\r\n\r\nThe publication of this book was supported by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations\r\n\r\n',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0255-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4324-6",doi:"10.5772/1410",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"tropical-forests",numberOfPages:402,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"55286837c680e9be2bc357abf678212e",bookSignature:"Padmini Sudarshana, Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao and Jaya R. 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She was also involved in Biosafety & Regulation of transgenic research & Scientific/Community Outreach programs at Monsanto. During post-doctoral tenure at Indian Institute of Science, and University of Agricultural Sciences, she studied hormonal regulation in parasitic plants and genetic diversity in tropical forests respectively. She worked on post-harvest storage of fruits and vegetables for her doctoral thesis. She has to her credit several research articles, book chapters, popular articles and patents. She received “Above and Beyond” and “Genomics Team” awards for significant contributions to projects in Monsanto. She was recognized as ‘member-in-spotlight’ by Genome India International. Dr. Sudarshana obtained her M.Sc. and M.Phil. from Mysore University and Ph.D from Central Food & Technological Research Institute, India.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"120847",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhugiri",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara-Rao",slug:"madhugiri-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120847/images/5440_n.jpg",biography:"Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao, Ph.D. works in the areas of plant breeding; genomics; bioenergy; genetic engineering; population, and eco-evolutionary genetics. He is the author of peer-reviewed research articles, book chapters, popular articles, has guest-edited special issues for journals, edited books and newsletters. He was Adjunct Faculty at Polk State College, USA. His work has been broadcasted on Fox News, USA. He was invited by CBC-Radio, Canada, to speak on air. He has served in the ‘Executive Committee’ of GII. He was recognized as ‘Young Scientists’ by Bioclues, in ‘Member-in-spotlight’ of GII and featured in ASPB-News. The University of Florida’s International Programs appraised his contribution in ‘International Focus’. He has peer-reviewed manuscripts for prominent international journals and grant proposals for international institutions. \nDr. Rao obtained his B.Sc., M.Sc. from Bangalore University and Ph.D. from FRI, India. He was featured as ‘Tomorrow’s Principal Investigators: Rising Young Investigators’ by Genome Technology, USA. He secured ‘Silver Award’ as a team member from American Museum of Natural History, USA. He was also selected for AAAS/Science Program for Excellence in Science. 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1. Introduction
Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks generally decrease from topsoil to subsoil layers. This is due to continuous aboveground carbon input by plant and animal residues and the absence of soil disturbance in natural ecosystems [1]. A similar phenomenon occurs in long-term no-tillage systems, promoting stratification of SOC stocks between topsoil and the adjacent soil layers [2,3,4].
The topsoil layer mediates energy, water, nutrient and gas exchanges between soil and atmosphere and therefore has vital importance for the functioning of ecosystems [2,3]. Most of these processes are regulated by soil organic matter. NT systems decrease SOC losses due to biological oxidation or soil erosion [5]. Continuous deposition of vegetal and animal residues on the soil surface and minimum soil disturbance under NT enhances SOC stabilization mechanisms, allowing increase of SOC stocks [3,4,6]. SOC accumulation in topsoil layers provides higher resistance to erosion and compaction [7], increases water infiltration and enhances aggregate and pore stability [2,8,9,10]. Thus, increase of SOC stocks, and consequently increase of the carbon stratification ratio (CSR), in the topsoil can be a good indicator of soil management quality [3,4,11].
CSR is the ratio between SOC stocks from two soil layers, usually the topsoil, with strong influence of soil and crop management practices, and the adjacent soil layer, which is less affected by these operations [2]. CSR values of 3.4, 2.0, and 2.1 were observed in NT soils from Georgia and Texas (USA) and Alberta (Canada), respectively [2]. The higher CSR values were related with agro-ecosystems which provided the maintenance or increase of soil quality. Additionally, CSR values higher than 2.0 would be unexpected in degraded soils from temperate climate regions.
CT managed soils from Alabama, Georgia, South and North Carolinas and Virginia in the USA had an average CSR of 1.4 [12]. CSR increased to 2.8 after ten years of NT adoption on the average of the evaluated soils. Three different soils from Virginia with original CSR values of 1.5 under CT, showed CSR of 3.6 after 14 years of NT adoption. Another study verified that CSR in a soil from the southeastern USA increased from 2.4 to 3.1 five years after conversion from CT to NT, reaching a CSR of 3.6 twelve years after the conversion [11].
Tropical NT soils have CSR values generally lower than temperate NT soils. CSR values of 1.48 (450 g clay kg-1 soil) and 1.73 (600 g clay kg-1 soil) were reported in Oxisols under NT from Southern Brazil [3,13]. These CSR values (SOC stock ratio of the 0-5 and 5-10 cm soil layers) had a close relationship with soil carbon sequestration rates verified in the 0-10 cm soil layer in these soils. Therefore, CSR could be used as an indicator of carbon sequestration in NT managed soils when historical data is not available for calculation of carbon sequestration rates. Furthermore, this procedure can be a tool to contribute to carbon stock inventories.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Description of the experimental areas
This study was carried out using two long-term experiments in southern Brazil. The first one was established in 1985 in Cruz Alta, state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (28°33’S 53°40’W, altitude of 409 m). The local climate is subtropical humid (Cfa 2a according to the Köppen classification) with mean annual rainfall and temperature of 1,774 mm and 19.2 °C, respectively. The highest mean temperatures (30.0 °C) are registered in January and the lowest (8.6 °C) are registered in June [14]. The soil is a dystroferric Hapludox (referred to in the text as Oxisol) with 4.7% slope and predominance of kaolinite and iron oxides (63.5 g kg-1) (Campos et al., 2011). The second experiment was established in 1991 in Santa Maria, state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (29°43’S 53°42’W, altitude of 86 m). The local climate is subtropical (Cfa in the Köppen classification) with mean annual rainfall and temperature of 1,769 mm and 19.3 °C, respectively [14]. The soil is a dystrophic Paluedalf (referred to in the text as Alfisol) with 5.5% slope, a moderate A horizon and clay loam texture. Further soil characteristics are presented in Table 1.
