Different methods for the mosquito control.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2050",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Earthquake-Resistant Structures - Design, Assessment and Rehabilitation",title:"Earthquake-Resistant Structures",subtitle:"Design, Assessment and Rehabilitation",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book deals with earthquake-resistant structures, such as, buildings, bridges and liquid storage tanks. 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\r\n\t“Citizen Science - Methods, Approaches and New Perspectives” intends to give a comprehensive account of theoretical and practical aspects of Public Participation in Scientific Research. In recent years, citizen science has been rapidly expanding worldwide. This book will cover several important topics in Citizen science. Topics discussed include, but are not limited to: public understanding of science, government policies, crowdsourcing, open Science, science-society relationship, citizen science monitoring programmes, and case studies in public engagement in scientific research. It will interest a wide range of readers, including policymakers, volunteers, scientists, specialists, and students involved in citizen science projects research or who would like to design and lead their own projects. The relationship between science and the public is central to the constitution of contemporary societies. In an era when pressing environmental issues, cooperation across science and society is crucial, and this book will present a collaborative analysis by experts from different academic fields.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-317-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-316-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-318-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"655a28c11339d0891d964ca336d4e076",bookSignature:"Dr. Alessio Vovlas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12250.jpg",keywords:"Crowdsourcing, Citizen Collected Data, Open Science, Public Understanding of Science, Government Policies, Biodiversity, Astronomy, Seismology, Health and Welfare, Pollution, Environmental Monitoring, Taxonomy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 hours",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Alessio Vovlas has worked in the past on the ecology and biodiversity of butterflies and now is currently a Research Assistant at Italian National Research Council in Bari (Italy) in Nematology, and is a member of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Society for Conservation Biology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",middleName:null,surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313084/images/system/313084.png",biography:"Alessio Vovlas received a Ph.D. in Science and Technology from Turin University, Italy, in 2014 with a thesis on 'Evolutionary Biology and Biodiversity Conservation,” and an MS in Natural Science from Bari University, Italy, He is an effective member of A.P.S. Polyxena, an NGO that is part of the Butterfly Conservation Europe, European Citizen Science Association (ECSA), and Societas Europaea Lepidopterologica (SEL). He is also a member of the Society for Conservation Biology and part of the membership committee of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Commission on Education and Communication (CEC). Dr. Vovlas’ main research interests are molecular biology, ecology, zoology, science communication, and education. 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Many different chemical and physical deposition methods were developed in order to satisfy industrial needs and requirements in different application fields. There is no universal technique for the processing of functional coatings. For each application, more than one technique is being considered at industrial level and the final choice depends on the specifications and on the maturity and readiness level of each one. The industry prefers conservative approaches in terms of available subcontracting environment, which makes that process modification requires much higher performance, durability, and lower cost than actually implemented solutions, the safety/environmental issues are considered, as well.
\nThere are two basic technologies, used for the synthesis of functional coatings: dry methods (depositions in vacuum conditions) and wet chemistry. The liquid-phase techniques, such as ink-jet printing, aerosol/spray deposition, sol-gel method, spin-coating, or dip-coating, are widely used in the coating technology due to their scalability and low cost [1, 2]. The usage of liquids/solvents in the wet techniques may induce degradation of the properties of the bottom layers and substrates and may introduce the impurities/defects in the heterostructure, which may be a critical limitation to device performance in the applications such as electronics [2]. Moreover, the drying of the solvent can also lead to the inhomogeneous distribution of the solute—“coffee stain” effect [3]. It is very challenging to grow the homogeneous coatings on 3D substrates with high aspect features by means of wet techniques due to dewetting and surface tension issues on the sidewalls and edges [2]. There is a considerable effort to be made to solve the strong drawbacks and limitations to the types of substrates of the wet techniques. Moreover, these methods usually provide poor reproducibility and non-uniform compositional distributions in the coatings. Thus, dry methods are highly preferred for the controlled synthesis of functional coatings. However, due to the strong advantages (low cost and easy up-scaling), wet techniques are able to meet actual specifications and thus take lead in “technology competition” with regard to dry techniques.
\nDifferent physical and chemical vapor deposition methods are used for the dry synthesis of the functional films at laboratory scale [4]. Physical vapor deposition techniques, such as pulsed laser deposition (PLD), magnetron sputtering, etc. offer in most cases a direct link between the composition of the gas phase and that of the coating [5], they may require less tuning and for this reason they are able to provide to the academia and the industry with “real samples” easier and faster than chemical vapor deposition techniques. However, these techniques will face issues in the stoichiometry adjustment in the case of multicomponent films if one of the deposited components is highly volatile (or presents very different evaporation characteristics). For instance, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is very powerful and essential tool in the semiconductor industry. Sputtering and evaporation techniques are widely applied for deposition of metal, oxide, and nitride films in the microfabrication of devices. Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) is broadly used by researchers for fundamental studies of new materials. However, physical methods, such as PLD, evaporation, and magnetron sputtering, are not compatible for depositions on non-planar surfaces and cannot offer precision control of the film thicknesses as required by some industries.
\nThe industrial requirements (quality and reproducibility) for designed coatings and especially on 3D surfaces are more likely to be attained by chemical deposition methods, such as (metal organic) chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and atomic layer deposition (ALD) [6, 7]. ALD provides a tool for conformal coating on very high aspect-ratio nanostructures with excellent uniformity. It has become a technique for both template-directed nanofabrications and engineering of surface properties. For example, ALD is used to deposit HfO2 layers with nanometer scale thickness in the complementary metal oxide semi-conductor (CMOS) fabrication. CVD systems ensured high productivity and demonstrated excellent film uniformity (up to 12 inch wafers) and repeatability with high throughput for a variety of different films including semiconductors (Si, III–V, etc.), dielectrics (e.g. SiO2, AlN, etc.), rare-earth oxides, ceramic materials (e.g. TiN, ZrO2, etc.), ferroelectrics (e.g. PbTiO3, LaNiO3, etc.), superconductors (e.g. YBa2Cu3O7−x), chalcogenides, and noble metals. Despite industrial success of CVD in the manufacture of thin films and its flexibility, offered by chemistry, CVD is still an expensive method compared to the wet chemistry techniques.
\nIn the CVD process, gaseous or evaporated precursors are transported to the heated substrate where decompositions or other type of reactions take place. However, not all precursors are under gaseous form at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature (see Figure 1). In fact, only about 10% of the industrially available precursors are gaseous (e.g., trimethylborane B(CH3)3, trimethylsilane Si(CH3)3, etc.). The vast majority of precursors are available in solid form (powders or crystals) (80%). About 45% of elements can be grown by using liquid precursors and the precursors of 5% elements are only liquid. Most available precursors exhibit safety hazards and must be carefully operated and stored. The main disadvantages of classical MOCVD systems are the difficulty to control the chemistry and the evaporation of the solid/liquid precursors and therefore the composition and structure of coating (especially those of multicomponents coatings), which affect the reproducibility. It makes difficult the control of the film thickness and growth rate, which affects crystalline orientation, surface morphology, and film density. Nevertheless, chemistry of deposition process might be a potential advantage for precision manufacturing of films, if used in a controlled manner.
\nPhysical states of commercially available precursors at ambient temperature for each element in the periodic table (gas in green, liquid in red, and solid in gold).
