\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The technology of multiple hydraulic fracture stimulation in horizontal wells has transformed the business of oil and gas exploitation from extremely tight, unconventional hydrocarbon bearing rock formations. The fracture stimulation process typically involves placing multiple fractures stage-by-stage along the horizontal well using diverse well completion technologies. The effective design of such massive fracture stimulation requires an understanding of how multiple hydraulic fractures would grow and interact with each other in heterogeneous formations. This is especially challenging as the interaction of these fractures are subject to the dynamic process of subsurface geomechanical stress changes induced by the fracture treatment itself.
This paper consists of two parts. Firstly, an idealised analytical model is used to highlight some key features of multiple hydraulic fractures interaction, and to provide a quantification of ‘stress shadow’. Secondly, a new non-planar three dimensional (3D) hydraulic fracturing numerical model is used to provide an insight into the growth of multiple fractures under the influence of subsurface geomechanical stress shadows. Attention is given to studying the height growth of multiple fractures.
1. Introduction
Hydraulic fracturing or fracture stimulation establishes conductive fractures hydraulically from a horizontal well in the tight formation/reservoir. They provide large surface area contact with the formation and thus facilitate the production of oil and gas, as evident from the experience in North Americas [1]. Multiple fractures are now placed in sequential stages in horizontal wells. Typically, four or more fractures are pumped simultaneously into a single frac stage, and it is not uncommon to place 20 to 40 frac stages in a single horizontal well. Attempts have also been made to simultaneously fracture two adjacent horizontal wells to generate complex fracture networks thought to be beneficial for production [2, 3].
It is important to consider the changes to subsurface in-situ stresses induced by fracture stimulation. This fracturing induced formation stress perturbation is also called ‘stress shadowing’ and needs to be understood and quantified for optimization and to avoid problems such as fracture ‘screen-out’. Added complexity is caused by the fact that the fractures are created in an extremely tight formation - where the fracture pumping operations are often conducted within a time span that is in the same order of magnitude needed for frac fluid to leak-off and the resultant stress perturbation to completely dissipate. Moreover, the stress perturbation caused by inclusion of millions of pounds of proppant in the formation does not dissipate.
Observations from substantial amounts of field data show that generally 25% or more of the fractures placed are ineffective. In fact, recent fracture stimulation surveillance with advance technologies such as microseismic monitoring and fibre optics temperature and strain sensing [4-6] have shown that multiple fractures do not grow and develop in the same way. Some of the fractures are pre-maturely ‘terminated’ during the treatment. Nonetheless, to increase production, there is a tendency to use longer horizontal wells, place more fractures per stage, longer fractures and more stages of fractures. Consequently, more fractures with closer spacing and larger volumes of frac fluid are employed. This translates to higher pumping rates, higher treating pressure and surface horse power, and consumes more materials (frac fluid, chemicals and proppant). The optimal design of hydraulic fractures clearly necessitates an engineering optimization, considering production, treatment cost and the feasibility of placing these closely spaced conductive fractures in the subsurface. The latter requires knowledge of key parameters such as in-situ stress, rock stiffness and strength, frac fluid rheology and leak-off behaviour, and importantly, the impact of stress shadows on multiple fracture growth in heterogeneous formations [7-13]. Some experts have aimed to provide general guidelines for the design of optimal fracture placement based on simplified analytical models whilst others have developed numerical models of various degree of sophistication to account for multiple fracture interaction and design [14-18].
In-situ stress perturbation can potentially result in the growth of complex non-planar fractures. An analytical model is developed to highlight some of the salient features of multiple non-planar hydraulic fractures interaction. The benefit of using an analytical model is that it provides immediate insights into the controlling parameters on fractures interaction, and guides further numerical analysis for stimulation optimization. Here, we present only the impact of fracture spacing and in-situ stress difference on fracture growth pattern. Other parameters that affects fracture growth pattern are evident from the model, but they will not be described here.
Emboldened by the results of our analytical model, a new numerical model based on rigorous mechanistic formulation has been devised to allow for more realistic solution of field problems. This is a non-planar 3D numerical model, where the interaction of multiple non-planar fractures is captured meticulously by means of boundary integral formulation with dislocation segments solution techniques. In the model, fracture growth and fluid flow equations are solved in a coupled manner via a proprietary, robust and efficient algorithm where mass conservation is strictly observed. This new non-planar 3D model was first described in [19]. It substantially enhances the capability of a plane strain 2D model presented in [7]. The present paper complements the published results [7, 19] and extends to considering fluid viscosity and height growth of multiple fractures.
2. Analytical model
The complete theory of fracture interaction for an arbitrary number of fractures is quite cumbersome. Therefore, a ‘simplified’ analytical model has been developed to describe a set of fractures growing in a viscous mass-transfer dominated regime. In this model, two types of fracture growth patterns are defined. First is the ‘compact’ fracture growth where interaction and interference between fractures are minimum. The second is ‘diffuse’ fracture growth where some fractures will either terminate or collapse into each other because of minimum in-situ stress rotation (Figure 1). In diffuse growth, we distinguish different zones. The first zone is the closest to the well. The next zone, farther from the well, contain less fractures because some of them have either terminated or merged into other fractures, as shown at the right-hand side of Figure 1.
Figure 1.
“Compact” and “Diffuse” fracture growth patterns
The transition from one growth pattern to another is delineated by a ‘critical’ fracture spacing, influenced by the original principal stress difference in the un-fractured formation. In the case of diffuse growth, different zones are depicted by the dashed lines on the right-hand picture of Figure 1. The Average permeability of the fracture set in the zone “n” is given by (see e.g. [20]):
kn=wn312LnE1
where Ln is spacing between the fractures in the “n” zone, and average aperture of fractures in the zone “n” is:
wn=apnERnE2
Here, pn is net pressure, E is Young’s modulus, Rn is a radius of a penny-shape fracture, and a is a numerical coefficient (of approximately 1) and depends on Poisson’s ratio. For simplicity, it is assumed that there is no leak-off of fluid into the extremely tight formation. Therefore, the average fluid density, m, in the fractures becomes:
m=wnρLnE3
Where, ρ is fluid density. Applying the equation of fluid mass balance:
∂m∂t+divρv→=0E4
and Darcy’s law:
vn→=−wn312μLn⋅grad(pn)E5
We obtain an equation for fluid transport in the fractures:
∂∂t(wnLn)−E12μadiv{wn3Ln⋅grad(wnRn)}=0E6
The above Eq. 6 is highly nonlinear and cannot be solved analytically, instead, it is solved by considering the integral relationships and using a modification of the so-called method of successive change of steady states [21]. The essential idea is to solve the steady-state version of Eq. 6 for a given size of the fracture (i.e. without the first term in Eq. 6). Subsequently, the time dependency of fracture radius growth is found from the integral form of mass balance equation, the differential form of which is given by Eqs. 4 and 6. The detail of this solution will be given in a future paper.
Interaction between fractures is governed by the induced stress due to the growing fractures. Solutions for various cases of interacting fractures have been published [22]. Since these solutions are cumbersome, several approximations have been proposed [23], which make the problem more tractable for our present purpose. Following these approximations we can obtain the stress state induced by two neighbouring growing fractures. The induced stress depends on the fracture aperture (or equivalently, net pressure) and a dimensionless ratio of fracture length and the distance between fractures (i.e. the initial fracture spacing).
To appreciate the geomechanical interaction of fractures, see the left side of Figure 2, which depicts a top view of two simultaneously growing fractures. We choose to examine the incremental stress changes in the x and y directions at a mid point in between the fractures, as shown in the figure. The induced stress is obviously not constant in the space between the fractures. But for illustration purpose, we will simply consider the stress evolution at this chosen point to be representative of the stress state of the large area between the fractures. The analytical model on the right side of Figure 2 shows that σx increases with fracture length. Although σy also increases, it does so at a much slower pace than σx. We can now define a deviatoric stress, Δσ = σx-σy, which exhibits a maximum value. It can be immediately observed that if the maximum value of Δσ is greater than the original in-situ stress difference (σH-σh), then rotation of minimum in-situ stress direction is feasible and the fracture(s) would grow in a non-planar fashion. For multiple fracture growth, this will result in the collapse or termination of some fractures.
In the same way, the height growth of multiple fractures may also see similar interaction if Δσ is greater than the original in-situ stress difference between vertical stress and minimum horizontal stress (σV-σh). As fractures grow upward, assuming no stress barrier or contrast is encountered, both σV and σh would typically decrease in magnitude. Potentially, the stress shadowing effect is even more prominent for height growth of multiple fractures. It is interesting to note that field experience does indicate that it is challenging to grow in fracture height for multiple fracture stimulation. A plausible explanation is indeed the ‘stress shadow’ effect caused by geomechanical interaction of multiple fractures.