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\n\t\t\t\tCity\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSoil\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tLayer\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCarbon content\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
pHH2O
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPhosphorus\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPotassium\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSand\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSilt\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tClay\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
m
\n\t\t\t
g kg-1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
mg dm-3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
g kg-1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Cruz Alta, RS, Brazil
\n\t\t\t
Oxisol
\n\t\t\t
0-0.20
\n\t\t\t
19.0
\n\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t\t
82
\n\t\t\t
310
\n\t\t\t
120
\n\t\t\t
570
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
\n\t\t\t
Alfisol
\n\t\t\t
0-0.20
\n\t\t\t
14.2
\n\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t
1.8
\n\t\t\t
33
\n\t\t\t
660
\n\t\t\t
253
\n\t\t\t
87
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Main soil characteristics at the time of establishment of the experiments.
The long-term experiment in the Oxisol site had a split plot design with two soil tillage systems as the main plots (i.e., conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT)) and three crop systems in the subplots without replications: a) succession R0 - soybean (Glycine max L Merrill)/wheat (Triticum\n\t\t\t\t\taestivum L.); b) winter rotation R1 – wheat/soybean/oat (Avena strigosa Schreber)/soybean; c) summer and winter rotation R2- wheat/soybean/oat/soybean/oat+vetch (Vicia sativa L. Walp)/maize (Zea mays L.)/forage radish (Raphanus sativus var. oleiferus Metzg.). The soil was amended with 5 Mg ha-1 of lime at the time of establishing the experiment in 1985. Wheat and maize received 60 and 90 kg N ha-1, respectively. R1 and R2 crop systems received 52 and 62 kg P2O5 ha-1 yr-1 and 75 and 105 kg K2O ha-1 yr-1, respectively, in the first 15 years of the experiment [18]. Afterwards, phosphorus and potassium amendment was standardized at 50 kg P2O5 and K2O ha-1 yr-1. Further experimental details are available in [19].
The long-term experiment in the Alfisol site had a completely randomized block design with six treatments and two replications: a) maize + jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis DC)/soybean (M/JB); b) bare soil (BS); c) maize/fallow/soybean(M/F); d) maize/ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) + vetch/soybean (M/R); e) maize + velvet beans (Stizolobium cinereum Piper & Tracy)/soybean (M/VB); and f) maize/forage radish/soybean (M/FR). Details regarding the experiment are described in [17,20]. Soil acidity was corrected by the application of 3.5 Mg ha-1 of lime in 1991 and 2 Mg ha-1 of lime in 1996. The nitrogen fertilization rate for maize was 130 kg N ha-1 in the M/F and M/R treatments and 65 kg N ha-1 in the M/VB treatment. Further experimental details are described in [17]. The average carbon input values through plant residue in both long-term experiments are presented in Table 2.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSoil\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTillage systems\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tManagement\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCarbon input\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Mg ha-1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Oxisol
\n\t\t\t
CT
\n\t\t\t
R0\n\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3.54
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
CT
\n\t\t\t
R1\n\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4.48
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
CT
\n\t\t\t
R2\n\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5.04
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NT
\n\t\t\t
R0\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3.90
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NT
\n\t\t\t
R1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4.82
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NT
\n\t\t\t
R2\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6.00
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Alfisol
\n\t\t\t
NT
\n\t\t\t
M/JB4\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4.07
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
BS5\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.00
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NT
\n\t\t\t
M/F6\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1.88
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NT
\n\t\t\t
M/R7\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3.76
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NT
\n\t\t\t
M/VB8\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4.51
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NT
\n\t\t\t
M/FR9\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4.10
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Mean annual carbon input through crop residues in two experimental areas.
2.2. Soil sampling and determination of SOC content
Soil samples were collected in 2001 (T1) and 2007 (T2) in the Alfisol site and in 2004 (T1) and 2007 (T2) in the Oxisol site. Small trenches (0.3x0.3x0.15 m, LxWxD) were opened in the plots and samples were collected with a spatula. The thickness of the sampled soil layers (0-0.05 and 0.05-0.15 m) was based on [10,11], considering that SOC stock increment due to changes in soil and crop management practices occurs mainly in the topsoil layer (0-0.05 m). Soil bulk density was determined in undisturbed soil samples collected from the same layers, by using steel rings measuring 0.05x0.04 m (diameter x height) [21]. Soil samples used for C/N analysis were air dried and root and plant residues were manually removed. Then the samples were finely ground in a porcelain mortar. SOC content was determined in soil samples collected at T1 (2001 and 2004 in the Alfisol and Oxisol sites, respectively) by humid combustion [22,23], and by dry combustion using an elemental C/N analyzer (Flash EA 1112 Series ThermoFinnigan) for samples collected at T2 (2007 for both sites). The SOC stocks were calculated based in equivalent soil masses [24], taking as references the treatments M/F and CT R0 (T1) for the Alfisol and Oxisol sites, respectively.
2.3. Calculation of carbon stratification ratio (CSR)
The CSR was calculated as proposed by [2], by the ratio of SOC stocks of the superficial soil layer (0- 0.05 m) and SOC stocks of the adjacent soil layer (0.05- 0.15 m) in a given treatment. The temporal variation in CSR (Δ CSR) was obtained by the difference of CSR determined in the second period (T2) and the CSR in the first (T1). Soil carbon sequestration rate was determined by the temporal variation of SOC stocks in each treatment in the same period (six and three years for the Alfisol and Oxisol sites, respectively).