In the case of solid precursors, the sublimation rate is directly linked to its free surface, which in turn depends on the powder grain size and the amount of remaining precursor. Consequently, as sublimation occurs, its surface area in contact with the gas changes, thus changing the mass transport rate during the deposition. Due to the difficulty in precisely controlling the evaporation of a powder, depositions involving multiple solid precursors frequently were done by grinding optimized amounts of multiple precursors together to have a homogeneous single-source powder and rarely multiple evaporators were used. Various single-source powder precursors and techniques used to introduce powder in the evaporator were reviewed in Ref. [8]. In 1998, Gorbenko and Bosak [9] used a vibrating feeder to control the introduction of a mixture of β-diketonates precursors (see Section 2.1), namely La(thd)3 and Ni(acim)2 or Ni(thd)3, for the deposition of LaNiO3 thin films and succeeded in growing oriented stoichiometric layers. However, as many precursor powders are moisture sensitive, another method was later proposed in which pellets were covered by an inert material [10]. An alternative way was a packaging of a mixture of precursor powders in a quartz tube, which was then slowly introduced into the vaporizer. The large thermal gradient in the evaporator combined with the slow entrainment of the tube ensured that the growth rate would only be dictated by the density of the powder [11]. Although it worked well in laboratories, it proved to be difficult a scaling-up to industrial requirements.
\nThe term “direct liquid injection (DLI)-CVD” refers to reactors, which use liquid delivery units to feed the deposition zone in reactants. It is much easier to regulate precisely a liquid flow rate than that of powders. In some systems, the liquid goes through an evaporation unit where it is vaporized, and in other cases, the precursors reach the surface of a heated substrate in a liquid state and then they are vaporized prior to decomposition. If the precursor is still in liquid phase when it reaches the substrate, the deposition method is called spray or aerosol pyrolysis [12] depending on the generation method of the liquid droplets. Sometimes spray/aerosol pyrolysis is called atmospheric pressure CVD as usually the evaporation takes place in proximity of the substrate heated to high temperatures. The main advantage of DLI-CVD is that, in most cases, the solution is kept under pressure at room temperature, which makes it possible to use precursors with low thermal stability and low vapor pressure. Moreover, powder precursors may be dissolved in the solvent and used in DLI-CVD systems, as well.
\nA bubbler technology is well established as a liquid precursor delivery system since many years [13]. The principle is rather simple and robust: the liquid is stored inside a so-called bubbler, typically a stainless steel canister, and an inert carrier gas (usually Ar or N2) is introduced inside the liquid to bubble. The precursor vapor saturates the atmosphere in the bubbler and the vapor is then entrained to the heated substrate surface. The delivery of reactants depends on three parameters: the temperature of the bubbler, the carrier gas flow rate, and the pressure over the surface of the liquid. This system works particularly well with liquid precursors which vapor pressures are not too low and not too high. In the case of precursors with low vapor pressure, the only solution is heating the bubbler to increase the equilibrium vapor pressure inside the canister. Yet, this has some major drawbacks as it restricts the usage to precursors that are stable at high temperature, and implies to heat the whole delivery line so that condensation does not occur before reaching the substrate. To overcome the problems of non-saturation of the carrier gas and fluctuation of the precursor flow rate, many different devices were imagined, from two bubblers in series [14] to a self-metering reservoir [15]. Before 1990, the main research effort on the heretofore mentioned interesting materials were dedicated to physical deposition processes such as physical vapor deposition (PVD), as problems with vapor phase control and stoichiometry were not totally overcome in CVD.
\nIn the 1990s, the growing interest in the thin films of superconducting materials, ferroelectrics, and high-κ dielectrics (YBa2Cu3O7−x, PbZr1−xTixO3, BaTiO3, SrTiO3, etc.) [16] leads to the development of more reliable and versatile delivery systems adapted to a wider range of precursors. The first generation of the IIA group solid precursors were thermally unstable at their sublimation temperature. They had a strong tendency to oligomerize and aging issues [17]. Much effort was made in precursor chemistry and in development of new liquid injection systems. In this chapter, we overview liquid delivery systems developed to date emphasizing on the problems it solved and the challenges it rose.
\nThe injection devices have greatly enhanced the vaporization efficiency, thus the high volatility is not the main issue as it was with previous delivery systems. From a point of view for large-scale CVD applications, choosing the best precursors for a given application can sometimes be troublesome. As a matter of fact, a suitable precursor should meet several key requirements:
High purity and high yield,
Stability at ambient temperature,
Easiness to handle and non-toxicity, and
Congruent volatilization with a significant temperature gap between evaporation and decomposition.
Additionally, it was shown that the molecular structure of the precursor had a significant impact on the growth dynamics and properties of the films, as well [18, 19, 20]. An
Metal β-diketonates are the most used and common precursors for MOCVD and especially for depositions of oxide films. The (O,O′-η2) chelating ligands of β-diketone usually form both thermally and hydrolytically stable complex with metal ion. Although it is mostly an advantage, it implies that the deposition temperature should be high enough to reach the precursor decomposition temperature or that additional source of energy (plasma, UV light, etc.) is provided at low deposition temperatures. However, it can heavily increase the carbon contamination when working at low temperatures. Additionally, their low reactivity with water has proven to be a complication in ALD processes. Many derivatives of β-diketonates precursors and the abbreviations of their names are presented in Figure 2. The volatility of the precursor can be tuned by modifying R-groups of ligands. For instance, Schweitzer et al. have shown that the lead precursors with bulkier R-groups became more volatile (Pb(acac)2 < Pb(dhd)2 < Pb(thd)2) [21]. They explained this tendency by the increased shielding effect on the highly positive metal center and the reduced intermolecular oxygen-metal interactions in the solid state. Additionally, Fahlman et al. have reported that the increased fluorine substitution in the R-groups could improve significantly the volatility of zirconium β-diketonate precursors [22]. But on the other hand, fluorinated precursors often led to fluorine contamination in the deposited oxide layers. This contamination could be reduced by the introduction of excess H2O vapor [23]. Another way to increase the volatility and/or the solubility in a solvent of the β-diketonate complex [24] is to add stoichiometric amount of a Lewis-base compound in the solution or directly on the complex in order to saturate the coordination sphere of the metal. The β-diketonates precursors have been successfully used to grow a large variety of films from pure metals, simple oxides, solid solutions, and composite materials (e.g., ruthenium and ruthenium oxide (RuO2) [25], lanthanum-modified lead zirconate-titanate (PLZT) [26], yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) [27], lithium niobate [27, 28], etc.).
\nComposition, names/abbreviations of β-diketonate ligands [
Metal alkoxide (M(OR)n) precursors are the second type of the most used precursors in MOCVD processes. They are usually more volatile than β-diketonates and provide less carbon contamination even at low oxygen partial pressure. Their volatility is linked to the electron density on the metallic center and the saturation level by ligands as it will condition the tendency to form oligomeric (M(OR)n)m clusters [29]. The oligomerization can however be attenuated, or even suppressed, by using bulky ligand (e.g. isopropoxide (OiPr) or tert-butoxide (OtBu)) [30]. For example, the volatility of zirconium precursor increases in the order Zr(OEt)4 < Zr(OiPr)4 < Zr(OtBu)4, the first being a trimer, the second a dimer, and the third a monomer. Another possible way is to use the alkoxides functionalized with a donor like dimethylaminoethoxide ([OCH2CH2NMe2] often referred to as (dmae)). However, metal alkoxide precursors can be hydrolyzed very easily [31] and some of them are highly toxic. These precursors too have been extensively used for the last two decades in the growth of oxide films like LiNbO3 [32, 33], LaAlO3 [34], YSZ [35], etc.
\nMetal cyclopentadienyl (Cp) precursors show good thermal stability and volatility. However, their η5-bonding mode makes them a considerable source of carbon contamination. They are reactive with water even at moderate temperature and this makes them suitable candidates for ALD processes [36, 37]. Metal alkyl precursors are usually very reactive, toxic, and/or pyrophoric, as well as being a source of heavy carbon contamination in oxide films [38]. Nevertheless, aluminum and zinc alkyls are successfully used in ALD processes to grow Al2O3 from trimethylaluminum (Al2(CH3)6) [39] and ZnO from diethylzinc (Zn(C2H5)2 or DEZ) [40]. On the other hand, metal alkylamides usually have medium volatility and some of them exhibit good stability to hydrolysis. Most of alkylamides can be easily aminolyzed. Thus, they are reliable precursor sources for the growth of metal nitrides. Although they do not have any metal-oxygen bond, high purity oxide films were grown under big oxygen partial pressures by MOCVD [41] and ALD [42].