Although the analytical solution is an approximation, it captures the foremost qualitative features of fracture interaction. One of the first results shows how the in-situ stress contrast influences the domains of fracture growth. Figure 3 shows the results based on the analytical model, where a distinct transition between the two regimes of fracture growth can be identified. Note that in practice, typical fracture spacing is in the order of 70 to 100ft (20-30m). Therefore, according to this simplistic, homogeneous model, today’s multiple hydraulic fracture stimulation practises can potentially experience ‘strong interference’, depending on the stress contrast.
Figure 2.
Interaction between two fractures
Figure 3.
Fracture spacing versus stress contrast
3. Non-planar 3D model of hydraulic fractures
The numerical simulator essentially follows a well accepted numerical methodology [24, 25]. In this numerical framework, the rock mechanics of fracture growth takes place in a linear elastic medium and therefore can be modelled by boundary integral equations based on fundamental solutions of dislocation segments. The fracture growth is controlled by both fracture mechanics criteria and fluid volume balance at the fracture tip. The formulation adequately portrays both viscosity and toughness controlled fracture growth as well as the ‘fluid lag’ behaviour [25]. The proppant laden frac fluid is idealized as an incompressible power-law fluid commonly characterized by parameters K and n:
τ=Kγ˙nE7
Where τ is the fluid shear stress and γ˙ the fluid shearing rate. K and n are termed the consistency index and power law index, respectively. They are naturally dependent on the proppant concentration, and this effect of proppant concentration on fluid rheology is accounted for in the simulator using Shah’s model [27]. The proppant transport and settlement are computed via the transport equation and empirical equations of particles settling between parallel plates [28]. The fluid loss to the formation is described by a Carter type leak-off model [25].
The ensuing flow of proppant laden frac fluid within a fracture is captured according to the Reynolds lubrication theory, and the derived non-linear fracture growth and fluid flow equations are now solved in a coupled manner in which mass conservation (i.e., frac fluid and proppant) are strictly enforced. The equations are discretized on the same structured grid, and they form a system of moving boundary, transient coupled equations of fracture width and fluid pressure. A new adaptive time integration algorithm has been developed to provide numerically stable solutions for a wide range of power-law fluid properties (especially when the viscosity is low).
Although the proppant transport is calculated at each time step based on a volume conservation equation, this computation is decoupled from the process of solving the fluid flow equation for the sake of computational efficiency. Specifically, the fluid pressure and fracture width are first obtained by ‘freezing’ the proppant concentration associated with each element. The contribution of proppant transport to the volume concentration is then updated based on the calculated fluid velocity field. This proves to be effective as well as efficient since the employed time step is generally small.
3.1. Non-planar fracture propagation
In dealing with non-planar fracture growth, the heterogeneous formation is modelled as multiple isotropic parallel layers with heterogeneities characterized by variations in in-situ stress, elastic stiffness modulus, Poisson’s ratio, fracture toughness, pore pressure, leak-off coefficients, and spurt-loss coefficients. All fractures are assumed to be vertical but they can turn in any horizontal direction. For each fracture, the growth direction is determined by the stress state of the leading element at the fracture tip. These assumptions exclude the application for certain geological formations. In particular, geological stress regimes as a result of reverse faulting may present difficulties in modelling as the hydraulic fracture would most likely grow in a horizontal plane. However, the assumptions made are sufficient and adequate for typical deep unconventional resource formations where the vertical stress is generally the maximum principal stress, or at least greater than the minimum horizontal principal stress – resulting in vertical fracture growth.
Fractures advance when the maximum tensile stress ahead of the crack tip exceeds the intrinsic tensile strength of the rock. In linear elastic fracture mechanics, the stress at the crack tip is singular, therefore the stress intensity factor, which correlates to the strength of such a singular stress field, is generally used to determine fracture tip propagation [29]. In practice, hydraulic fracturing processes take place under relatively large compressive in-situ earth stress that is normally several orders of magnitude higher than the rock strength. Therefore, the process is dominated by the balance of the compressive stress and fluid pressure at the fracture tip region. A group of ‘virtual’ elements is placed along the crack front and at each time step a check is made on the stress status of these elements. The virtual elements are allowed to be active as part of the new fracture surface if the potential fluid pressure can overcome the compressive stress plus the strength of the rock.
Importantly, the interaction of multiple fractures may result in significant shearing displacements along the fracture surface, causing the fracture growth to follow a curved path, and the computational technique leads these virtual elements to be oriented according to the stress field so that the local minimum principal stress is perpendicular to the new fracture surface as the fracture front advances.
An outline of the mathematical description of the fracture stiffness matrix, the displacement discontinuity method is given in [19], and will not be repeated here. The numerical approach is robust and efficient but less accurate than the variational boundary integral method which employs second order elements [30, 31]. For the current application, computational efficiency is deemed to outweigh the importance of a moderate improvement in accuracy. [19] also describes the coupling of derived non-linear fracture growth to flow equation and mass conservation.
3.2. Wellbore hydraulic model
The fractures are assumed to be initiated at the specified locations of a cluster of perforations. Near wellbore formation stress concentration is not considered. The downhole pressure is defined as the fluid pressure just upstream of all injection points. It is obvious that the distribution of the corresponding injection at each fracture follows wellbore fluid mechanics, depending on the injection area connected with the fracture and the fluid pressure within the fracture. An approximation is made by using Bernoulli equation to capture the fluid distribution. This wellbore hydraulic model is able to account directly for the empirically derived or calibrated frictional pressure drop at the perforation and along the wellbore. Therefore, it is possible to account for limited entry perforation designs commonly employed in multiple hydraulic fracture design.
4. Comparing simulation results with analytical solution and experiment
The complete validation of a hydraulic fracturing simulator is enormously challenging, because of the difficulty in obtaining the general analytical solutions or constructing realistic laboratory experiments. A carefully conducted laboratory hydraulic fracturing experiment has been published [32]. Figure 4 shows our simulation of the experiment. The comparison is excellent not only in the created fracture geometry, but also the pumping parameters.
Figure 4.
Comparing with experimental result of [32]
5. Frac fluid viscosity and fractures height growth
A single stage of four hydraulic fractures is considered. Parameters chosen broadly resemble a typical shale gas development field case. The horizontal wellbore is placed at the relative depth of 0m as shown in Figure 5. Fracture injection points are spaced at 25m (82ft) apart and each fracture has 12 perforations. Fluid is injected into the wellbore at constant injection rate of 0.2 m3/s (~75 bbl/min). Formation heterogeneities are limited to only in-situ stress variation. In this instance, the minimum horizontal stress gradient is set to 14kPa/m (0.62psi/ft) with no upper stress barrier to restrict height growth. The difference between minimum and maximum horizontal stress is chosen to be more than 20%, so that we do not cause the fracture direction to re-orient drastically. The key parameters are shown in Figure 5. The fluid leak-off factor is set to 1 with no spurt loss.
We consider two cases of distinctly different frac fluids, one with low viscosity (slick water) and the other a very high viscosity (gel frac). This corresponds to setting n = 0.8 and K = 0.05 for the low viscosity fluid case, and n = 0.8 and K = 0.5 for the high viscosity fluid in the power-law fluid model of Equation 7.
The injection parameters and the calculated total fracture volumes are shown in Figure 6. The simulated results are shown in Figure 7. As expected, the low viscosity fluid creates larger fractures with more fracture surface area at the expense of fracture aperture/width. Significantly, the low viscosity fluid creates a much larger fracture height. It is now interesting to see how the multiple fractures evolve in length and height as they compete in the presence of stress perturbation. Figure 8 shows fracture development at the end of the pumping of high viscosity fluid. The outer two fractures grew slightly outward and are longer than the inner fractures. This is due to stress shadowing. Interestingly, the inner two fractures developed more height, and this behaviour will become even more pronounced when we look at low viscosity fluid.
Figure 5.
Formation input parameters for the case studies
Figure 6.
Injection volume and calculated fracture volumes
Figure 7.
Calculated fracture parameters
Figure 8.
Fracture geometry with high viscosity frac fluid at 150 mins
Figure 9.
Fracture geometry of low viscosity frac fluid at 150 mins
Figure 9 shows the final fracture geometry of pumping low viscosity fluid (note that the scale in Figure 9 is different from that in Figure 8). Perhaps against intuition, the inner fractures grew appreciably in height. To understand this, we look at the evolution of fracture length and height growth over time as depicted in Figures 10 and 11. It becomes clear that as the inner fractures are constrained from growing in length because of competition with the outer fractures, they found relative freedom to grow upward instead.
Figure 10.
Fracture geometry of low viscosity frac fluid after 20 mins
Figure 11.