2.4. Statistical analysis
The results were submitted to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the software SISVAR 5.0 [25] and the means were compared by the Tukey test (p<0.05). The regression analysis was performed through the software JMP IN version 3.2.1 [26], using the F test (p<0.05).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Carbon input and CSR in Oxisol and Alfisol
Significant linear relationships between carbon input and CSR were observed for both the Oxisol (p = 0.003; Figure 1a) and Alfisol (p = 0.0004; Figure 1b) sites. These results indicate that increase of carbon input leads to direct increase of CSR, confirming the strong influence of aboveground carbon input for SOC accumulation in the topsoil layers for both soil types.
Figure 1.
Relationship between annual carbon input and CSR (0-0.05: 0.05-0.15 m) under no tillage. (a) Oxisol. (b) Alfisol. CSR = carbon stratification ratio.
The average CSR of the Alfisol was 1.66 ± 0.33 (Table 4), which was 21.1% higher than the CSR of the Oxisol (1.31 ± 0.25) (Table 5). The CSRs of these subtropical climate soils were lower than previously reported for temperate soils, where a NT soil from the southeastern U.S. achieved CSR of 3.6 after 12 years [11]. Higher CSR values in temperate climate soils could be related to the less C-oxidative environment in relation to subtropical or tropical climate soils. However, the CSR values observed in our study were close to the results from other Brazilian tropical soils [4,13]. A CSR value of 2.0 was suggested as a lower limit for soil quality in temperate climate regions [2], yet a CSR value of 1.5 would be more appropriate for subtropical or tropical soils [3,4,27]. Another study proposed that declining quality NT soils would result in CSR < 1.0, soils in transition from CT to NT would have CSR between 1.0 and 1.25, a consolidated NT soil would have CSR values ranging from 1.25 to 1.5, and a rising/high quality NT soil would achieve CSR > 2.0 [27]. Comparing our results with that proposed classification, treatments NT R1 and NT R2 in the Oxisol, and M/JB, M/VB, M/FR and M/R in the Alfisol, would be considered rising/high quality systems. However, treatments NT R0 in the Oxisol and M/F in the Alfisol would be classified as consolidated systems, while treatments CT R0, CT R1 and CT R2 in the Oxisol and BS in the Alfisol would be classified as systems under transition.
3.2. CSR and carbon sequestration rates
The relationship between CSR and C stocks (Mg ha-1) was linear and significant for both the Oxisol (p = 0.0001; Figure 2a) and Alfisol (p = 0.0001; Figure 2b). Similar results were observed in others Oxisols from Brazil [4,28].
The linear and significant relationships observed between Δ CSR (0-0.05: 0.05-0.15 m) and Δ C stock (0-0.05m layer) in the Oxisol (p = 0.0001; Figure 3a) and Alfisol (p = 0.0001; Figure 3b), suggest that C sequestration rates are associated with increasing SOC stratification in the soil profile [3,4,28]. Those studies related this effect with the aboveground carbon input by crop residues which are maintained on the soil surface and also with the higher SOC physical protection inside soil macroaggregates under NT. The slope of the adjusted linear equation for the Oxisol was almost twice that for the Alfisol. These results could be associated with the higher clay and Fe and Al oxides content in the Oxisol, favoring C stabilization [29]. The importance of the organo-mineral interaction for C stabilization in Oxisols has been previously reported in the literature [30,31,32]. Also, the linear relationship observed between variables indicates that both soils continue accumulating SOC. Nevertheless, after more and 20 years, no evidence of SOC saturation was found in any of the evaluated treatments in both soils [33,34].
Both CT and NT treatments had linear relationship between Δ CSR and Δ SOC in the Oxisol site. This significant relationship (p = 0.006) indicates that high carbon input (R2) could promote SOC accumulation even under CT (Figure 4a), while low carbon inputs leads to depletion of SOC stocks under intensive soil disturbance (R0 and R1). This relationship was more pronounced under NT (p = 0.0005) with higher C sequestration rates (Figure 4b). These results confirm the soil as an atmospheric CO2 sink when conservation agriculture (NT) is associated with high carbon inputs through crop residues [16,35,36,37].
Figure 2.
Relationship between CSR (0-0.05: 0.05-0.15 m) and SOC stocks in the 0-0.05 m layer. (a) Oxisol. T1=2004; T2= 2007 (interval of 3 years). (b) Alfisol. T1=2001; T2= 2007 (interval of 6 years) CSR = stratification relation.
Figure 3.
Relationship between the temporal CSR variation (ΔCSR = T2 – T1) and temporal SOC stock variation (ΔSOC stock = T2 – T1) in the 0-0.05 m layer. (a) Oxisol. T1=2004; T2= 2007 (interval of 3 years). (b) Alfisol T1=2001; T2= 2007 (interval of 6 years). CSR = stratification relation.
Figure 4.
Relationship between the temporal CSR variation (ΔCSR = T2 – T1) and temporal SOC stocks variation (Δ SOC stock = T2 – T1) in the 0-0.05 m layer of the Oxisol. (a) conventional tillage, (b) no tillage. CSR = stratification relation.; T1= 2004; T2=2007 (interval of 3 years).