\nAs briefly presented, different types of metalorganic precursors have their own strengths and weaknesses and the operators should know the deposition temperature before choosing their precursors. Most of β-diketonates will show good yield at high growth temperatures and they will be more resistant to hydrolysis but a synthesis will be inefficient at low temperatures. The alkoxides could be more adapted to depositions at low temperature where the main issue is the carbon contamination. The cyclopentadienyls have shown good efficiency in ALD processes. To overcome limitations of different families of precursors, a number of scientific teams have tailored new precursors combining the good stability of β-diketonates with the high volatility of alkoxides and have shown that the precursors consisting of different types of ligands showed better performance than those with single type of ligands. In fact, Jones et al. [19] showed that Zr2(OiPr)6(thd)2 was more suitable precursor for the growth of Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 at moderate temperatures than the commercially available Zr(thd)4. The influence of precursor structure on GaAs, ZnSe, and AlxGa1−xN film growth was described in detail by Jensen et al. [18].
\nThe theory describing the heat transfer between a gaseous medium and a droplet of liquid is well known and the basics of the evaporation process were given by Maxwell in 1877 [43]. His model for stationary state evaporation [44] assumed that:
The droplet was spherical and without any relative motion with regards to the gas;
The vapor concentration at the surface of the droplet was equal to the saturation concentration; and
The evaporation was an equilibrium process.
However, in the case of droplet evaporation with a low vapor pressure, this model is not sufficient. There are six different models, used to explain vaporizing process at low vapor pressure:
The constant-droplet-temperature model (decreasing linearly as a function of the square of the droplet diameter, d, also called d2 law);
The infinite-liquid-conductivity model;
The spherically symmetric transient droplet-heating (or conduction-limit) model;
The effective-conductivity model;
The vortex model; and
The Navier-Stokes equation solution.
The infinite-liquid-conductivity model is commonly used in modeling of industrial spray processes. In order to simplify the description, this model is based on several assumptions:
A single Lewis number in the gas phase surrounding the droplet and
A negligible transient liquid heating although it would appear to be a governing factor of the droplet vaporization rate [45].
Detailed description of fluid dynamics and transport of droplets and sprays can be found in Ref. [46]. This model was used to describe the fuel droplet vaporization in combustion processes [47, 48]. Although the description of evaporation phenomenon is complex and many assumptions are needed, basically it can be easily understood, that smaller droplets are more easily evaporated. In a heated environment at low vacuum, the heat is transferred through the exchange between the gas and the droplet. Two parameters have to be taken into account: the specific heat capacity, Cp, of the gas and the free surface of the droplet. The surface/volume ratio can be increased by minimizing the radius and evaporation at a given flow rate can be ameliorated by introducing more but smaller droplets. This possibility was not really considered in the first liquid delivery devices, but very quickly the atomization has become one of the major concerns of the injector industry and the key parameter, used to discriminate liquid delivery devices.
\nIn this section, different liquid delivery devices used in DLI-CVD such as capillary tubes, syringes, aerosol delivery systems, and valves and their developments are reviewed in detail.
\nCapillary tubes are one of the simplest ways to introduce a flow of precursor with controlled rate into an evaporator. The liquid drops into a heated zone (either a quartz tube [49] or a stainless steel “tee” [50]) with flowing a neutral gas, or more conventionally, a nebulizer. The principle of this method is based on the capillary effect. The flow inside the capillary is laminar, the liquid in contact with the walls is stationary and there is no radial flow. Thus, the pressure across the cross-section is constant. According to Hagen-Poiseuille law, the flow volume through the tube,
The main advantage of this liquid delivery system is an ability to provide a steady flow of precursors to the vaporizer. However, the substantial drawback is that the flow volume itself can only be tuned by varying the viscosity of the liquid. This means changing the solvent or the concentration of the precursor in the solution, which in turn could affect the quality of the deposition. Borgharkar et al. [50] have even reported that increasing the concentration of Cu(hfac)2, diluted in isopropanol (i-PrOH), led to an unstable flow rate through the capillary due to high viscosity.
\nTo tune the injected flow itself, syringes were used as the precursor vessel, and the process was sometimes referred to as lirect liquid evaporation-CVD (DLE-CVD) [51]. The syringe is placed into a syringe driver, or syringe pump, connected to the capillary tube. The liquid flow is controlled precisely by adjusting the rotational speed of a stepper motor. The multiple precursors can be introduced to the evaporator by means of either multiple syringes and their drivers, or by using their mixture in a single solution. However, this technology is well adapted only to the liquid precursors at ambient temperature and the usage of the precursor solutions may face several issues. Indeed, since the bottom of the capillary tube is in contact with a heated zone, the vapor pressure difference between the diluted solid precursor and the solvent may lead to the evaporation of the solvent with low vapor pressure prior to exiting the capillary. This in turn can introduce a partial/complete clogging of the tip with the precipitated solid precursor and disruption of the solution flow. The usage of heavy solvents may eliminate these issues but it can have a significant impact on the carbon contamination of the deposited layer. A possible solution to this problem was proposed by ASM International by an introduction a three-way valve in order to introduce a carrier gas together with the solution in the capillary system [16]. An example of such system using an advanced syringe-capillary system to control the precursor injection rate, adapted to the synthesis of carbon nanotubes, is presented in Figure 3 [52]. Many different thin films of metals and binary oxides thin were grown using this technique: Cu [50], transparent amorphous Al2O3 [53], ZrO2 [54], TiO2 [55], La2O3 [56], VO2 [57], etc.
\nSchematic representation of a DLE-CVD reactor using a syringe pump associated with a 9″ needle. Reproduced with permission [
Some CVD processes rely on the nebulization, or the atomization of liquid precursors into a “mist”, or an aerosol, which is then brought to the heated substrate by carrier gases. The ultrasonic atomization process takes roots in the Lord Rayleigh’s “
Size of droplets, produced by industrial atomizers, follows a narrow Gaussian distribution and the mean size value depends entirely on the wavelength of the capillary wave, which in turn depends on the frequency of the transducer and the properties of the liquid [58, 59]:
\nwhere \n
Different CVD systems based on aerosol delivery systems have been developed with customized vaporization zones. In the case of AACVD, also referred to as liquid source misted chemical deposition (LSMCD) [63] or liquid source chemical vapor deposition (LSCVD) [65, 66], the precursors or their solution are sent continuously to the reactor where they evaporate in the vicinity of the substrate surface due to high thermal gradient. Although McMillan et al. [67] have reported that in the case of LSCVD, an uniform film deposition could not be achieved on a rotating heated substrate unless a barrier plate was located in the vicinity of its surface, the homogeneous depositions were demonstrated by later developed AACVD systems. A possibility to grow thin films of a large variety of oxides and metals was studied by using an ultrasonic delivery systems. As illustrative examples of AACVD could be:
The deposition of partially reduced tungsten oxide, WO3−x, from polyoxotungstate anions [n-Bu4N]2[W6O19] and [n-Bu4N]4H3[PW11O39] using a PIFCO ultrasonic humidifier [64] and
The growth of nanocomposite of VO2 thin films with embedded cerium dioxide CeO2 and titanium dioxide TiO2 nanoparticles by means of a hybrid method combining the atmospheric pressure (AP)-AACVD using standard Vicks humidifier with a continuous hydrothermal flow synthesis (CHFS) [68].