Fracture geometry of low viscosity frac fluid after 40 mins
6. Discussion
At present, multiple fracture stimulations in horizontal wells often assume a uniform growth of all fractures, with the total volume of frac fluid more or less evenly distributed amongst the fractures. We have pointed out some of the potential impacts of stress shadows, which can affect treatment cost and production. Crucially, it has consequences in the understanding of subsurface development. For instance, if, instead of stimulating four fractures uniformly, only two or three of the fractures grow disproportionally, then some of the fractures may be unknowingly over-stimulated, resulting in excessive length or height growth. Normally this does not pose any major issue unless there are near-by wells or geological faults.
The non-planar 3D simulator presented here is capable of capturing the influence of key parameters such as injection rate, fracture spacing, formation properties, etc. on fracture design. Attempts are being made to extend the present numerical framework to include the interaction of hydraulic fractures with natural fractures.
Acknowledgments
The authors recognize the valuable input from Alexei Savitski, Anastasia Dobroskok, Mauricio Farinas, Ernesto Fonseca, Kaiming Xia, and Zongyu Zhai. Permission by Shell International Exploration and Production Inc. to publish is gratefully acknowledged.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/44157.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/44157.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/44157",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/44157",totalDownloads:3775,totalViews:418,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:18,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:94,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 2nd 2012",dateReviewed:"March 14th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 17th 2013",dateFinished:"April 10th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/44157",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/44157",book:{id:"3204",slug:"effective-and-sustainable-hydraulic-fracturing"},signatures:"Sau-Wai Wong, Mikhail Geilikman and Guanshui Xu",authors:[{id:"167209",title:"Dr.",name:"Sau-Wai",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",fullName:"Sau-Wai Wong",slug:"sau-wai-wong",email:"sau-wai.wong@shell.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"168383",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",middleName:null,surname:"Geilikman",fullName:"Mikhail Geilikman",slug:"mikhail-geilikman",email:"mikhail.geilikman@shell.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"168384",title:"Dr.",name:"Guanshui",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Guanshui Xu",slug:"guanshui-xu",email:"alex.xu@frackoptima.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Analytical model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Non-planar 3D model of hydraulic fractures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Non-planar fracture propagation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Wellbore hydraulic model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Comparing simulation results with analytical solution and experiment ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Frac fluid viscosity and fractures height growth",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'United States Department of Energy2009Modern shale gas development in the United States: A Primer.'},{id:"B2",body:'MutalikP. Nand GibsonB2008Case History of Sequential and Simultaneous Fracturing of the Barnett Shale in Parker County. Paper SPE 116124 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, 2124September. DoiMS.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'WatersGDeanBDownieRKerrihardKAustboLMcphersonB2009Simultaneous Fracturing of Adjacent Horizontal Wells in the Woodford Shale. Paper SPE119635 presented at the SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technical Conference, Woodlands, TX, USA, 1921January. Doi:MS.'},{id:"B4",body:'SierraJKauraJGualtieriDGlasbergenGSarkarDJohnsonD2008DTS Monitoring Data of Hydraulic Fracturing: Experiences and Lessons Learned. Paper SPE 116182 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition in Denver, Colorado, USA. September.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'MolenaarM. MHillD. JWebsterPFidanEBirchB2012First Downhole Application of Distributed Acoustic Sensing for Hydraulic-Fracturing Monitoring and Diagnostics. SPE Drilling & Completion, March, 3238'},{id:"B6",body:'MolenaarM. MFidanEand HillD. J2012Real-Time Downhole Monitoring of Hydraulic Fracturing Treatments Using Fibre Optic Distributed Temperature and Acoustic Sensing. Paper SPE 152981 presented at the SPE/EAGE European Unconventional Resources Conference and Exhibition in Vienna, Austria, March.'},{id:"B7",body:'WongS. WGeilikmanMand XuG2013Interaction of Multiple Hydraulic Fractures in Horizontal Wells. Paper SPE163982 presented at the Middle East Unconventional Gas Conference and Exhibition in Muscat, Oman. January.'},{id:"B8",body:'OlsonJ. Eand WuKSequential versus Simultaneous Multi-zone Fracturing in Horizontal Wells: Insights from a Non-planar, Multi-frac Numerical Model, Paper SPE 152602 presented at the SPE Hydraulic Fracturing technology Conference held in the Woodlands, Texas, February, 2012'},{id:"B9",body:'MorrillJ. Cand MiskiminsJ. L2012Optimizing Hydraulic Fracture Spacing in Unconventional Shales. Paper SPE 152595 presented at the SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Conference in The Woodlands, Texas, USA. February.'},{id:"B10",body:'RafieeMSolimanM. Yand PirayeshE2012Geomechanical Considerations in Hydraulic Fracturing Designs. Paper SPE 162637 presented at the SPE Canadian Unconventional Resources Conference in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. October.'},{id:"B11",body:'RousselN. Pand SharmaM. M2011Optimising Fracture Spacing and Sequencing in Horizontal-Well Fracturing. SPE Production and Operations. May, 173184'},{id:"B12",body:'CipollaC. LLolonE. PMayerhoferM. Jand WarpinskiN. R2009Fracture Design Considerations in Horizontal Wells Drilled in Unconventional Gas Reservoirs. Paper SPE 119366 Presented at the SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Conference, The Woodlands, Texas, USA, 1921January. DoiMS.'},{id:"B13",body:'ChengY2009Boundary Element Analysis of the Stress Distribution Around Multiple Fractures: Implications for the Spacing of Perforation Clusters of Hydraulically Fractured Horizontal Wells. Paper SPE 125769 presented at the SPE Eastern Regional Meeting, Charleston, West Virginia, USA. September.'},{id:"B14",body:'ManchandaRand SharmaM. M2012Impact of Completion Design on Fracture Complexity in Horizontal Wells. Paper SPE 159899 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition in San Antonio, Texas, USA. October.'},{id:"B15",body:'BungerA. PZhangXand JeffreyR. G2012Parameters Affecting the Interaction Among Closely Spaced Hydraulic Fractures. SPE Journal. March, 292306'},{id:"B16",body:'OlsonJ. E2008Multi-fracture Propagation Modeling: Applications to Hydraulic Fracturing in Shales and Tight Gas Sands. Paper ARMA 08327presented at the 42nd US Rock Mechanics Symposium in San Francisco, California, June, 2008.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'WuRKresseOWengXCohenCand GuH2012Modeling of Interaction of Hydraulic Fractures in Complex Fracture Networks. Paper SPE 152052 presented at the Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Conference in The Woodlands, Texas, USA. February.'},{id:"B18",body:'MeyerBand BazanL. W2011A Discrete Fracture Network Model for Hydraulically Induced Fractures- Theory, Parametric and Case Studies. SPE 140514. SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Conference, 2426January 2011, The Woodlands, Texas, USA'},{id:"B19",body:'XuGand WongS. WInteraction of Multiple Non-Planar Hydraulic Fractures in Horizontal Wells, Paper IPTC-17043 presented at the International petroleum technology Conference in Beijing, China, March 2013'},{id:"B20",body:'JaegerJ. CCookN. G. Wand ZimmermanR. W2007Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics. Blackwell Publishing, 4th edition.'},{id:"B21",body:'BarenblattG. IEntovV. Mand RyzhikV. M1984Theory of Fluid Flows through Natural Rocks, Kluwer Academic Publishers.'},{id:"B22",body:'SneddonI. Nand LowengrubM1969Crack Problems in the Classical Theory of Elasticity, John Willey & Sons, Inc.'},{id:"B23",body:'WarpinskiN. Rand TeufelL. W1987Influence of Geologic Discontinuities on Hydraulic Fracture Propagation, Journal of Petroleum Technology, February.'},{id:"B24",body:'AdachiJSiebritsEPeirceAand DesrochesJ2007Computer simulation of hydraulic fractures, Int. J. of Rock Mech. Mining Sci. 44739757\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'CliftonR. J1989Three Dimensional Fracture-Propagation models, in: Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing, Editors: Gidley, J.L., S. A. Holditch, D.E. Nierode, and R.W. Veatch, Mono- graph Series, SPE.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'SiebritsEand PeirceA. P2002An efficient multi-layer planar 3D fracture growth algorithm using a fixed mesh approach, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Eng., 53691717'},{id:"B27",body:'ShahS. N1993Rheological Characterization of Hydraulic Fracturing Slurries. SPE Production and Facilities. May, 123130'},{id:"B28",body:'ValkoPand EconomidesM. J1995Hydraulic Fracturing Mechanics, Wiley, Chichester.'},{id:"B29",body:'DesrochesJDetournayELenoachBPapanastasiouPPearsonJ. R. AThiercelinMand ChengA. H-D1994The crack tip region in hydraulic fracturing, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 447, 39-48 (1994).'},{id:"B30",body:'XuG2000A Variational Boundary Integral Method for the Analysis of Three-Dimensional Cracks of Arbitrary Geometry in Anisotropic Elastic Solids., J. Appl. Mech., 67403408'},{id:"B31",body:'XuGand OrtizM1993A Variational Boundary Integral Method for the Analysis of 3-D Cracks of Arbitrary Geometry Modeled as Continuous Distributions of Dislocation Loops, International Journal of Numerical Methods of Engineering, 3636753702\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'WuRBungerA. PJeffreyR. Gand SiebritsE2008A Comparison of Numerical and Experimental Results of Hydraulic Fracture Growth into a Zone of Lower Confining Stress. Paper ARMA 08267presented at the 42nd US Rock Mechanics Symposium and 2nd U.S.-Canada Rock Mechanics Symposium, San Francisco, California, USA. June.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sau-Wai Wong",address:null,affiliation:'
Shell Exploration and Production Inc., Houston, Texas, USA
FrackOptima Inc., and The University of California Riverside, California, USA
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1. Introduction
The process of deposition of oxide layer on the surface of metals is called corrosion. It usually occurs when metal is exposed to moisture or water and gases such as dioxygen, dihydrogen, dichloride, hydrogen sulfide. It is a spontaneous chemical reaction with a slow rate. It usually occurs over days or weeks, and as a result of corrosion, the refined metal is turned into a more stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. The net worth of the corrosion prevention industry was estimated to be around $2.5 trillion (USD) in 2018 and is expected to cross $3.0 trillion (USD) by 2022, as per the National Association of Corrosion Engineers [1, 2]. The electrochemical phenomenon of degradation of material over course of time due to exposure toward the environment is called corrosion. Common types of corrosion for rusting of steel and internal polymeric pipeline are wet corrosion and dry corrosion [3]. In today’s world, corrosion is no longer merely a chemical degradation of metals, but also of semiconductive materials, insulating materials, and polymeric materials after exposure to the environment. It is a surface phenomenon, where at the material surface formed oxide or hydroxide or sulfide layer [4].