4. Conclusions
The linear relationship between ΔCSR and ΔSOC in the topsoil layer indicates that SOC accumulation is related to carbon stratification in the soil profile. This relationship was more pronounced in the Oxisol than in the Alfisol. Higher CSR values were observed with the association of NT and intensive crop rotation (NT R2) in the Oxisol. Use of cover crops promoting high carbon and nitrogen input in the soils led to higher CSR values in the Alfisol. Although the CSR values observed in subtropical soils (our study) were lower than those reported for temperate climate soils, this index was efficient for evaluation of carbon sequestration in agricultural soils.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/45815.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/45815.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45815",totalDownloads:1708,totalViews:164,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:78,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"September 18th 2013",dateReviewed:"September 19th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 12th 2014",dateFinished:"November 5th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/45815",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/45815",book:{id:"3831",slug:"co2-sequestration-and-valorization"},signatures:"Ademir de Oliveira Ferreira and Telmo Jorge Carneiro Amado",authors:[{id:"169373",title:"Prof.",name:"Ademir De Oliveira",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Ademir De Oliveira Ferreira",slug:"ademir-de-oliveira-ferreira",email:"aoferreira1@yahoo.com.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169373/images/19435_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Federal Rural University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"169374",title:"Dr.",name:"Telmo Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Carneiro Amado",fullName:"Telmo Jorge Carneiro Amado",slug:"telmo-jorge-carneiro-amado",email:"tamado@smail.ufsm.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Material and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Description of the experimental areas",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Soil sampling and determination of SOC content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Calculation of carbon stratification ratio (CSR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Statistical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Carbon input and CSR in Oxisol and Alfisol",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. CSR and carbon sequestration rates",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Prescott C.E., Weetman G.F., Demontigny, L.E., Preston C.M., Keenan R.J. Carbon chemistry and nutrient supply in cedar-hemlock and hemlock-amabilis fir forest floors. In: McFee W.W., Kelley J.M. (eds.). Carbon Forms and Functions in Forest Soils. Madison: American Society of America; 1995. p377-396. 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Piracicaba, SP: International Plant Nutrition Institute - Brasil (IPNI); 2010. p383-420.'},{id:"B29",body:'Denef, K. & Six, J. Clay mineralogy determines the importance of biological versus abiotic processes for macroaggregates formation and stabilization. European Journal of Soil Science 2005; 56(4) 469-479.'},{id:"B30",body:'Zinn, Y.L., Lal, R., Bigham, J.M. & Resck, D.V.S. Edaphic controls on soil organic carbon retention in the Brazilian cerrado: soil structure. Soil Science Society of America Journal 2007; 71(4) 1.215-1.224.'},{id:"B31",body:'Zotarelli, L., Alves, B.J.R., Urquiaga, S., Boddey, R.M. & Six, J. Impact of tillage and crop rotation on light fraction and intra-aggregate soil organic matter in two Oxisols. Soil and Tillage Research 2007; 95(1-2) 196-206.'},{id:"B32",body:'Fabrizzi, K.P., Rice, C.W., Amado, T.J.C., Fiorin, J., Barbagelata, P., Melchiori, R. Protection of soil organic C and N in temperate and tropical soils: effect of native and agroecosystems. Biogeochemistry 2009; 92(1-2) 129-143.'},{id:"B33",body:'Six, J., Feller, C., Denef, K., Ogle, S.M., Sá, J.C.M. & Albrecht, A. Soil organic matter, biota and aggregation in temperate and tropical soils - effects of no-tillage. Agronomie 2002; 22(7-8) 755-775.'},{id:"B34",body:'Stweart, C.E., Paustian, K., Conant, R.T., Plante, A.F., Six, J. Soil carbon saturation: concept, evidence, and evaluation. Biogeochemistry 2007; 86(1) 19-31.'},{id:"B35",body:'Bayer, C., Martin-Neto, L., Mielniczuk, J., Pavinato, A. & Dieckow, J. Carbon sequestration in two Brazilian Cerrado soils under no-till. Soil and Tillage Research 2006; 86(2) 237-245.'},{id:"B36",body:'Cerri, C.E.P., Sparovek, G., Bernoux, M., Easterling, W.E., Melillo, J.M. & Cerri, C.C. Tropical agriculture and global warming: impacts and mitigations options. Scientia Agricola 2007; 64(1) 83-99.'},{id:"B37",body:'Ferreira, A.O., Sá, J.C.M., Harms, M.G., Miara, S., Briedis, C., Quadros Netto, C., Santos, J.B., Canalli, L.B.S. 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1. Introduction
Laundry activity is intensively and routinely conducted in domestic activities including homes, hotels, hospitals, as well as public laundry services. In the laundry activity, large amount of detergent as cleansing agent must be used. Further, in general, washing machines can typically produce from 50 to 200 L of effluent per wash [1], implying that laundry activity always disposes large volume of wastewater. The active component with high content in the detergent is anionic surfactant prior to linear alkyl benzene sulfonate (LAS) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. It is reasonable therefore that high concentration of LAS is contained in the laundry wastewater, as reported [2], that was around 200 mg/L from the first rinse. The presence of LAS in water can cause damage to the ecosystem thereby affecting the environment, and consumption of LAS above 0.5 mg/L can be harmful to health [1]. Considering the negative effects, treatment of LAS from laundry wastewater before reaching the environment is urgent.
Various methods have been dedicated to remove LAS surfactant in water and wastewater, such as adsorption [3, 4], coagulation [2, 5, 6], and filtration [7, 8]. By adsorption, coagulation, and filtration techniques, the surfactant of LAS is only replaced from water to the adsorbents, coagulants and membranes with the same toxicity [1], then they are collected as hazardous solid wastes. Further the hazardous solid wastes must create new environmental problems.