In the case of pulsed-pressure CVD (PP-CVD) [69] or pulsed liquid injection with an ultrasonic nozzle [70], a small shot of liquid is pushed by an inert gas into the vaporizer through an ultrasonic nozzle (Figure 4), and quickly evaporates [71]. This produces a pressure pulse, and then the chamber is subsequently pumped back to the initial pressure in order to send another shot. High efficiency of deposition process has been achieved by means of PP-CVD [72]. Conventional nebulizer was employed in PP-MOCVD such as Sono-Tek ultrasonic nozzle. PP-MOCVD was used to grow sealing layers of yttria-stabilized zirconia on porous solid oxide fuel cell electrodes [35], tantalum oxide [73], epitaxial titanium dioxide [71, 74, 75], as well as lithium tantalate [76].
\nSchematic representation of a PP-CVD reactor using an ultrasonic nozzle. Reproduced with permission [
The liquid delivery systems in CVD, presented previously, were developed by implementing different industrially available valves. According to the operational mode, valves can be classified into ON/OFF valves and proportional valves. The proportional valve allows very precise control of the opening area via a piezoelectric material, which in return allows for an adjustable flow rate. The ON/OFF operating valve was typically used in the motor industry prior to the 2014 Euro 6 emission standards. In the 1980s, electromagnetic ON/OFF valves, in which a current is applied to the solenoid generating attraction force in order to pull the plunger below up, releasing the valve seat and letting the liquid flow out of the chamber through a very fine nozzle [77], are well known [78, 79] and used in many ON/OFF systems where the control of an injected volume is crucial. In 1993, Sénateur et al. have proposed to use them in a pulsed injection (PI)-MOCVD process [80]. A strong advantage of PI-MOCVD systems is a clear interface between the pressurized environment at ambient temperature where the precursor is stored safely and the low-vacuum atmosphere of the heated evaporator. Thus, the problems related to vapor pressure differences between the solvent and its solute could be mostly overlooked in the case of PI-MOCVD. The injector works as a valve, regulating the flow of liquid introduced in the evaporation chamber and as a nozzle atomizing the flow into tiny droplets.
\nAs explained earlier (see Section 2.2), the dimensions of droplets have a fundamental impact on the evaporation efficiency of the liquid solution. Therefore, there are several key parameters of conventional solenoid injectors defining a quality of atomization: (i) the nozzle geometry (size, number of orifices, and degree of conicity), (ii) the flow regime inside the injector, and (iii) properties of the solution/liquid such as viscosity and concentration. The nozzle geometries and flow regimes have been extensively studied in the fuel injection industry [81, 82, 83, 84, 85]. Most commercially available injectors work in the frequency range between 0.1 and 200 Hz with very small opening times. These characteristics offer a very large working range in terms of injected flow rate and ultimately, in terms of film growth rate. In such injection system, the injection flow rate depends on the concentration and viscosity of the precursor solution, the opening frequency and time of the nozzle, and the pressure difference between the stored solution and the evaporator. Very small opening time ensures the fast evaporation process and helps to avoid the dissociation or premature decomposition of precursors before evaporation. However, it should be noted that the injector may produce instable flow at opening time below 1 ms. It is important to note, that injectors are commanded by computer, which allows digital control of the injection frequency, number of injected droplets, opening time, and consequently thin film growth rate and thickness. As in the case of ultrasonic nozzles, there are usually no corrosion problems inside the injector with organic precursors/solvents, but some applications may require specially coated injectors.
\nIt was shown that the precursors with low vapor pressure can be efficiently used in PI-MOCVD. PI-MOCVD reactors equipped with multiple injectors are used for the growth of multi-element films with controlled composition/stoichiometry, multilayers, nanocomposites and complex nanostructures of superconductors [16], high-κ dielectrics [86, 87], ferroelectrics, conductors [88], etc.
\nAs the solvent can cause a carbon contamination in the films, Kaul and Seleznev [89] have proposed a method to remove the solvent of a solution prior to vaporizing the precursor. In this process, a fiberglass belt is wetted with a controlled amount of solution outside of the evaporation chamber. Then, the tape is brought into a warm zone of the reactor where only the solvent evaporates. The belt with solid precursor is then mechanically carried to a zone where flash evaporation of precursors occurs. Later, the same process has been applied with in situ wetting of the tape with sequential injection of micro-amounts of solution (illustrated in Figure 5) [90]. Although a solvent was introduced like in PI-MOCVD, only a mixture of precursor vapor and carrier gas reaches the substrate. This method may be particularly useful in the synthesis at low temperatures in order to solve carbon contamination issues.
\nSchematic representation of a DLI-CVD furnace using solenoid electrovalves in combination with a moving tape. Reproduced with permission [
An injection system was first commercialized under the JetPulse® name by Jipelec, a division of Qualiflow, and it was later acquired and further developed by AIXTRON® under the name TriJet® [91]. TriJet® evaporators are installed in the latest AIXTRON® ALD machines and have been used in MOCVD processes, called atomic vapor deposition (AVD). In fact, the reproducibility of the commercially available injectors was very poor. To face fluctuations in the partial pressure of the liquid, operators had either to dilute significantly the precursor solution or to lower the injection frequency. Additionally, since the nozzle of the injector is subjected to the heated environment, a premature evaporation of liquid solution trapped inside the injector may happen, which can significantly alter the injection flow rate of diluted solids and clog partially/completely the injector [92]. To overcome these issues, Kemstream® came up with the idea to have a two-stage injection process (Figure 6). The liquid injector introduces a precursor solution into the “mixing chamber”, where a controlled amount of carrier gas is mixed with the precursor solution. A few milliseconds later, the second injector opens and the mixture is injected and atomized into the evaporator. The operator must make sure that there is a short delay between the opening times of two injectors. The most important advantage of double injector is the formation of a homogeneous liquid-gas phase in the mixing chamber. This drastically diminishes the radius of the injected droplets, hence increasing the evaporation efficiency. This method offers a far better atomization of the precursor solution along with the possibility to use even lower vapor pressure precursors than in single-injection systems. Brooks® Instrument also proposes a multiple liquid inlet direct liquid vaporizer system (Figure 6), which injects the solution into a chamber where it is both atomized by sending a carrier gas perpendicularly to the stream and vaporized in contact with a hot gas [93]. Kemstream®’s injector (Figure 7a) can be found on Annealsys® CVD and ALD machines and process are called “direct liquid injection (DLI)-CVD and ALD” [94, 95, 96]. The Brooks® DLI Vaporizer Systems (Figure 7b) were successfully implemented in industrial CVD [97, 98, 99] and ALD [34, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105] processes, as well. The major part of the DLI-CVD industry is dedicated to the deposition of very well known III–V semiconductors, in which HORIBASTEC Liquid Vaporization Systems (Figure 7c) are broadly used [106]. It is also interesting to note that although the latest emission standards pushed the fuel industry to go toward piezoelectric injectors, the piezoelectrically driven injectors and piezo-valves are still very rare in DLI-CVD systems [107].
\nSchematic representation of Kemstream® two-stage injection process.
Kemstream DLI injector plugged into a vaporizing box (a), Brooks DLI vaporizer system (b), and HORIBASTEC liquid vaporization systems (c).
Liquid mass flow controllers appear as a viable option for controlling a rate of a liquid flow, but they cannot be used as a direct liquid delivery unit in CVD systems. The main problem lies in the fact that it delivers a continuous flow of precursors in the evaporator. The process then depends entirely on the ability of the evaporator to vaporize the precursor, which is inefficient without any other atomizing system. The usage of a heated plate would be very unreliable in time. In the case of nebulizers or transducers, the progressive heating of the element leads to a drift in the aerosol flow. On the other hand, the ultrasonic nozzle shows a good reliability in evaporation and a good capability to handle “difficult” precursors. Each nozzle works at a certain frequency dictated by its dimension and it limits the tenability of the feeding rate. To regulate the amount of precursor sent to the substrate, the operator can either dilute/concentrate the solution or limit/increase the flow that comes to the nozzle.