Mild steel is a low-priced material with properties that are suitable for most general engineering applications. That’s why it is high in demand, but it contains very poor corrosion resistance. Corrosion produces very harmful effects on commercial industries such as paper mills, oil, and gas construction, and electronics used in a multitude of processes. When materials and structures are attacked by corrosion, they lose many of their useful properties. Some useful tools and machinery made from metal can become useless because of corrosion, many disaster situations such as chemical plant leaks, bridges can collapse and oil or gas pipelines can break and can produce a dangerous effect on the life of human beings. They also produce economical losses. Acid pickling is used for removing the impurities, scale, and sludge deposits on the metal surface. Acid pickling contains strong acid due to this, that process may cause a great economic loss. In the presence of inhibitors, the rate of acidic attack decreases on the metallic surface and it prevents metallic corrosion [5]. Decades of years many organic inhibitors, for example, phosphate esters, quaternary ammonium salts, amidoethyl imidazolines, as well as an inorganic inhibitor, for example, sulfate of Mg, Mn, Ni, and Zn are being used. Corrosion of steel has been inhibited by them. These types of inhibitors are generally costly and toxic and they might be harmful to the living organisms that is why the study of eco-friendly and non-toxic green inhibitors is important to prevent steel from corrosion nowadays. Natural corrosion inhibitors are biodegradable, non-toxic eco-friendly, and low cost. Phytochemical substances obtained from plants that reduce corrosion reaction rates are termed inhibitors. The plant extract is organic in its nature, and it contains secondary-metabolized compounds such as alkaloids, amino acids, pigment, and flavonoids etc behave like inhibitors.
These types of natural products contain N, O, S, and multiple bonds so that their lone pair electrons or pi-electrons are adsorbed on the metal surface and form a protective layer to prevent metal from corrosion.
The experimental outcomes come from weight-loss study and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy studies and to support a better understanding of the adsorption of phytochemicals, computational studies were needed to operate. The quantum chemical calculations have been performed as a part of computational studies. It is well known that plant extract contains more than one phytochemical constituent. In this computational evaluation, we chose the phytochemicals present in the plant extract. The selected molecules or phytochemicals have been operated using density functional theory (DFT) using Gaussian 09 program. To decide the intensity and interaction properties of phytochemicals molecules on the metal surface Fe (110), Monte Carlo (MC), and molecular dynamics (MD) have been carried out.
2. Corrosion
Corrosion is a surface process where the oxide layer is formed on the surface of the metal. There is various types of corrosion such as oxidation corrosion, corrosion by other gases such as Cl2, SO2, H2S, NOx, liquid metal corrosion, differential metal corrosion, differential aeration corrosion, crevice corrosion, and pitting corrosion. If we discuss pitting corrosion as an example, it is due to the formation of small holes or pits on the metal surface. Pitting corrosion is highly destructive as pits are very small to be observed and usually covered with corrosion products. The pitting corrosion is the result of depassivation of a small area on the metal surface, which acts as an anode, while the rest of the undefined and large surface acts as a cathode. It is preceded by a spontaneous galvanic reaction with very limited diffusion of ions (Figure 1) [6].
Figure 1.
Corrosion in water pipeline.
2.1 Electrochemical aspects of corrosion
Most of the metals that we humans commonly use are unstable in the atmosphere as they were obtained from respective ores by artificial reduction through a chemical process. Thus, such metals undergo a reaction very easily to get converted into a stable form. The chemical reactions that do not require any external medium or reagent like energy or catalyst to proceed but occur on their own are called as spontaneous reactions. For spontaneous reactions, the formed products are more stable than reactants. The value for change in Gibb’s free energy is always negative, and change in enthalpy is also negative, while the change in entropy is positive for such reactions.
The reactions in which oxidation and reduction both occur simultaneously are called as redox reactions. Corrosion also involves a redox reaction in which one specie or metal or part of the metal is oxidized and it acts as an anode, while the other specie or metal or part of the metal is reduced and acts as a cathode. At anode loss of electrons takes place and loss of mass occurs, while at cathode gain of electron takes place and deposition of corrosion products occurs.
The most primitive corrosion is where anodic oxidation reactions involve a pure iron when it is exposed to a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid. The reaction occurs with the formation of bubble violently. It is given as follows:
Fe+2H++Cl2−→Fe+2+Cl2−+H2↑E1
Fe+2HCl→FeCl2+H2↑E2
Another example is the exposure of iron toward moisture or water (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Anode and cathode formation.
Fe→Fe2++2e−E3
O2+H2O+4e−→4OH−E4
Fe2++2OH−→FeOH2E5
Fe3++3OH−→FeOH3E6
Some other reactions involve in the formation of anode and cathode that leads to corrosion are given below.
Examples of anode reactions:
Zns→Zn+2aq+2eE7
Als→Al+3aq+3eE8
Fe+2s→Fe+3aq+eE9
An examples of cathode reaction:
H+aq+e→1/2H2gE10
Corrosion reactions are often electrochemical in nature. The reaction is time-consuming and may take few weeks to months to occur, it is a time and temperature-dependent reaction.
If corrosion reactions occur in aqueous media, then they are similar to that of Leclanche cell. As shown in Figure 3, a zinc container act as an anode, it gets oxidized. Graphite rod coated with carbon and MnO2 paste acts as a cathode, it gets reduced, whereas both anode and cathode are joined by means of NH4Cl and ZnCl2 paste that serves the role of electrolyte. The greater the flow of electrons, the greater is the corrosion of the zinc electrode [7, 8].
Figure 3.
Dry cell components.
2.2 Local cell formations
2.2.1 Dissimilar electrode cells
When two dissimilar metals come in direct contact with each other and an electrolytic substance is present between them, then dissimilar electrode cells are formed. It is basically a Galvanic cell, for example, we have a Daniel cell in which zinc and copper are in contact. In daily life, a copper pipe connected to a steel pipe provides an example of this type of corrosion cell. This cell is also referred to as galvanic coupling cell, the less noble metal becomes the anode whereas others act as a cathode (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Daniel cell.
2.2.2 Concentration cells
When two similar electrodes dipped in solutions of different compositions come in contact, then concentration cells are formed. The electrode dipped in dilute solution acts as an anode, while the electrode that is in contact with concentrated solution acts as a cathode (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Concentrated cell.
2.2.3 Differential aeration cells
When two similar electrodes exposed to different aeration conditions come in contact with one another, then differential aeration cells are formed. The electrode exposed to lesser aeration conditions will act as an anode, while the electrode exposed to higher aeration conditions will act as a cathode. This type of corrosion is very common and is responsible for the significant economic loss (Figure 6) [9, 10].