In recent years, various destructive methods including biological, chemical and combination of physical–chemical techniques have been employed for removal of the LAS surfactants from waters. The destructive techniques that have been developed for removal LAS are biodegradation [9, 10], ozonation [1], photocatalytic degradation over TiO2 [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16], and Fenton and photo-Fenton [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Biodegradation of LAS in water was found to be less effective for high concentration of LAS, since the LAS is harmful for the bacteria [1]. Ozonation method for treatment of wastewater is believed to be uneconomical due to the use of the high dose of the ozone and pressurized and complicated equipment [22]. On the other hand, photo-degradation of LAS over TiO2 photocatalyst under UV irradiation and by photo-Fenton process are intensively used as the effective methods to destroy the hazard LAS into smaller and saver molecules [11]. In addition, the methods only need light, and low cost and harmless chemicals, allowing them to be applied in large scale.
2. Surfactant in laundry waste water
Laundry activity always uses detergent that contains surfactant as the cleansing agent. The word surfactant is short for “Surface Active Agent.” In general surfactants are constructed by hydrophobic long alkyl chain as tail, and a hydrophilic group as a head, as illustrated by Figure 1. In general, they are chemicals that, when dissolved in water or organic solvent, orient themselves at the interface (boundary) between the liquid and a solid (i.e. the dirt or grease that want to be removed), and modify the properties of the interface [23]. The cleansing dirt or grease occurs when the hydrophobic long chain is attracted to dirt, while the hydrophilic part of the molecule is attracted to water. When dirt or grease is present, the surfactants surround it then it is dislodged from the boundary. The dirt/grease removed from the fabric will come into water [23].
Figure 1.
The schema of surfactant structure [23].
The hydrophobic long alkyls in the surfactants can refer as branched and linear chains. One of the branched long alkyl used in the detergent surfactant was dodecyl having molecular formula C18H30 or (CH3)3(CH2)10CH2 [23]. The branched alkyl offered superior tolerance to hard water and better foaming. Unfortunately, highly branched tail made it difficult to biodegrade, that was widely blamed for the persistent foam in sewage treatment plants, streams, and rivers, and created environmental problems. Hence, the branched surfactants have been replaced by linier alkyl long chain, that is environmentally friendly and easily biodegrades to simpler substances [23]. For the linear alkyl long chain usually used are C10–15, such as hexadecyl (C16H33).
The hydrophilic part of the surfactant is found as non-ionic, cationic, and anionic forms as shown by Figure 2. These different groups refers the names of the surfactants as non-ionic, cationic, and anionic surfactants. Structurally, non-ionic surfactants combine uncharged hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups that make them effective in wetting and spreading and as emulsifiers and foaming agents [23]. One of the major types of nonionic surfactants includes alkyl phenol ethoxylate as seen as Figure 2a [23]. Nonionic surfactants represent a major component material for applications ranging from personal care to a wide range of industrial uses [23]. Concurrently, such surfactants have minimal skin and eye irritation effects and exhibit a wide range of critical secondary performance properties [23]. Cationic surfactants are positively charged in the hydrophilic part, as an example is hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide or cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) as seen in Figure 2c [23]. The cationic surfactants are much less used in laundry detergents, due to their tendency to rapidly adsorb to – and not desorb from – the fabric having negatively charged surfaces under normal conditions [23]. The surfactant is bounded strongly by the fabric, inhibiting in the removal of the dirt from the fabric [23].
Figure 2.
The structures of (a) non-ionic, (b) anionic and (c) cationic surfactants [23].
One of the major groups of anionic surfactants are linear alkyl benzene sulfonates (LAS), that are characterized by an anion hydrophilic of sulfonate [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. The commercially produced LAS comprises alkyl chains of 10–14 carbon atoms, such as dodecyl benzene sulfonate (DBS) as seen in Figure 3 [11, 12]. LAS type surfactants pose a lot of usage because of its high cleaning power and efficiency [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. The superior property originates from the fact that the anionic sulfonate group is repulsed to attach strongly with fabric of cloths, that results in the maximal cleansing the dirt [12].
Figure 3.
The structure of LAS type [1].
LAS surfactants are the most commonly used detergents, that is more than 1.8 9 106 tons/year) in the past 40 years [12]. In terms of quantity, LAS is the most prominent group of anionic surfactants which is mainly used in heavy-duty laundry powders, light-duty liquid dish detergents, heavy-duty laundry liquids, and specialty cleansers [12]. Consequently, a significant amount of LAS exists in municipal disposed from homes, hotels, hospitals, and public laundry services, and industrial wastewater such as textile, leather, food, paint, cosmetics, polymer, oil recovery, mining and paper industries [12].
There was evident that less effective biodegradation of LAS in the water environment can occur [1]. Accordingly, LAS concentration of 3.5 mg/L has been measured in untreated sewage [12]. The values for concentrations of LAS in domestic effluents ranged from 3 to 21 mg/L [1] was also reported. From the laundry public services, 137 to 200 mg/L of the concentration of anionic surfactant in sewage was detected by other researchers, [2, 16].
Determination of the concentration of LAS in the solution or wastewater can be conducted by using visible spectrophotometry method. It is important hence to describe the analysis method. The method is based on the reaction between LAS with methylene blue to form a pair of methylene blue- linear alkyl sulfonate (MB-LAS), as shown by Figure 4, to form blue solution. The MB-LAS is insoluble in water, that has to be extracted into organic solvent such as chloroform. Then the MB-LAS as blue chloroform solution is measured by using spectrophotometer instrument at 650 nm of the wavelength, to obtain its absorbance [2, 12].
Figure 4.
The formation of MB-LAS pair giving blue color in chloroform solution [12].
To calculate the LAS concentration in the solution or in the wastewater, the absorbance is plotted in the respective standard curve. The standard curve of LAS is displayed in Figure 5, showing that the straight linear line are obtained at 2–10 mg/L of the standard solution concentrations [14].