\nInjection systems based on solenoid valves have reached very good performance and technological maturity. Major advantages brought by injection delivery systems are versatility, the digital control of the growth rate and the thickness of the film, and the storage of precursors at ambient conditions ensuring their stability in time. Advanced new-generation injection systems guarantee a controllable and stable feeding rate. DLI-CVD permits to vary and to control easily the composition of complex material film and doping level from sample to sample. Thus, it provides an excellent film composition control (<1%), has low cost, high efficiency, offers high uniformity on large area (<1.5%, up to 12 inch wafers), good conformal step coverage, high flexibility in precursors selection (solid or liquid), atomic control of film thickness (up to 10 Å), and possibility to deposit complex materials and multilayers. DLI-CVD is widely applied in industry of thin films fabrication ensuring high productivity and demonstrating excellent film uniformity and repeatability with high throughput in the CMOS era for a variety of different films including high-k dielectrics, rare-earth oxides, perovskite oxide and chalcogenide, and noble metals.
\nAlthough several solutions were proposed in the literature, the industrial DLI-CVD systems are still not well adapted to the depositions at low temperatures due to issues of carbon contamination originating from organic part of the precursors and the presence of the solvent. Thus, further developments continue on the low-temperature CVD systems assisted by additional energy source such as plasma, UV, etc. Many research teams work on the molecular engineering of the precursor structure including combination of multiple ligands in order to ameliorate the decomposition of precursors at low deposition temperatures. CVD system efficiency and application at industrial scale remains highly dependent on the available precursor quality and reliability.
\nAs described above, direct liquid delivery CVD has taken a profit from the developments in other fields, for example, chromatography, industrial spray coating, and automotive industry. The valves, transducers, liquid mass flow controllers, capillaries, etc. developed for other applications were successfully adapted to the liquid precursor/solution delivery in the CVD reactors. Thus, the advances in liquid delivery systems mainly used in large public applications determine the further developments of CVD systems, as well. The automotive industry has upgraded its fuel injection technology by implementing injectors with piezoelectric nozzles to adapt to the new emission standards. The piezoelectric nozzles react much faster, meaning a faster opening and closure of the valve assuring a better control of the injected flow, and the opening time can be tuned much easier by changing the allocated tension. Probably, all these improvements will be soon implemented in the next generation DLI-CVD systems, which will serve beyond CMOS Era.
\nThe authors are grateful to the French National Research Agency for funding through the grants ANR LiLit (ANR-16-CE24-0022-011), Labex ACTION program (ANR-11-LABX-0001-01), and the EUR EIPHI program (contract no. ANR-17-EURE-0002). This work was partly supported by the French RENATECH network. The authors are also grateful to A. Almirall, S. Kuprenaite, and G. Clementi for the fruitful discussions and corrections.
\nDiseases transmitted by mosquitoes such as malaria, filariasis, dengue, chikungunya, zika and yellow fever, malaria among many others have global importance. By 2050 approximately half of the world’s population is expected to be at risk of arboviral transmission [1]. The rapid increases in the geographic distribution of these mosquitoes and the diseases transmitted by them have contributed significantly to global mortality and morbidity. Vector based interventions are the most common methods to reduce the burden of the most mosquito-borne diseases and a wide range of tools exist which are mainly classified into chemical and non-chemical methods. The chemical methods involve the use of insecticides, Insecticide-treated materials (ITMs) as Insecticide Treated Nets (ITNs), for spraying on indoor surfaces as Indoor Residual Spray (IRS) and among the non-chemical methods, it involves the use of biological and genetic innovations [2]. The basic purpose of vector control is to restrict disease transmission potential by minimizing or eliminating human contact with the vector. To control malaria, in malaria elimination programs the use of Long-Lasting Insecticide Nets (LLINs) and IRS are being used to control the transmission in high malaria endemic areas but due to emerging insecticide resistance, the mosquito vectors does not remain susceptible to these insecticides.
Despite of all these vector control interventions and continuous efforts to control their spread and epidemics, they continue to threat health of billions of people worldwide [3]. However, all these recent vector control methods being used are not able to successfully control the epidemics being spread by different mosquitoes. Thus, the absence of sustainable vector control due to emerging insecticide resistance has led to the development of alternative methods.
To overcome or reduce the population of the vector species of mosquitoes, various methods are being used in the vector control programmes. Till the development of the insecticides, the only method being adopted is the removal of the breeding sites of mosquitoes and use of screens so as to avoid the entry of mosquitoes through doors and windows [4]. Thus, different methods
Name of the method | Insecticides/active materials used | Description | Target mosquito species | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical methods | ||||
Indoor residual spraying (IRS) | Carbamates:- Bendiocarb, propoxur Pyrethroids:- Lambda-cyhalothrin; Alpha-Cypermethrin, Etofenprox Organochlorines:- dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) Organophosphates:-Malathion; Fenitrothion; Pirimiphos-methyl | Kerosene or oil | [5, 6] | |
Insecticidal treated nets (ITNs) [LLINs, ITN–PermaNet] | Pyrethroids:- Deltamethrin, Alphacypermethrin, permethrin, bifenthrin Pyrethroids:- Deltamethrin, permethrin, deltamethrin + Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) | Lasts for 20 washes Coating | [7] | |
Repellents | DMP (Dimethyl phthalate) Allethrin | Surface of fabric | [8] | |
Ultra-low volume (ULV) spray | Organophospahtes- Malathion, fenitrothion; Pyrethroids | Small droplets that float in the air and kill flying mosquitoes on contact. | [9, 10] | |
Larval source management | ||||
Chemical method Insect growth regulators (IGRs) | Isostearyl alcohol, petroleum distillates, Spinosad (spinosyn a and spinosyn d) Methoprene, pyriproxyfen, diflubenzuron and triflumeron | Monomolecular surface films Microcapsules, granules or in briquettes form | [11] [12, 13] | |
Non-chemical methods | ||||
Biological control | ||||
Bacterial larvicides Bacteria Mosquito fish Tilapia- Giant gourami – Carp- Mermithid nematodes— Fungi— | spore-forming bacteria trans-infected into mosquitoes | [14] [15] [16] | ||
Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) | — | Release of these sterile males’ mosquitoes into the wild population. | [17] | |
Genetically modified (GM) mosquitoes | — | Express specific genes, which enhance their immunity against the parasite | [18, 19] |
Different methods for the mosquito control.
Controlling vectors of the major diseases constitute an important part of the global disease elimination and control programs, which if implemented successfully can lead towards tremendous reduction in the disease incidence globally. However, there are several challenges to the vector control strategies, which are outlined below:
One of the foremost challenges to the successful implantation of vector control strategies is the prevalence of high levels of insecticide resistance among vectors against the available insecticides [20]. Insecticide resistance can largely impact the control of adult vector mosquitoes, thereby leading to dire health consequences. Moreover, variation in the susceptibility of mosquitoes to different insecticides is another challenge [21]. Though employment of ITNs and IRS have resulted in the decline of some mosquito vector borne diseases such as malaria; however, insecticide resistance and failure to sustain these interventions can result in reversing the achieved goals [22]. Another challenge is to implement disease-specific vector control programs, as some measures for ITNs and IRS have shown promise in malaria control, but are limited for dengue control [23] due to variation in the ecology of
In addition to this, other challenges in the implementations of vector control programs include issues arising in public health interventions such as limited amount of funds or fair distribution of funds for vector control. Lack of proper surveillance systems pertaining to insecticide resistance and behavior of vectors can also weaken the vector control interventions. Also, the lack of coordination between governmental and non-governmental organizations may influence vector control interventions. Migration of humans and goods pose challenges for vector control as well as disease emergence [25].