Figure 6.
Differential aeration cell.
3. Natural corrosion inhibitors
Natural corrosion inhibitors reduced or controlled the rate of corrosion by the addition of a natural product in cleaning or pickling solution. It reduces the rate of corrosion either by inhibiting oxidation at the anode or inhibiting reduction at the cathode, or both. It forms a protective layer at the metal surface, either by physical (means electrostatic attraction between natural product and metal surface) adsorption or chemisorption (means coordination bonds between natural product and metal surface).
Studies of natural corrosion inhibitors are one of the methods for protecting metal from corrosion. So here I am discussing a specific plant C. microphyllus as a natural corrosion inhibitor.
3.1 Experimental studies
3.1.1 Preparation of materials
The C. microphyllus is a hairy herb from the Convolvuaceae family, which is also known as Shankhpushpi and wind weed. The leaves are linear to oblong, small, and subsessile. About 1–3 flowers are produced, which are stalked. It is easily available all over the world. C. microphyllus contains alkaloids kaempferol, and p-hydroxycinnamic acid as its main phytochemical constituent [11, 12]. Figure 7 shows the image of C. microphyllus aerial parts and its main phytochemicals.
Figure 7.
(a) C. microphyllus and their main chemical components, (b) Kaempferol, and (c) p-hydroxycinnamic acid.
The soxhlet apparatus is used for plant extraction. Fresh C. microphyllus aerial parts were collected from our surrounding and then put them in a shaded area for few days, and after drying them properly, they were grinded to convert into powder material. Now, the powder was packed in a soxhlet apparatus and refluxed for 72 hours; then, the diluted extract was collected in the round bottom flask and transformed into a gel like extract by distillation. In the next step, the gel extract is kept in the desiccators packed with silica for few days so that the extract converts into solid extract without moisture. After that, it is preserved in other desiccators for experimental studies.
In this work, for weight loss measurement and electrochemical impedance studies a piece of 1 cm2 dimension is taken as a sample. These samples were mechanically polished with emery paper of different grades and subsequently cleaned with acetone, once again clean distilled water before inserting them into the pickling or cleaning solution. Here for study of C. microphyllus diluted solution of conc. H2SO4 having a molarity of 0.5 is used as a corrosive medium (Figures 8 and 9).
Figure 8.
Soxhlet apparatus.
Figure 9.
Desiccators.
3.1.2 Weight loss studies
The best method for this measurement is the ASTM standard G 31–72 [13]. In this method, all measurements are carried out at room temperature in the thermostat. Here minimum three times repeating the same measurement for the average value. The weight loss values, surface coverage (θ), inhibition efficiency (η%), and corrosion rate (CR) are shown in Table 1 at different concentrations of C. microphyllus extract for mild steel. At different concentrations of C. microphyllus extract, the value of weight loss, surface coverage (θ), inhibition efficiency (η%), and corrosion rate (CR) for mild steel were calculated by equations that are as follows:
Inhibitor concentration (mg/L)
CR (mmy−1)
Efficiency (IE %)
Surface coverage Θ
0
11.33 ± 0.12
—
—
100
3.67 ± 0.17
67.55
0.6755
200
3.08 ± 0.28
72.74
0.7274
300
2.42 ± 0.37
78.59
0.7859
400
1.89 ± 0.21
83.27
0.8327
500
1.55 ± 0.31
86.31
0.8631
600
1.35 ± 0.13
88.08
0.8808
Table 1.
Corrosion rate and efficiency of mild steel in 0.5 M H2SO4 absence and presence of C. microphyllus for 24 hours at room temperature.
CR=K×WA×t×ρE11
IE%=CR−0CRiCR0×100E12
θ=CR−0CRiCR0E13
where,
CR = corrosion rate (mmy−1)
W = weight loss of iron alloy (g)
K = 8.76 × 104 (constant)
ρ = 7.86 g cm−3 (density of Fe)
t = immersion time (h)
A = area of the iron alloy coupon
θ shows surface coverage values.
CRi shows the corrosion rate with inhibitor.
CR0shows the corrosion rate of the iron alloy without the inhibitor.
From the above data, it is clear that the concentration of C. microphyllus extract is inversely proportional to the rate of corrosion, which is used as an inhibitor. Adsorption of active phytochemicals of C. microphyllus extract occurs on the surface of mild steel, which reduces the surface area available for corrosion that is why the rate of corrosion decreases. The highest inhibition efficiency 88.08% is obtained at 600 mg/L.
3.1.3 Electrochemical measurements
An electrochemical workstation is used for the electrochemical measurement. The workstation is made up of three electrodes: (a) the working electrode of metal which works like anode (b) saturated calomal electrode as the reference electrode work like cathode, and (c) platinum electrode as the counter electrode for collect current. In this measurement, metal or alloy was immersed in cleaning or pickling solutions and different concentrations of C. microphyllus aerial part extract were added immersed for a specific time. At room temperature, the values of the open circuit potential (OCP) were noted with respect to the reference electrode. The scanning frequency from 100 kHz to 0.01 Hz is used for recording the Nyquist plot. A 5 mV signal amplitude perturbation at OCP was considered in EIS measurement. The authentic values were taken after three-time repeat measurement.
In Figure 10 shown Nyquist plot explained that 600 mg/L C. microphyllus extract provided larger radius semicircles. The diameter of the capacitive loop was enlarged by increasing C. microphyllus extract concentration, highest at 600 mg/L explaining also the highest inhibition effect. The radiuses of the semicircles in the case of using the C. microphyllus extract were larger than the blank. Because of same shapes of semicircles, it means the mechanism is not change. Calculated EIS results from the following equation provided the percentage inhibition efficiency of bio-inhibitor in the electrolytes [14]:
Figure 10.
Nyquist plot of mild steel in 0.5 M H2SO4 solution in the absence and presence of C. microphyllus extract.
IE%=Rct−Rct0Rct×100E14
where, Rct and Rct0 represent the charge transfer resistance in inhibitor and blank, respectively [15].
From Table 2, it is clear that maximum inhibition efficiency of 89.87% was obtained at 600 mg/L of C. microphyllus extract, where the highest Rct value was 155.13 [15]. In Table 3, value of the double-layer capacitor (Cdl) gradually decreasing means protective layer gradually form at the metal surface [16].
Concentration of inhibitor (mg/L)
Rct (Ω cm2)
fmax (Hz)
Rs (Ω cm2)
Cdl (μF cm−2)
N
Efficiency (IE %)
Θ
0
15.71
37.60
1.22
269.49
0.57
—
—
100
49.98
12.88
0.65
247.43
0.67
68.56
0.6856
200
72.58
9.46
1.63
232.19
0.68
78.35
0.7835
300
76.40
9.46
2.26
220.21
0.73
79.43
0.7943
400
104.60
7.22
0.78
211.34
0.82
84.98
0.8498
500
117.09
6.64
1.18
205.05
0.88
86.58
0.8658
600
155.13
6.64
1.68
155.15
0.91
89.87
0.8987
Table 2.
EIS parameters of mild steel in 0.5 M H2SO4 without and at different concentrations of C. microphyllus at 298 K.
Adsorbate
EHOMO
ELUMO
ΔEL-H
A
I
χ
H
∆N
Hydroxycinnamic acid
−6.226
−1.996
4.230
1.996
6.226
4.111
2.115
0.1676
Kaempferol
−6.005
−2.000
4.005
2.000
6.005
4.002
2.002
0.2042
Table 3.
The HOMO and LUMO energies (eV), ELUMO-EHOMO energy gap (ΔEL-H), electron affinity (A), ionization potential (I), electronegativity (χ), hardness (η), and a fraction of electrons transferred (∆N) for extract compounds.
3.2 Computational studies
3.2.1 DFT optimization
For the evaluation of electronic features of C. microphyllus extract molecules (including hydroxylcinnamic acid and kaempferol shown in Figure 11), the structures were initially optimized by density functional theory (DFT) using Gaussian 09 program. Optimization was done via widely used functional of B3LYP, which was combined with 6-311G** basis function. By a combination of SCRF theory and PCM formula, these calculations were continued in the liquid phase. After optimization, the following properties were analyzed: graphics, energies, and gap of molecular orbitals of highest occupied and lowest unoccupied (HOMO, LUMO, EHOMO, ELUMO, and ELUMO-EHOMO = ΔEL-H) and partial charges [17].
Figure 11.
The B3LYP/6-311G** optimized geometry, HOMO, and LUMO of kaempferol and hydroxycinnamic acid compounds.