Figure 5.
The standard curve of LAS used for concentration determination [14].
LAS is reported to be toxic for aquatic organisms in higher than 0.1 mg/L [11]. Moreover, it can be accumulated in fish and consequently spread in the whole ecosystem. As a result it alters the natural balance of water which changes water into a harmful source for the aquatic organisms and human [11]. It also has some pathological, physiological, biological and other effects on aquatic animals [11]. For specific aquatic plants, LAS damages their cholorophyll protein and membrane leading to delay in growth and metabolism of cells [1]. With the same mechanism, LAS can also decrease the soil fertility [14]. Moreover, consumption of LAS above 0.5 mg/L can be harmful to people health [1].
Due to negative effects of anionic surfactant on organisms and environment, many environmental and public health regulatory authorities have considered restrictions. As an example, Indonesian Government regulates that anionic surfactants in laundry wastewater has to be lower than 1.0 mg/L, as MBAS (Methylene Blue-Active-Substance), allowed to be discharged to the environment [2].
3. The laundry wastewater treatment methods
Various methods have been developed to remove LAS surfactant in water and wastewater, such as adsorption [3, 4], coagulation [2, 5, 6], and filtration [7, 8]. By adsorption, coagulation, and filtration techniques, the surfactant of LAS is only replaced from water to the adsorbents, coagulants and membranes with the same toxicity [1], then they are collected as hazardous solid wastes. Further the hazardous solid wastes must create new environmental problems.
The methods presented in this chapter are focused on photo-degradation process by photocatalysis over TiO2, and by photo-Fenton.
3.1 TiO2 photocatalyst and the photocatalysis process
TiO2 is a semiconductor with electronic structure that is characterized by valence band filled with electrons and empty conduction band, separated by gap as much as 3.0–3.2 eV [24], as illustrated by Figure 6. The gap is known as band gap energy (Eg), that is equal to the light with wavelength lower than 387 nm emerging the UV light. This fact allows TiO2 to absorb the UV light, resulting in the excitation of electron in the valence band (eCB−) into conduction band while leaving a hole in the valence band (hVB+), as presented in Eq.1 [24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. The releasing electron and hole formation processes are demonstrated by Figure 6.
Figure 6.
The schema of semiconductor structure, and the electron excitation and hole formation [1].
In water medium, the holes formed can react with water and also with the surface of TiO2, to form OH radicals, while the electrons released can react with O2 dissolved in water to form superoxide radical anions (O2−•), and further the anionic radicals will react with hydrogen ions from water to form hydroperoxy radicals (HO2•). The reactions of various radical formations are shown by Eq. 2 up to Eq. 4. Hydroxyl radical (•OH) is a strong oxidizing agent with oxidation potential (E) as much 2.80 V, that is stronger than H2O2 with E as 1.23 V [24] and ozone with E of 2.07 V [24, 25]. The two other radicals are also oxidizing agent, but the activity is weaker than the OH radicals strength [25].
TiO2+hv→TiO2eCB−+hVB+E1
TiO2hVB++H2O→TiO2+H++•OHE2
TiO2eCB−+O2→TiO2+O2•−E3
O2•−+H+→HO2•E4
The strong OH radical from TiO2 has been proven to be able to degrade various organic pollutants such as amoxicillin [22, 27], dyes [24], and phenols [26] effectively. This process is called as photocatalysis degradation, that has also been intensively examined to remove LAS in water media as well as to treat laundry wastewater in the lab scale [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. The reaction of the LAS degradation takes place by hydroxyl radicals (•OH), superoxide radical anions (O2−•), and hydroperoxy radicals (HO2•). Under the photocatalysis degradation, the long chain hydrocarbons of LAS are primarily degraded into smaller organic compound then to form CO2 and H2O, and then the sulfonate group is oxidized into sulfate ions SO42− [11]. The possible degradation pathway of alkyl-benzene sulfonate in photocatalytic oxidation as shown in Figure 7 [11]. From the reaction, it is clear that the effective degradation of LAS yields smaller and harmless molecules.
Figure 7.
The reaction mechanism of LAS degradation by OH radicals [11].
The effectiveness of the degradation of LAS surfactant, whether in water and in the laundry wastewater under photocatalysis process is controlled by several factors, that are photocatalyst dose, irradiation time, pH of the water, and initial LAS concentration in the wastewater. The influence of these factors are describe below.
3.1.1 The influence of photocatalyst mass
The mass or dose of TiO2 photocatalyst deals with the active surface in providing OH radicals, where the number of OH radicals provided will enriched as the photocatalyst mass is enlarged. The correlation of the photocatalyst dose with the LAS degradation has been reported by some studies [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16], and as an example is displayed in Figure 8 [16].
Figure 8.
The influence of the photocatalyst mass on the degradation of LAS in the wastewater [16].
It is observable that increasing the photocatalyst dose gives raise the degradation, but for the further enlargement of the dose, the degradation effectiveness is found to decrease [2, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Extending photocatalyst dose provides more OH radicals and so promotes more effective degradation. In contrast, higher dose than the optimal level, leads to an increase in the turbidity, causing filter effect of the light enters. As a consequence, the interaction of the light with TiO2 is inhibited, resulting in the less of OH radicals, decreasing the degradation. The optimum level of the photocatalyst mass obtained was varied from one to other authors [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16], ranges from 50 mg/L to 750 mg/L depending on the initial LAS concentration and the reaction time.