The techniques employing pouring of kerosene oil or chemical larvicides are effective in killing the larvae, but this technique suffers a major drawback i.e. its hazardous impact on the environment. In addition, the techniques to eliminate mosquito breeding sites, though are quite effective but these are not possible in areas having irregular water supply and also if these methods are not implemented at the grass root level, then the effectiveness of these techniques is reduced [26].
BTI (dead spores of the soil bacterium
Thus, due to the deleterious effect of these chemical larvicides, development of new vector control products with the epidemiological evidence of their impact on public health must be clearly understood and evaluated by WHO before implementing in the field. Therefore, below different alternative vector control strategies and the studies being carried out are discussed. Such as the release of sterile insects by irradiation, use of
For genetically engineered species, such barriers are clearly higher than for purely biological control strategies like
Technique involving the use of Genetically Modified (GM) mosquitoes for vector control is also a promising strategy offering distinct advantages such as being non-toxic and also avoids the use of chemicals insecticides. However, there are several ethical concerns in the use of GM mosquitoes [30]. In addition, the potential impact of these organisms on the environment also needs to be taken into consideration [31]. Moreover, the technique to generate GM mosquitoes is quite expensive and may not be sustainable for poor endemic countries. The WHO also recommends and calls for further field trials and assessment of risk to evaluate the impact of this technique on transmission of the disease [32].
Recently, the use of green synthesis of nanoparticles has emerged as cost-effective and simple method for vector control. However, there are certain limitations to the large-scale synthesis and their possible impact on the environment. In addition, there is a large gap between the theoretical and the practical implications of this technology. Also, very little information is available on the impact of these nanoparticles on other aquatic organisms [33, 34]. Moreover, many of these nanoparticles have been tested for their acute toxicity non-target organisms or on other aquatic organisms which occur in the same ecological niche as the vector mosquitoes.
The difficulty of attaining eradication is worsened by heterogeneity and the existence of high-transmission hotspots; yet control in low-transmission areas may be easier than projected based on spatially imprecise transmission intensity projections [35].
Another most difficult task will be to make the best use of limited resources (particularly in low-income areas) to have the largest public health benefit. Extrapolation of clinical trial data to forecast population effect of each intervention in a wider variety of contexts and in conjunction with other control methods would require rigorous epidemiological research and mathematical modeling to ensure such optimal deployment. To assess the real-world effectiveness of treatments, rigorous monitoring and assessment are also required [22]. Concomitantly, the political commitment and employment of collaborative vector control strategies is the key to achieve the goal of vector control, thereby, reducing disease transmission and contributing towards disease eradication.
Despite continuous efforts to control vector borne diseases by the use of existing intervention methods, we are unable to control these epidemics as almost 4 billion people are at risk of dengue virus transmission alone [36]. Thus, the present scenario necessitates the development of alternative strategies for the control of mosquito vectors. The rapid spread of insecticide resistance and adverse effects of these chemicals on non-target species strengthen the need to employ novel strategies for mosquito control.
Continuous efforts are being done to improve the current interventions and various new strategies and products are under consideration by the World Health Organization Vector Control Advisory Group (WHO VCAG). The following methods are used to as alternative solutions for mosquito control:
It is the process to decrease the vector competence of pathogens by the genetic manipulation of the insect symbiont. The prerequisite of this technique is that symbiotic organisms must be cultivable and can easily propagate in the vectors. The most common species of bacteria which are found to be susceptible to genetic manipulation in mosquitoes are
In addition to the use of bacteria, in this approach fungal species can be used as it can survive in the environment for months. Moreover it can cause infection in mosquitoes directly through the cuticle and in
These are the chemicals which work in vapor phase so as to prevent contact between humans and vector by making the space unsuitable for the insect. It is predicted that by the use of this technique by the diversion of mosquitoes to non-human host and will also decrease the toxic effect of chemicals to humans and other non-target organisms. In this method, the focus remains to prevent biting by the insect instead of killing it, basically a repellent is developed [42]. This method can be improved by the using novel active chemical components which will have new mode of action and affect the vector by altering the normal vector behavioral patterns. Presently, no evidence is reported regarding the epidemiological impact of this technique. To implement the use of spatial repellents as a tool in vector control, many challenges are yet to overcome as they come at very high cost. Moreover, the use of these repellents requires use of electricity and, therefore, makes them less suitable in less developed areas with high transmission rate. To ease the introduction of the use of these deterrents in vector control programs, their cost must be in concurrence with IRS or LLINs [43].
Many preliminary field studies have been carried out to test the efficacy of two spatial repellents allethrin emanators (ThermaCELL) and metofluthrin emanators (OFF! clip-ons or lamps) which have received more than 70% protection in different studies [44]. The use of these deterrents within push-pull systems ultimately helps the mosquito to push away from human host towards the baited traps. Many studies have been carried with the use of different repellents
Plant-based “natural” smelling repellents are now widely used across the world since plants are regarded as a safe and reliable method to prevent mosquito bites. Because of their high vapor toxicity, many plant volatiles are apt to be insect deterrents or repellents. Phytophagous (plant-eating) insects are protected by compounds found in most of the plants. Repellents, growth regulators, toxins and feeding deterrents are among the substances used [45]. Nitrogenous compounds (mainly alkaloids), terpenoids, proteinase inhibitors, phenolic compounds and growth regulators are the best instances. The volatile components generated by herbivory are currently best recognized for their ability to repel mosquitoes and other biting insects. Volatile odors attach to odorant receptor (OR) proteins on ciliated dendrites of specialist odor receptor neurons (ORNs), which are often found on the antennae and maxillary palps of insects, allowing them to sense smell [46].
The insect repellent qualities of Lemon eucalyptus have been known for millennia and essential oil contains 85 percent citronellal which is significantly more efficient in repelling mosquitoes for many minutes. On the contrary, one of its constituents, para-menthane-3,8-diol, provides excellent protection against a wide variety of insect vectors for a long period of time due to its low vapor pressure. Nanotechnology has lately opened up new possibilities for utilizing eucalyptus extracts successfully [47]. The extract and essential oil of lemongrass are frequently used as repellents, for instance, citronella, at concentrations of 5–10%, and vanillin (5%). Nano-emulsion of citronella oil is prepared to generate stable droplets that promote oil retention and delay the release. Likewise, several field investigations in India have demonstrated that neem-based medicines also have very high effectiveness [48].
Adult mosquitoes can be caught using traps. The carbon dioxide generated when propane is broken down into water might be the attractant. Biting insects, such as mosquitoes, are attracted to the warm water vapors containing carbon dioxide. The insecticide octenol, also known as 1-octen-3-ol, has been used to attract mosquitos up to 30 m away from the trap. Mostly zoophagous mosquitoes are attracted to this attractant. A dim light is used as an attractant in some traps. Because mosquitoes are attracted to light, some mosquito traps include a fan that sucks the insects flying close into a gathering chamber or bag. The trap will collect a large number of other flying insects such as beetles, moths, and flies. Traps are most successful when they are put up, maintained, and operated appropriately. A wind may have an impact on their efficacy. If the trap is placed in an inconvenient area, mosquitoes may attack more frequently. The placement of traps, on the other hand, might be considered as one of the mosquito-prevention strategies [49, 50].
There is no adult mosquito killing or catching mechanism in the system. Mosquito traps that employ UV/visible light attract not only mosquitoes, but also beneficial pollinating insects, inflicting collateral harm. To prevent killing undesirable insects, a larvicide medication package is released; however, attracted insects may generate misleading positive image processing findings. Additionally, removing active traps that need actuators can assist to minimize power usage [51].
