO cold fronts season, (b) O3 dry season, (c) O3 rainy and cold fronts seasons, (d) PM10 dry and rainy seasons, (e) PM10 cold fronts season, (f) wind all year.
In Mexico, reference values to compare the current deposition fluxes of N and S are not available. However, critical loads have been estimated for European ecosystems and some sites in the United States. A critical load value of 5 Kg N ha−1 yr.−1 has been proposed for alpine ecosystems [19], whereas for some sites in North America, values of 3–8 Kg N ha−1 yr.−1 for New Mexico and 4–7 Kg N ha−1 yr.−1 for California have been proposed [20]. In the case of S deposition, a critical value of 3 Kg S ha−1 yr.−1 has been reported for very sensitive areas in Europe, whereas for natural forests, a reference value of 2–5 Kg S ha−1 yr.−1 has been proposed [21]. In this study, mean N and S throughfall deposition fluxes were 4.88 and 25.03 Kg ha−1 yr.−1, respectively. N deposition fluxes did not exceed the reference value reported for alpine ecosystems; however, they are almost in the upper limit of this reference value and similar to those found in New Mexico and California. In addition, N deposition levels found in MAM (Figure 13) are almost twice those reported by Escoffie [22] in Carmen Island (2.15 Kg N ha−1 yr.−1), Campeche; by Sánchez [23] in Orizaba Valley, Veracruz (1.44 Kg N ha−1 yr.−1); and by López [24] in Mérida, Yucatán (2.7 Kg N ha−1 yr.−1) and are almost four times those reported by García [25] in Atasta-Xicalango, Campeche (1.15 Kg N ha−1 yr.−1). On the other hand, S deposition fluxes in MAM exceeded almost eight times the critical load proposed for sensitive areas, and five times the upper reference value for natural forests in Europe. S deposition fluxes found in MAM were almost six times higher than those reported by Escoffie [22] in Carmen Island, Campeche (4.7 Kg S ha−1 yr.−1); and by López [24] in Mérida, Yucatán (4.07 Kg S ha−1 yr.−1), and almost three times higher than those reported by García [25] in Atasta-Xicalango, Campeche (8.57 Kg S ha−1 yr.−1). In spite of S levels in MAM being half of those reported by Sánchez [23] in Orizaba Valley (55.16 Kg S ha−1 yr.−1), the current S deposition fluxes in MAM represent a risk potential of acidification and impact on ecosystems in this region.
\nSpatial and temporal patterns for throughfall deposition fluxes of SO42− for (a) dry season, (b) rainy season, (c) cold fronts season; of NO3− for (d) dry season, (e) rainy season, (f) cold fronts season; and of NH4+ for (g) dry season, (h) rainy season, (i) cold fronts season in MAM during the study period.
This chapter presents an overview of atmospheric pollution and its spatial and temporal variability in MAM, and from results, we can conclude that:
\nN deposition fluxes: Nitrate deposition showed a seasonal pattern with the highest levels during the rainy season (suggesting that atmospheric reactions in aqueous phase play an important role in the removal process). In the case of ammonium, its deposition also presented a seasonal variation, with higher levels during the dry and cold fronts season in Santa Catarina municipality. N deposition fluxes did not exceed the critical load values reported for Europe and USA; however, these levels were higher than those reported for the southeast region of Mexico.
\nS deposition fluxes: Sulfate deposition did not show significant differences between seasons and sampling points, suggesting that levels found probably correspond to background levels in MAM. Sulfate levels were relatively high in Obispado, Santa Catarina, and Escobedo municipalities. S deposition fluxes exceeded the limit values proposed for sensitive areas and natural forests in Europe, and were higher than those reported at the southeast (SE) of the country, but lower than those found at the center of Mexico. It suggests that S deposition could be a potential risk for ecosystems and historical heritage in MAM.
\nCO: Juárez municipality was the only sampling site that showed exceedances to the reference value established in the current regulation, this municipality is located to the east of MAM, and its levels were higher when wind came from N.
\nO3: Ozone levels exceeded the reference value of the current regulation in all sampling sites during the dry season when wind had an east component (E-SE-NE).
\nPM10: PM10 levels exceeded the threshold value of the current regulation in all sites and during all year, its levels being higher when wind came from East (E-SE-NE).
\nPM2.5: Obispado and La Pastora municipalities (center of MAM) showed the highest levels during all year, whereas in Escobedo and Apodaca (at the northern side of MAM), its levels were higher during the cold fronts season.
\nIn spite of the time scale in which deposition fluxes (by season) and criteria pollutants (by day) were different, we could identify an evident association between CO and nitrate, since both analysis showed that their levels were higher in Juarez municipality during cold fronts season (CO levels exceeded the regulation’s reference values and exhibited a different pattern regarding to the remaining sampling sites in MAM). It suggests that both, CO and nitrate had their origin in vehicular sources in this urbane zone highly polluted. On the other hand, a similarity was observed between deposition patterns of S and PM10-PM2.5 levels in MAM, since sulfate did not present significant differences in its spatial and seasonal variability; it suggests that levels found in this study remained constant all year, and correspond to the background levels for MAM. The same finding was obtained for PM10 and PM2.5 levels, since their levels exceeded the reference value established in the current regulation in all sampling sites. Regarding wind direction, an evident association with criteria pollutants was found, PM10 and O3 showed their highest levels when wind had an east component (E-SE-NE), which corresponds to the prevailing wind direction during all year in MAM. In addition, PM2.5 levels were higher when wind came from north. It suggests that sources located at north (N) and east (E) from MAM contributed significantly to pollution in MAM. Finally, this study suggests that, since O3 and PM10 levels exceeded the allowable maximum limit during all year and in all sampling sites, the implications that this fact may have on the population health in MAM could be serious.
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',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
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\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
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\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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