Electronic level calculations (i.e., DFT) were performed so as to obtain insights into the reactive sites of hydroxylcinnamic acid and kaempferol molecules. The optimized hydroxylcinnamic acid and kaempferol geometries resulted from chemical DFT calculations are plotted in Figure 11. For these energy-minimized geometries, the analysis of frontier orbitals was done as these orbitals play a crucial role in donor-acceptor interactions of inhibiting extract molecules. The HOMO and LUMO pictures of hydroxylcinnamic acid and kaempferol are provided in Figure 11. As displayed, the phenyl ring, carbonyl/hydroxyl O atoms, and ethylene bond of hydroxylcinnamic acid appeared in the role of HOMO implying their strong electron supplying affinity toward a potential electron acceptor, for instance metal atoms containing unoccupied orbitals. According to the LUMO plot, all carbon and oxygen atoms of hydroxylcinnamic acid contributed to LUMO distribution, which is a signification of their tendency for getting electrons provided by filled orbitals of metal atoms. In the case of the kaempferol compound, it is seen that the HOMO placed over the entire aromatic heterocyclic skeleton and on the other hand the carbon as well as oxygen atoms behaved as reactive LUMO locations. As a consequence, the kaempferol component is able to involve in electronic interactions (i.e., donor-acceptor) with the metal surface through the donation of electrons (lone pair in hydroxyl/carbonyl O and π electrons of heterocycles) and receiving of electrons from filled iron orbitals by its C and O atoms. The eigenvalues of HOMO/LUMO and the energetic gap of frontier orbitals were examined, and the quantitative results are tabulated in Table 3 for hydroxylcinnamic acid and kaempferol. From this table, it is evident that the kaempferol species have higher EHOMO and lower ELUMO in comparison with the other compound (i.e., hydroxylcinnamic acid). These results suggest the stronger electron donation and receiving capacity of kaempferol. In addition, the optimized kaempferol molecule owned a lower energetic gap (ΔEL-H), an observation reflecting better electron sharing and subsequent stronger corrosion inhibition manner of this compound of C. microphyllus extract. This trend of DFT calculated electronic parameters and simulated adsorption energies discloses the stronger kaempferol interactions and adsorption on the steel surface leading to its more effective corrosion prevention influence as compared with the inhibiting molecule of hydroxylcinnamic acid [18, 19].
The electrophilic/nucleophilic interactions of studied molecules are summarized in Figure 12. From the given pictures, it is obvious that the electrophilic nature of hydroxylcinnamic acid is graphically distributed on benzene ring and double bond of carbon atoms (with a rich source of π electrons) and heteroatom of O (owing lone pair electrons). These electrons could be donated to an appropriate acceptor of electrons like metal atoms that are composed of empty orbitals. Moreover, similar to LUMO distribution, almost all carbon atoms along with three O heteroatoms are the most reactive sites for nucleophilic behavior clarifying electron getting affinity of these atomic sites. Also, the electrophilic interactions of equilibrated kaempferol compound could likely happen via its electron-rich places including heterocycles and the oxygen atoms of surrounding oxygenated fragments. On the other side, the O and C atoms of the whole backbone could accept electrons when attacked by a nucleophile [20, 21].
Figure 12.
The simulated Fukui indices of kaempferol and hydroxycinnamic acid compounds.
3.2.2 Molecular simulations
The hydroxylcinnamic acid and kaempferol adsorption and their interactions with the substrate (i.e., steel) were examined applying molecular simulations. These atomic simulations include Monte Carlo (MC) and molecular dynamics (MD). For the representation of steel substrate in these simulations, the frequently applied iron surface Fe (110) was used. The thickness, vacuum region, and periodic replication of this surface were set as 1.5 nm, 4 nm, and (14 × 14), respectively. To examine the adsorption preference of extract components, which are output from DFT calculations, on the iron substrate the MC-based simulation was carried out by adsorption Locator module (Materials Studio software). The MC simulations convergency was controlled with a level of fine. The last cell with the lowest potential energy generated by MC was the starting simulation box of the next modeling, that is, MD. For performing this simulation in solution phase-like experiments, water molecules were also added to the MC-generated cell. Thereafter, an optimization of 20,000 steps and NVT MD simulation of 1 ns were successively performed via COMPASS force field and Forcite module. The time step and temperature of NVT were set as 1 fs and 298 K. The electrostatic interactions of hydroxyl cinnamic acid and kaempferol were modeled by the Ewald scheme along with their charges calculated by DFT. The interactions of van der Waals form were evaluated by the atom-based cutoff. All metal atoms of the substrate were kept fixed [22, 23].
3.2.3 Molecular simulation
Simulations at molecular scale namely MC and MD were conducted for the analysis of the ability of C. microphyllus extract molecules adsorption above the metal surface (Fe (110)). The equilibrated cells of hydroxyl cinnamic acid and kaempferol generated by MC-based molecular simulations are displayed in Figure 13. The depicted MC snapshots clearly demonstrate that the C. microphyllus extract species have the ability of approaching and adsorption to iron surfaces. It is observed from the presented top views that hydroxylcinnamic acid and kaempferol adsorption on the surface happened through preferred flat orientation. The aromatic backbones of these adsorbed C. microphyllus extract molecules aligned parallel relative to the outmost iron atoms. The adsorption of hydroxylcinnamic acid and kaempferol took place with energies of −96.65 and − 165.51 kcal/mol, respectively. The adsorption energies of hydroxyl cinnamic acid and kaempferol with negative values further declare their adsorption over the steel substrate. The molecular adsorption was more evaluated through conducting liquid-phase dynamics (MD) simulations. The resulting snapshots of such simulations for hydroxyl cinnamic acid and kaempferol compounds are depicted in Figure 13. The obtained side views of ultimate simulation snapshots indicate that the chosen C. microphyllus extract compounds equilibrated in the vicinity of the crystalline surface (i.e., Fe (110)) under the wet conditions of the interface. This observation points to the fact that hydroxyl cinnamic acid and kaempferol as organic constituents of the green extract could bind to the surface of iron even in the presence of water molecules. Such surface adsorption affinity was quantified by corresponding adsorption energy values. The energies related to hydroxyl cinnamic acid and kaempferol adsorption were estimated as −137.53 and −208.02 kcal/mol, respectively. The negative MD-calculated adsorption energies further reflect the adsorption propensity of extract components on the metallic adsorbent. In summary, the MC and MD snapshots together with predicted adsorption energies propose that the C. microphyllus extract compounds of hydroxyl cinnamic acid and kaempferol are capable of adsorbing on the steel substrate. The surface adsorption enables the organic extract molecules to form corrosion-preventing films over the surface, which is in support of experimental results [24, 25].
Figure 13.
The final snapshots of kaempferol and hydroxycinnamic acid compounds over Fe (110) surface obtained from MC and MD simulations.