The BG-Sentinel (Biogents GmbH, Regensburg, Germany) is another trap for mosquitoes that uses visual, olfactory, and chemical attractants to mimic convection currents formed by the human body. Given its usefulness as a collecting technique for medically importante
It is a new and a promising strategy for mosquito control. In this method, mosquitoes are attracted to Attractive Toxic Sugar Bait (ATSB) solution by spraying it either on plants or in bait stations. ATSB solutions consists of an attractant (fruit or flower scent), a feeding stimulant (sugar solution), and an oral toxin to kill the mosquitoes. The field trial of this method has been carried out for controlling the
The ATSB methods are not only efficacious, easy to perform, and cost-effective but also overcome the drawbacks of contact insecticides [54] by attracting sugar-seeking mosquitoes and utilizing toxins that are non-toxic to humans and safe to the environment for example boric acid.
Currently available insect repellents, such as lotions, roll-ons and sprays do not provide enough long-term protection. They usually need to be reapplied or updated on a regular basis. Encapsulation and liberation of repellents from a variety of matrices have emerged as a viable approach for the creation of repellent-based systems. Various types of repellent controlled-release formulations have been recently developed which have emerged as novel tools for controlling mosquito-borne diseases. These include polymer microcapsules, polymer micelles, polymer microporous formulations, liposomes, nano-emulsions, solid-lipid nanoparticles and cyclodextrins [55, 56].
Personal protection items have been linked to fewer mosquito bites and illness incidence in previous research [57]. Mosquito bite control can be successfully reduced with repellents such as DEET-based soaps [58]. Rodriguez et al. also evaluated the efficacy of several commercially available repellent based controlled release formulations against
The SIT is an ecologically friendly pest management strategy that involves releasing mass-reared sterile males in a particular region to suppress an insect population. There are no progeny when these sterile males mate with females in the wild [62]. The introduction of sterile males in a systematic and recurring manner decreases the target wild insect population over time. The IAEA has been improving the SIT for use against disease-transmitting mosquitoes in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and has tried it on a modest scale in various countries, including Brazil, Cuba, Italy, Mauritius, Mexico, and Germany [17, 63, 64]. Pilot releases on a larger scale are planned as part of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) research and technical cooperation operations, as well as test releases in conjunction with epidemiological studies as part of the IAEA, TDR (Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases), and WHO partnership. Female mosquitos bite and thus spread illnesses, whereas male mosquitos do not bite and thus do not pose a risk of disease transmission. The sterile mosquitoes are likewise unable to reproduce, thus they will not contribute to the increase of the mosquito population. Sterile mosquitoes are typically released via ground, although good results were recently obtained in Brazil using a drone release method developed by the IAEA in collaboration with the FAO and others.
This approach has been used to remove the New World screwworm, tsetse fly, Queensland fruit fly, pink bollworm, melon fruit fly, and other insects. The efficiency of this technique can be further improved by creating better strains for mass production and release, identifying molecular markers to detect the released sterile insects in the field, sterilization and genetic sexing. Distinguishing between released wild and sterile insects is crucial for assessing the performance of the SIT programme [65]. The incorporation of a fluorescent transformation marker into a transgenic insect might aid in the simple identification of released insects. In mosquito species such as
This technique utilizes CRISPR gene-editing tool to spread a genetic modification rapidly through a population than normal rate of inheritance. It can be used to insert a new gene or induce alteration or silencing a particular gene. After the entire drive is inserted into the genome the progeny will inherit the drive on one chromosome and the normal gene on partner chromosome. During development the CRISPER portion cuts the other copy which is repaired using the drive and thus the genome contains two copies of the gene drive. This allows passing the alteration to 100% of the progeny than 50% in the usual case. Gene drives have been proposed to be used against mosquito borne diseases and also reverse insecticide resistance. CRISPR-based HEGs (homing endonuclease genes) have shown close to 100% inheritance rates [67] in both
The main aim of this technique is to prolong the susceptibility of mosquito vectors to insecticides so as to maintain the effectiveness of the vector control interventions. The methods being used under this intervention include rotations, mosaics, mixtures and combinations [71]. Among these methods, rotational use of insecticide is the most common and effective solution for managing insecticide resistance. These methods are still not widely explored for the control of vectors.
To predict the spread of VBDs, pathogens, reservoirs, and vector before the onset of transmission season, mathematical and statistical methods are being prepared. These types of models can help in providing information to public health authorities so that they can plan their vector control interventions accordingly [72]. Mainly two different types of model are used viz. prediction model and importation model. To forecast the spread of disease, their vector in correlation with the climatic factors, prediction model is used [73]. Moreover, to investigate the introduction, movement of disease, vector prevalence in endemic and non-endemic region, the importation model is used [74, 75]. It is presumed that these models can be helpful for advance planning and programming in those regions which will be at risk for the disease outbreak according to the prediction of developed model. But these models have to be continuously updated according to the rate of disease transmission, vector prevalence and rapid changing environmental factors [76].
Reduction of vector population remains the only key strategy for the control of different mosquito borne diseases. Though various methods like chemical, biological and genetic methods are being used to maintain these vector populations below threshold level, still we are unable to control the disease transmission. Thus, to achieve our target especially malaria elimination, the present scenario suggests the urgent need to develop alternative solutions to tackle the problem of insecticide resistance. Recently, many new strategies such as SIT, GM mosquitoes, paratransgenesis, ATSB, gene drives etc. can be explored for their efficacy and make cost effective so that they can be implemented in the vector control programs for the control of mosquitoes.
None.
Long lasting insecticide nets Insecticide treated nets Indoor residual spray Larval source management Monomolecular surface films Insect growth regulators Bacterial larvicides Genetically modified mosquito Sterile insect technology Attractive toxic sugar bait
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Thin films are considered as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices, environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, and so on . The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"17722",doi:"10.5772/23174",title:"Study of SiO2/Si Interface by Surface Techniques",slug:"study-of-sio2-si-interface-by-surface-techniques",totalDownloads:14141,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Rodica Ghita, Constantin Logofatu, Catalin-Constantin Negrila, Florica Ungureanu, Costel Cotirlan, Adrian-Stefan Manea, Mihail-Florin Lazarescu and Corneliu Ghica",authors:[{id:"50919",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodica V.",middleName:null,surname:"Ghita",slug:"rodica-v.-ghita",fullName:"Rodica V. Ghita"},{id:"57132",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Logofatu",slug:"constantin-logofatu",fullName:"Constantin Logofatu"},{id:"57133",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Negrila",slug:"catalin-constantin-negrila",fullName:"Catalin-Constantin Negrila"},{id:"57134",title:"Mrs.",name:"Florica",middleName:null,surname:"Ungureanu",slug:"florica-ungureanu",fullName:"Florica Ungureanu"},{id:"57135",title:"Dr.",name:"Costel",middleName:null,surname:"Cotirlan",slug:"costel-cotirlan",fullName:"Costel Cotirlan"},{id:"57136",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian-Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Manea",slug:"adrian-stefan-manea",fullName:"Adrian-Stefan Manea"},{id:"57137",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihail-Florin",middleName:null,surname:"Lazarescu",slug:"mihail-florin-lazarescu",fullName:"Mihail-Florin Lazarescu"},{id:"101735",title:"Dr.",name:"Corneliu",middleName:null,surname:"Ghica",slug:"corneliu-ghica",fullName:"Corneliu Ghica"}]},{id:"53225",doi:"10.5772/66396",title:"Radio Frequency Magnetron Sputter Deposition as a Tool for Surface Modification of Medical Implants",slug:"radio-frequency-magnetron-sputter-deposition-as-a-tool-for-surface-modification-of-medical-implants",totalDownloads:2266,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"The resent advances in radio frequency (RF)‐magnetron sputtering of hydroxyapatite films are reviewed and challenges posed. The principles underlying RF‐magnetron sputtering used to prepare calcium phosphate‐based, mainly hydroxyapatite coatings, are discussed in this chapter. The fundamental characteristic of the RF‐magnetron sputtering is an energy input into the growing film. In order to tailor the film properties, one has to adjust the energy input into the substrate depending on the desired film properties. The effect of different deposition control parameters, such as deposition time, substrate temperature, and substrate biasing on the hydroxyapatite (HA) film properties is discussed.