3.1.2 The influence of the irradiation time under UV light
For the industrial removal process of LAS, reaction time is a key factor. The irradiation time is associated to the time of contact between light with TiO2 and between OH radicals with LAS molecules. Some studies [2, 11, 13, 15, 16] have observed the effect of the UV irradiation time on the LAS degradation and they have similar trend, as seen in Figure 9 [16]. The improvement of the LAS degradation appears with the expanding irradiation time but longer than the optimum time, the degradation effectiveness is independence on the time. In the beginning of the reaction, effective contact between light and TiO2 and between OH radical with LAS proceed effectively. Prolong the irradiation time allows more effective contact and further results in higher effectiveness of the degradation up to reach the saturated condition. The optimum time reported were varied, one study found 60 min [11], while others reported of 50 min [12] and 100 min [15]. Very long irradiation optimum time was also possible, that was 24 h, due to high LAS initial concentration and photoreactor construction [2, 16].
Figure 9.
The influence of the irradiation time on the degradation of LAS in the laundry wastewater [16].
3.1.3 The influence of the solution pH
The influence of the pH on the LAS degradation is one of the important factor, since pH determines the species of TiO2 surface as well as LAS structure. Figure 10 assigns [16] a trend of the degradation as function of the solution pH. It is observable an increase of the LAS degradation as the pH elevation up to 7, but further increase of pH causes a decline in the degradation. The trend can be explained based on the speciation of TiO2 and LAS due the pH alteration.
Figure 10.
Influence of pH on the degradation of LAS in the laundry wastewater [16].
At low pH, the surface of TiO2 is protonated to form TiOH2+ that is difficult to provide OH radicals. With respect to LAS, at low pH, the LAS structure is also protonated that changes from negative to neutral surface. This condition can prevent the LAS to be adsorbed on the TiO2 surface. Consequently, only little amount of LAS can interact with OH radicals, and further low degradation can occur. Increasing pH up to 7, most TiO2 is found in neutral charge as TiOH [11, 13, 15]. It is important to takes a note that the zero point charge of TiO2 is at pH 6.5 [11], referring uncharged TiO2 surface, that can provide OH radicals maximally. At the same pH, LAS structure may form as anionic species, that allow them to be adsorbed on TiO2 surface effectively. This high LAS adsorption can promote more effective LAS degradation.
At higher pH than the zero point charge, that is higher than 7, both TiO2 and LAS are existed as negative species, that creates electrostatic repulsion. Hence, the LAS adsorption on the TiO2 surface determents and further declines the LAS degradation. It is clear that pH strongly influences on the adsorption of the LAS on the TiO2 surface, that effects the degradation effectiveness. The interactions at low and high pH are described as Eq. (5) and (6) [11, 13, 15].
TiOH+H+→TiOH2+E5
TiOH+OH−→TiO−+H2OE6
From the lab study for LAS in the artificial wastewater [11, 12, 13, 14, 15], it is demonstrated that the effective degradation is reached at low pH, that was 4 [11], while other study for real laundry wastewater obtained the most effective degradation at pH 5 [16]. However, in the application for real laundry wastewater having pH 5–6, adjusting pH is not required.
3.1.4 The influence of the initial LAS concentration and the kinetic
The influence of the initial concentration of LAS in the real laundry wastewater is investigated by diluting the wastewater into the various desired concentrations. It was reported [11, 13] that increasing the initial LAS concentration leads to a decrease in the degradation. It can be explained that when the initial concentration of LAS is increased, more LAS adsorbed on the TiO2 surface inhibiting the formation of OH radicals. Therefore less OH radicals are available, that decreases the LAS degradation [11, 13].
A kinetic study of the LAS photodegradation is desirable as it describes information about the rate of the degradation, which is important for efficiency of the process. The rate of a reaction is represented by rate constant (k), that depends on the concentrations. The relation between k and the concentration depends on the order of the reaction. The formulas of the first and second orders are given as Eq. 7 and Eq. 8, respectively. Ct represent the substrate concentration left in the media after t time of the reaction. Co is the initial substrate concentration.
lnCt=−kt+lnCoE7
1Ct=kt+1CoE8
For determination of the reaction order, a curve is constructed generally by plotting time versus concentration. When a curve of ln Ct versus time gives a straight line, it is confirmed that the reaction agrees with first order reaction. Further, in order to confirm the second order reaction, a curve of 1/Ct versus time should be created, that results in the straight line.
In the LAS photodegradation by OH radicals, the rate of the LAS degradation reaction is determined by concentrations of LAS and OH radicals. When the reaction depends on both the concentrations of LAS and OH radicals, the LAS degradation should follow the second order model. The second order has been reported [11] with k value as much as 0.0031 L/mg. min. When the degradation is only controlled by the LAS concentration, the first order reaction must be followed, as obtained by Ghanbarian et al. [13], with k as much 0.020 1/min. The other possible condition is found as follow [15]. The reaction is dictated by both LAS and OH radical concentrations, but because the OH radicals are in the excessive amount that are assumed to be constant during the reaction. Accordingly the reaction rate is only influenced by the LAS concentration. Such condition allows the reaction rate to agree with the pseudo first-order. From the curve k as much 0.01–0.014 1/min is obtained [15].
3.2 Photo-Fenton process
Fenton is a process by using ferrous ion (Fe2+) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), called as Fenton’s reagent. In this process, hydrogen peroxide is decomposed catalytically by ferrous ions at acidic pH value, yielding hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and hydroxide anionic (−OH), while ferrous ions are transformed to ferric ions. In general the accepted mechanism of Fenton reaction to form hydroxyl radicals is presented as Eq.(9) and Eq. (10) [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]:
Fe2++H2O2→•OH+Fe3++OH−E9
Fe3++H2O→FeOH2++H+E10
Further, photo-Fenton is a process involving a combination of Fenton reagents (H2O2 and Fe2+) with UV radiation (λ < 310 nm) that gives rise to extra OH radicals [18, 19, 21, 30, 31]. The major reactions in the photo-Fenton process for the formation of •OH radical include Fenton reaction, photolysis of H2O2 and photoreduction of Fe3+, as shown in Eq. (11) and (12) [30, 31].