4. Conclusion
This chapter covers the corrosion problem and due to corrosion worldwide loss. This chapter discusses the importance of mild steel and discusses corrosion as a spontaneous electrochemical process. This chapter also explains of formation of different type of cells, due to different types of conditions, then start electrochemical corrosion process at the anode. In this chapter, I have discussed new developments as an example of natural corrosion inhibitor C. microphyllus, here I have discussed preparing inhibitors and explain experimental methods such as weight loss and electrochemical study for calculating their corrosion inhibition efficiency. After that, I have discussed computational studies of their main phytochemicals with help of DFT, molecular simulations, and molecular simulation to understand their relative adsorption properties.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"adsorption, spontaneous reaction, natural inhibitors, electrochemical study, computational study",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78983.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78983.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78983",totalDownloads:141,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"July 29th 2021",dateReviewed:"September 17th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 16th 2021",datePublished:"July 27th 2022",dateFinished:"October 15th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Worldwide, corrosion causes the value of the gross domestic product to decrease in industrialized countries by 4.26% and causes significant losses to industries including infrastructure. As a result, corrosion prevention and research related to it are extremely important. Some researchers are working to develop plant-based natural corrosion inhibitors, and experimental and computational studies are being conducted widely to prevent corrosion through cheap and environmental friendly coatings. A case study of Convolvulus microphyllus (C. microphyllus) extract was examined as eco-friendly for bio-corrosion inhibitor of mild steel in 0.5 M H2SO4 by using conventional weight loss, electrochemical polarization measurements, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques. The compounds responsible for decreasing the rate of corrosion are kaempferol and phydroxycinnamic acid present in the extract. This inhibitor slows down the corrosion rate. Out of many observations, the best result 89.87% corrosion resistance efficiency was obtained at 600 mg/L of C. microphyllus as extract for mild steel in 0.5 M H2SO4 by applying electrochemical and weight loss measurements. The presence of a heteroatom in the main component of C. microphyllus as extract is believed to be an excellent inhibitor. Theoretical research revealed an entirely important report about comparative inhibition effect of different phytochemicals.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78983",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78983",signatures:"Dwarika Prasad",book:{id:"10669",type:"book",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",fullTitle:"Corrosion - Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-606-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-605-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-607-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"350561",title:"Prof.",name:"Dwarika",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",fullName:"Dwarika Prasad",slug:"dwarika-prasad",email:"dwarika.maithani@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Corrosion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Electrochemical aspects of corrosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Local cell formations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Dissimilar electrode cells",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Concentration cells",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Differential aeration cells",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Natural corrosion inhibitors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Experimental studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.1 Preparation of materials",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.2 Computational studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.1 DFT optimization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.2.2 Molecular simulations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.2.3 Molecular simulation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Goyal M, Kumar S, Bahadur I, Verma C, Ebenso EE. Organic corrosion inhibitors for industrial cleaning of ferrous and non-ferrous metals in acidic solutions: A review. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2018;256:565-573'},{id:"B2",body:'Verma C, Olasunkanmi LO, Ebenso EE, Quraishi MA. Substituents effect on corrosion inhibition performance of organic compounds in aggressive ionic solutions: A review. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2018;251:100-118'},{id:"B3",body:'Marcus P. Corrosion Mechanisms in Theory and Practice. 3rd ed. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis; 2011:2. DOI: 10.1201/b11020'},{id:"B4",body:'Scully JC. The Fundamentals of Corrosion. 2nd ed. USSR/Russia: International Nuclear Information System; 1978:2'},{id:"B5",body:'Haldhar R, Prasad D, Saxena A. Myristica fragrans extract as an eco-friendly corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in 0.5 M H2SO4. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 2018;6:2290-2301'},{id:"B6",body:'Fontana MG, Mitra MS. The Eight Forms of Corrosion & the Corrective Measures. India: CSIR-National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur; 1953:2-3'},{id:"B7",body:'Coleman J. Dry cell dynamics: The bobbin. Transactions of the Electrochemical Society. 1946;90:545'},{id:"B8",body:'Revie RW. Corrosion and Corrosion Control: An Introduction to Corrosion Science and Engineering. Hoboken New Jersey, United States: Wiley; 2008:4'},{id:"B9",body:'Sato N. Basics of Corrosion Chemistry, Green Corrosion Chemistry. Hoboken, New Jersey United States: Wiley; 2011:6. DOI: 10.1002/9783527641789'},{id:"B10",body:'Schweitzer PA. Fundamentals of Corrosion. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis; 2009:6. DOI: 10.1201/9781420067712'},{id:"B11",body:'Wagner H, Schwarting G. Struktur der microphyllinsaure aus dem harz von, Convolvulus microphyllus. Phytochemistry. 1977;16:715-717'},{id:"B12",body:'Amin H, Sharma R, Vyas M, Prajapati PK, Dhiman K. Shankhapushpi (Convolvulus pluricaulis choise): Validation of the Ayurvedic therapeutic claims through contemporary studies. International Journal of Green Pharmacy. 2014;8:193-200'},{id:"B13",body:'Ji G, Anjum S, Sundaram S, Prakash R. Musa paradisica peel extract as green corrosion inhibitor for iron alloyin HCl solution. Corrosion Science. 2015;90:107-117'},{id:"B14",body:'El-Etre AY, Abdallah M, El-Tantawy ZE. Corrosion inhibition of some metals using Lawsonia extract. Corrosion Science. 2005;47:385-395'},{id:"B15",body:'Joseph OO, Fayomi OSI, Joseph OO, Adenigba OA. Effect of Lecaniodiscus cupaniodes extract in corrosion inhibition of normalized and annealed mild steels in 0.5 M HCl. Energy Procedia. 2017;119:845-851'},{id:"B16",body:'Haldhar R, Prasad D, Bhardwaj N. Extraction and experimental studies of Citrus aurantifolia as an economical and green corrosion inhibitor for iron alloy in acidic media. Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology. 2019;33:1169-1183'},{id:"B17",body:'Ramezanzadeh M, Bahlakeh G, Sanaei Z, Ramezanzadeh B. Corrosion inhibition of mild steel in 1 M HCl solution by ethanolic extract of eco-friendly Mangifera indica (mango) leaves: Electrochemical, molecular dynamics, Monte Carlo and ab initio study. Applied Surface Science. 2019;463:1058-1077'},{id:"B18",body:'Asadi N, Ramezanzadeh M, Bahlakeh G, Ramezanzadeh B. Utilizing Lemon Balm extract as an effective green corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in 1M HCl solution: A detailed experimental, molecular dynamics, Monte Carlo and quantum mechanics study. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. 2019;95:252-272'},{id:"B19",body:'Alibakhshi E, Ramezanzadeh M, Bahlakeh G, Ramezanzadeh B, Mahdavian M, Motamedi M. Glycyrrhiza glabra leaves extract as a green corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in 1 M hydrochloric acid solution: Experimental, molecular dynamics, Monte Carlo and quantum mechanics study. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2018;255:185-198'},{id:"B20",body:'Sanaei Z, Ramezanzadeh M, Bahlakeh G, Ramezanzadeh B. Use of Rosa canina fruit extract as a green corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in 1M HCl solution: A complementary experimental, molecular dynamics and quantum mechanics investigation. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 2019;69:18-31'},{id:"B21",body:'Ramezanzadeh M, Sanaei Z, Bahlakeh G, Ramezanzadeh B. Highly effective inhibition of mild steel corrosion in 3.5% NaCl solution by green Nettle leaves extract and synergistic effect of eco-friendly cerium nitrate additive: Experimental, MD simulation and QM investigations. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2018;256:67-83'},{id:"B22",body:'Bahlakeh G, Ramezanzadeh B, Dehghani A, Ramezanzadeh M. Novel cost-effective and high-performance green inhibitor based on aqueous Peganum harmala seed extract for mild steel corrosion in HCl solution: Detailed experimental and electronic/atomic level computational explorations. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2019;283:174-195'},{id:"B23",body:'Alibakhshi E, Ramezanzadeh M, Haddadi SA, Bahlakeh G, Ramezanzadeh B, Mahdavian M. Persian Liquorice extract as a highly efficient sustainable corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in sodium chloride solution. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2019;210:660-672'},{id:"B24",body:'Dehghani A, Bahlakeh G, Ramezanzadeh B, Ramezanzadeh M. Detailed macro−/micro-scale exploration of the excellent active corrosion inhibition of a novel environmentally friendly green inhibitor for carbon steel in acidic environments. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. 2019;100:239-261'},{id:"B25",body:'Ramezanzadeh M, Bahlakeh G, Sanaei Z, Ramezanzadeh B. Studying the Urtica dioica leaves extract inhibition effect on the mild steel corrosion in 1 M HCl solution: Complementary experimental, ab initio quantum mechanics, Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics studies. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2018;272:120-136'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dwarika Prasad",address:"dwarika.maithani@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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The authors work with a basic assumption that many aspects related to form and content of online news need to be discussed in the light of much needed terminological and paradigmatic revisions related to both the general theory of journalism and our practical understanding of journalism as a continual, creative and highly professional, publicly performed activity.",book:{id:"5736",slug:"the-evolution-of-media-communication",title:"The Evolution of Media Communication",fullTitle:"The Evolution of Media Communication"},signatures:"Ján Višňovský and Jana Radošinská",authors:[{id:"196996",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ján",middleName:null,surname:"Višňovský",slug:"jan-visnovsky",fullName:"Ján Višňovský"},{id:"197484",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Radošinská",slug:"jana-radosinska",fullName:"Jana Radošinská"}]},{id:"63049",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80255",title:"Social Media: A Turning Point into Global Journalism Identity and Ethics",slug:"social-media-a-turning-point-into-global-journalism-identity-and-ethics",totalDownloads:2086,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Social media are growing drastically representing a further step in the ongoing deterioration of journalism profession and ethics. The lines between professional journalists and amateurs have been blurred; consequently, the structure of news media has substantially changed affecting the core traits of the profession and its ethics. This phenomenon has challenged the already disputed concepts of journalism as profession and journalists as professionals. While this challenge is tremendous, research on its implications to journalism identity and ethics is scant. The existing literature focuses on new or digital media usage, newsgathering, production, dissemination, and consumption, with little emphasis on journalism ethics or the profession itself. This chapter seeks to examine how social media contribute to the ethical dilemmas off and online journalism encounter and how this transformation puts the profession at risk.",book:{id:"6822",slug:"social-media-and-journalism-trends-connections-implications",title:"Social Media and Journalism",fullTitle:"Social Media and Journalism - Trends, Connections, Implications"},signatures:"Basyouni Ibrahim Hamada",authors:[{id:"245157",title:"Prof.",name:"Basyouni",middleName:null,surname:"Hamada",slug:"basyouni-hamada",fullName:"Basyouni Hamada"}]},{id:"54943",doi:"10.5772/68085",title:"Mindfulness Based on the Perceptive Consciousness as Pedagogical Link Between Technology and Education",slug:"mindfulness-based-on-the-perceptive-consciousness-as-pedagogical-link-between-technology-and-educati",totalDownloads:1449,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Our research is focused on the effects of an experimental study that examines in depth the discovery of a new methodological paradigm of teaching and esthetic-visual deconstruction, called Mindfulness Composition in Cervantes. Our research line is based, on the one hand, on the esthetic processes of contemporary art by Cervantes of persuasive graphic and visual communication. On the other hand, it is based on Mindfulness as a sophisticated method that allows us to find a way to calm and rescue the potential and maximize the value and effects of communicative and artistic compositions. Innovative analytical method of the communicative process of visual artistic communication establishes, and raises, in our chapter, a connection with sophisticated concepts of Mindfulness applied to visual and graphic composition, efficient, and its application to contemporary art in the theme of Cervantes.",book:{id:"5736",slug:"the-evolution-of-media-communication",title:"The Evolution of Media Communication",fullTitle:"The Evolution of Media Communication"},signatures:"José Jesús Vargas Delgado",authors:[{id:"204406",title:"Dr.",name:"José Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Vargas Delgado",slug:"jose-jesus-vargas-delgado",fullName:"José Jesús Vargas Delgado"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61780",title:"Journalism and Social Media Frame Social Movements: The Transition to Media Matrix",slug:"journalism-and-social-media-frame-social-movements-the-transition-to-media-matrix",totalDownloads:1920,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Audiences all over the globe are experiencing an unprecedented communication challenge. The intensity of the transnational media platforms and the rapid media distribution information implies a huge adaptation and interaction to diverse media technologies. These have created a transition in the culture of citizens’ acts, creating the era of “Media Matrix.” The printed press and the television still today cover the social movements’ demonstrations playing an important role in which these are revealed to the public. The importance of the news framing and Internet, as well as social media, depends upon one other crucial component for the social movements’ visibility. The present study aims to offer a theoretical reflection on this issue describing a three-stage analyses, which the media coverage underwent. The study describes the different stages in the coverage and “news-making” of social movements, which brings us to today’s matrix era. Furthermore, it also deliberates the impact this phenomenon has had in the civil society.",book:{id:"6822",slug:"social-media-and-journalism-trends-connections-implications",title:"Social Media and Journalism",fullTitle:"Social Media and Journalism - Trends, Connections, Implications"},signatures:"Alonit Berenson",authors:[{id:"243980",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alonit",middleName:null,surname:"Berenson",slug:"alonit-berenson",fullName:"Alonit Berenson"}]},{id:"54896",title:"Online Journalism: Current Trends and Challenges",slug:"online-journalism-current-trends-and-challenges",totalDownloads:4278,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"In the past 25 years, the journalistic sphere has gone through radical changes and transformations, progressively adapting to the contemporary global trends in news‐making. Traditional understanding of journalism as a profession has changed significantly, mostly due to the fact that digital media environment has brought new opportunities but also challenges related to the journalistic practice. The text aims to offer a theoretical reflection on the issue of online journalism. At the same time, the chapter discusses specific forms of Internet‐delivered journalistic production and professional requirements placed on journalists who specialise in online news‐making, taking into consideration the current development tendencies of digital communication forms. The authors work with a basic assumption that many aspects related to form and content of online news need to be discussed in the light of much needed terminological and paradigmatic revisions related to both the general theory of journalism and our practical understanding of journalism as a continual, creative and highly professional, publicly performed activity.",book:{id:"5736",slug:"the-evolution-of-media-communication",title:"The Evolution of Media Communication",fullTitle:"The Evolution of Media Communication"},signatures:"Ján Višňovský and Jana Radošinská",authors:[{id:"196996",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ján",middleName:null,surname:"Višňovský",slug:"jan-visnovsky",fullName:"Ján Višňovský"},{id:"197484",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Radošinská",slug:"jana-radosinska",fullName:"Jana Radošinská"}]},{id:"63049",title:"Social Media: A Turning Point into Global Journalism Identity and Ethics",slug:"social-media-a-turning-point-into-global-journalism-identity-and-ethics",totalDownloads:2083,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Social media are growing drastically representing a further step in the ongoing deterioration of journalism profession and ethics. The lines between professional journalists and amateurs have been blurred; consequently, the structure of news media has substantially changed affecting the core traits of the profession and its ethics. This phenomenon has challenged the already disputed concepts of journalism as profession and journalists as professionals. While this challenge is tremendous, research on its implications to journalism identity and ethics is scant. The existing literature focuses on new or digital media usage, newsgathering, production, dissemination, and consumption, with little emphasis on journalism ethics or the profession itself. This chapter seeks to examine how social media contribute to the ethical dilemmas off and online journalism encounter and how this transformation puts the profession at risk.",book:{id:"6822",slug:"social-media-and-journalism-trends-connections-implications",title:"Social Media and Journalism",fullTitle:"Social Media and Journalism - Trends, Connections, Implications"},signatures:"Basyouni Ibrahim Hamada",authors:[{id:"245157",title:"Prof.",name:"Basyouni",middleName:null,surname:"Hamada",slug:"basyouni-hamada",fullName:"Basyouni Hamada"}]},{id:"55225",title:"Internet and Social Media in Malaysia: Development, Challenges and Potentials",slug:"internet-and-social-media-in-malaysia-development-challenges-and-potentials",totalDownloads:4846,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"The penetration of the Internet and social media has helped Malaysia abreast with the other developed countries. Nonetheless, being a multicultural country, Malaysia has to ensure her multiracial population lives in harmony and peace. This happens with the integrated help of media control and regulations exercise in Malaysia: the Printing Presses and Publications Act (PPPA), Film Censorship Act, Broadcasting Act, Communication and Multimedia Act (CMA), and media ownership control. Many researches have been conducted pertaining to the Internet and social media that have been published locally in line with the development of the Internet and social media in Malaysia. Similarly, new media is also subjected to being controlled through methods such as controlling the Internet, blocking and filtering, and content removal. The chapter also looks into the impact of the Internet and social media on civil society, thus creating a momentum to promote toward giving suggestions for future research involving not only theories but also models using more sophisticated analyses. More research can be done and the future of research is bright. Other areas that can be looked at are the impacts of the Internet and social media on the young populace of the nation.",book:{id:"5736",slug:"the-evolution-of-media-communication",title:"The Evolution of Media Communication",fullTitle:"The Evolution of Media Communication"},signatures:"Saodah Wok and Shafizan Mohamed",authors:[{id:"201019",title:"Dr.",name:"Saodah",middleName:null,surname:"Wok",slug:"saodah-wok",fullName:"Saodah Wok"}]},{id:"62438",title:"Evolving Networks and Social Network Analysis Methods and Techniques",slug:"evolving-networks-and-social-network-analysis-methods-and-techniques",totalDownloads:2177,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Evolving networks by definition are networks that change as a function of time. They are a natural extension of network science since almost all real-world networks evolve over time, either by adding or by removing nodes or links over time: elementary actor-level network measures like network centrality change as a function of time, popularity and influence of individuals grow or fade depending on processes, and events occur in networks during time intervals. Other problems such as network-level statistics computation, link prediction, community detection, and visualization gain additional research importance when applied to dynamic online social networks (OSNs). Due to their temporal dimension, rapid growth of users, velocity of changes in networks, and amount of data that these OSNs generate, effective and efficient methods and techniques for small static networks are now required to scale and deal with the temporal dimension in case of streaming settings. This chapter reviews the state of the art in selected aspects of evolving social networks presenting open research challenges related to OSNs. The challenges suggest that significant further research is required in evolving social networks, i.e., existent methods, techniques, and algorithms must be rethought and designed toward incremental and dynamic versions that allow the efficient analysis of evolving networks.",book:{id:"6822",slug:"social-media-and-journalism-trends-connections-implications",title:"Social Media and Journalism",fullTitle:"Social Media and Journalism - Trends, Connections, Implications"},signatures:"Mário Cordeiro, Rui P. Sarmento, Pavel Brazdil and João Gama",authors:[{id:"241823",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mário",middleName:"Miguel",surname:"Cordeiro",slug:"mario-cordeiro",fullName:"Mário Cordeiro"},{id:"242100",title:"Prof.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Gama",slug:"joao-gama",fullName:"João Gama"},{id:"242101",title:"MSc.",name:"Rui Portocarrero",middleName:null,surname:"Sarmento",slug:"rui-portocarrero-sarmento",fullName:"Rui Portocarrero Sarmento"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1329",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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