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Roman Surmenev, Alina Vladescu, Maria Surmeneva, Anna Ivanova,\nMariana Braic, Irina Grubova and Cosmin Mihai Cotrut",authors:[{id:"193921",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Vladescu",slug:"alina-vladescu",fullName:"Alina Vladescu"},{id:"193922",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Surmenev",slug:"roman-surmenev",fullName:"Roman Surmenev"},{id:"193923",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Surmeneva",slug:"maria-surmeneva",fullName:"Maria Surmeneva"},{id:"193948",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Braic",slug:"mariana-braic",fullName:"Mariana Braic"},{id:"194047",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanova",slug:"anna-ivanova",fullName:"Anna Ivanova"},{id:"194048",title:"BSc.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Grubova",slug:"irina-grubova",fullName:"Irina Grubova"},{id:"196398",title:"Prof.",name:"Cosmin Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Cotrut",slug:"cosmin-mihai-cotrut",fullName:"Cosmin Mihai Cotrut"}]},{id:"21157",doi:"10.5772/24330",title:"Compilation on Synthesis, Characterization and Properties of Silicon and Boron Carbonitride Films",slug:"compilation-on-synthesis-characterization-and-properties-of-silicon-and-boron-carbonitride-films",totalDownloads:5194,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"326",slug:"silicon-carbide-materials-processing-and-applications-in-electronic-devices",title:"Silicon Carbide",fullTitle:"Silicon Carbide - Materials, Processing and Applications in Electronic Devices"},signatures:"P. Hoffmann, N. Fainer, M. Kosinova, O. Baake and W. Ensinger",authors:[{id:"56722",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hoffmann",slug:"peter-hoffmann",fullName:"Peter Hoffmann"},{id:"56726",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Kosinova",slug:"marina-kosinova",fullName:"Marina Kosinova"},{id:"56727",title:"Prof.",name:"Wolfgang",middleName:null,surname:"Ensinger",slug:"wolfgang-ensinger",fullName:"Wolfgang Ensinger"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52684",title:"Advance Deposition Techniques for Thin Film and Coating",slug:"advance-deposition-techniques-for-thin-film-and-coating",totalDownloads:7639,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"Thin films have a great impact on the modern era of technology. Thin films are considered as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices, environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, and so on . The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"68467",title:"Semiconductor Nanocomposites for Visible Light Photocatalysis of Water Pollutants",slug:"semiconductor-nanocomposites-for-visible-light-photocatalysis-of-water-pollutants",totalDownloads:1803,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Semiconductor photocatalysis gained reputation in the early 1970s when Fujishima and Honda revealed the potential of TiO2 to split water in to hydrogen and oxygen in a photoelectrochemical cell. Their work provided the base for the development of semiconductor photocatalysis for the environmental remediation and energy applications. Photoactivity of some semiconductors was found to be low due to larger band gap energy and higher electron-hole pair recombination rate. To avoid these problems, the development of visible light responsive photocatalytic materials by different approaches, such as metal and/or non-metal doping, co-doping, coupling of semiconductors, composites and heterojunctions materials synthesis has been widely investigated and explored in systematic manner. This chapter emphasizes on the different type of tailored photocatalyst materials having the enhanced visible light absorption properties, lower band gap energy and recombination rate of electron-hole pairs and production of reactive radical species. Visible light active semiconductors for the environmental remediation purposes, particularly for water treatment and disinfection are also discussed in detail. Studies on the photocatalytic degradation of emerging organic compounds like cyanotoxins, VOCs, phenols, pharmaceuticals, etc., by employing variety of modified semiconductors, are summarized, and a mechanistic aspects of the photocatalysis has been discussed.",book:{id:"7671",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis"},signatures:"Fatima Imtiaz, Jamshaid Rashid and Ming Xu",authors:[{id:"292882",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamshaid",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"jamshaid-rashid",fullName:"Jamshaid Rashid"},{id:"302498",title:"Ms.",name:"Fatima",middleName:null,surname:"Imtiaz",slug:"fatima-imtiaz",fullName:"Fatima Imtiaz"},{id:"308434",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ming-xu",fullName:"Ming Xu"}]},{id:"17728",title:"Defect Related Luminescence in Silicon Dioxide Network: A Review",slug:"defect-related-luminescence-in-silicon-dioxide-network-a-review",totalDownloads:9472,totalCrossrefCites:46,totalDimensionsCites:98,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Roushdey Salh",authors:[{id:"48391",title:"Dr.",name:"Roushdey",middleName:null,surname:"Salh",slug:"roushdey-salh",fullName:"Roushdey Salh"}]},{id:"58469",title:"The Electrochemical Performance of Deposited Manganese Oxide-Based Film as Electrode Material for Electrochemical Capacitor Application",slug:"the-electrochemical-performance-of-deposited-manganese-oxide-based-film-as-electrode-material-for-el",totalDownloads:1736,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The transition metal oxide has been recognized as one of the promising electrode materials for electrochemical capacitor application. Due to the participation of charge transfer reactions, the capacitance offered by transition metal oxide can be higher compared to double layer capacitance. The investigation on hydrous ruthenium oxide has revealed the surface redox reactions that contributed to the wide potential window shown on cyclic voltammetry curve. Although the performance of ruthenium oxide is impressive, its toxicity has limited itself from commercial application. Manganese oxide is a pseudocapacitive material behaves similar to ruthenium oxide. It consists of various oxidation states which allow the occurrence of redox reactions. It is also environmental friendly, low cost, and natural abundant. The charge storage of manganese oxide film takes into account of the redox reactions between Mn3+ and Mn4+ and can be accounted to two mechanisms. The first one involves the intercalation/deintercalation of electrolyte ions and/or protons upon reduction/oxidation processes. The second contributor for the charge storage is due to the surface adsorption of electrolyte ions on the electrode surface.",book:{id:"6083",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",title:"Semiconductors",fullTitle:"Semiconductors - Growth and Characterization"},signatures:"Chan Pei Yi and Siti Rohana Majid",authors:[{id:"197956",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.R.",middleName:null,surname:"Majid",slug:"s.r.-majid",fullName:"S.R. Majid"},{id:"216449",title:"Ms.",name:"Pei Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"pei-yi-chan",fullName:"Pei Yi Chan"}]},{id:"60792",title:"TCAD Device Modelling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductors",slug:"tcad-device-modelling-and-simulation-of-wide-bandgap-power-semiconductors",totalDownloads:2113,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Technology computer-aided Design (TCAD) is essential for devices technology development, including wide bandgap power semiconductors. However, most TCAD tools were originally developed for silicon and their performance and accuracy for wide bandgap semiconductors is contentious. This chapter will deal with TCAD device modelling of wide bandgap power semiconductors. In particular, modelling and simulating 3C- and 4H-Silicon Carbide (SiC), Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Diamond devices are examined. The challenges associated with modelling the material and device physics are analyzed in detail. It also includes convergence issues and accuracy of predicted performance. Modelling and simulating defects, traps and the effect of these traps on the characteristics are also discussed.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Neophytos Lophitis, Anastasios Arvanitopoulos, Samuel Perkins and\nMarina Antoniou",authors:[{id:"236488",title:"Dr.",name:"Neophytos",middleName:null,surname:"Lophitis",slug:"neophytos-lophitis",fullName:"Neophytos Lophitis"},{id:"247344",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Antoniou",slug:"marina-antoniou",fullName:"Marina Antoniou"},{id:"247347",title:"Mr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Arvanitopoulos",slug:"anastasios-arvanitopoulos",fullName:"Anastasios Arvanitopoulos"},{id:"247349",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perkins",slug:"samuel-perkins",fullName:"Samuel Perkins"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"159",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. 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