H2O2+h√λ<310nm→2•OHE11
FeOH2++h√λ<580nm→Fe2++•OH+H+E12
The addition of UV or artificial light to Fenton’s process is detected to accelerate Las degradation as it influences the direct formation of •OH radicals [18, 19]. Consequently, the organic degradation rate of photo-Fenton is accelerated compared to Fenton process. The improvement is due to the continuous reduction of ferric ions (Fe3+) to ferrous ions (Fe2+) under illumination, and then the Fe2+ reacts back with H2O2 to result in Fe3+ and OH radicals. The Fenton reaction can be terminated when H2O2 is exhausted. The OH radicals from Fenton and photo-Fenton processes, as produced from photocatalys of TiO2, also own strong ability as an oxidizing agent, that can destroy various organic pollutants in acid condition [29, 30, 31].
The primary benefits of Fenton type process are their ability to convert a broad range of pollutants to harmless or biodegradable products and the fact that their relatively cheap reagents are safe to handle and are environmentally acceptable. Fenton process because of high oxidation power, rapid oxidation kinetics, being relatively cheap with easy operation and maintenance is used for treating various industrial wastewaters, including phenol [29], dyes [30], and various organic pollutant in the wastewater [31].
Considering the reagent involved in the Fenton and photo-Fenton processes, the effectiveness of LAS degradation is controlled by H2O2 and Fe2+ (Fenton’s reagent) concentrations. In addition, reaction time, solution pH, and initial concentration of the substrate also contribute in the degradation effectiveness. Following are discussion of the effect of the factors on the LAS photodegradation by Fenton and photo-Fenton processes.
3.2.1 Effect of H2O2 concentration
The concentration of H2O2 is a critical variable in the degradation through Fenton and photo-Fenton processes. Many researchers have observed the influence of H2O2 concentration on the LAS degradation by Fenton and photo-Fenton methods. One example data is taken and exhibited in Figure 11 [16]. It is seen that the low concentration of H2O2 did not generate enough •OH in solution, giving less effective degradation. Increasing H2O2 concentration improved the LAS degradation due to more •OH available. Addition of H2O2 above the optimum level lead to a decrease in the LAS degradation, that is caused by the depletion of the •OH amount due to free radical scavenging by the excess H2O2 to produce hydroperoxy radicals (•O2H). Then the hydroperoxy radical will further react with OH radical to form water and O2 [17, 18, 19, 20]. The reactions are exhibited by Eq. (13) and Eq. (14) below:
Figure 11.
Effect of H2O2 concentration on the LAS degradation effectiveness through photo-Fenton process [16].
•OH+H2O2→•O2H+H2OE13
•O2H+•OH→H2O+O2E14
It is obvious that there is an optimum H2O2 concentration to achieve the maximum percentage of LAS removal, although the values of the concentration range varies for different conditions. In a study the optimum photo-Fenton condition was mediated by a [H2O2]/[Fe2+] ratio = 40 [16]. The effect of mode of reagent addition was also studied giving ratio of 10 [17]. Similar results were obtained in other studies, that were 1.4 [18], 7.6 [20], and 11 [21].
3.2.2 Effect of Fe2+ concentration
The amount of ferrous ions is one of the primary parameters that influences the Fenton and photo-Fenton processes. In a study [16], it was observed that the extent of degradation increases with increasing initial Fe2+ concentration, promoted by more OH radicals, as presented by Figure 12 [16].
Figure 12.
Effect of Fe2+ concentration on the LAS degradation effectiveness [16].
Contrary, the excessive Fe2+ ion produced larger amount of Fe3+ ions (reaction in Eq. 7) that further allowed them to react with hydroxide ions to form Fe(OH)3 precipitate, as also seen in Eq. (13) [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. The precipitate formation created turbid solution that could inhibit the light entering into the solution. This situation depleted the number of OH radical formed, that further declined the degradation. This finding was in a good agreement with the other observations elsewhere [17, 18, 19, 20]. However, the optimal values of Fe2+ concentration was varied among the reports, that were 5 mg/L [16], 56 mg/L [17], 40 mg/L [18], 130 mg/L [20], and 120 mg/L [21].
Fe3++3–OH→FeOH3solidE15
3.2.3 Effect of initial pH
The solution pH plays an important role in the efficiency of the photo-Fenton reaction, since it greatly influences the speciation of Fe, H2O2 and LAS. The relationship between pH alteration and the effectiveness of LAS degradation as reported by a study [16], is displayed as Figure 13. It can be observed a trend, that the LAS degradation is less efficient at very low pH, and the efficiency of the degradation improves considerably when the pH is increased up to 3. The higher pH than 3 causes a sharp decrease in the degradation.
Figure 13.
Effect of pH on the LAS degradation effectiveness [16].
At very low level of pH, hydrogen ions (H+) were present in large amount, that could protonate H2O2 to form protonated hydrogen peroxide or H3O2+ [17, 18, 19, 20], as shown by Eq. (16).
H2O2+H+→H3O2+E16
The protonated hydrogen peroxide can inhibit the hydroxyl radical generation, resulting in small number of OH radicals, that further led to the lower photodegradation. An other reason proposed is that Fe2+, found in abundant, may form a stable complex with H2O2, which neutralized the Fe2+ catalyst [16]. The neutral catalyst could only generate few amount of OH, that significantly declined of the photodegradation. Further, increasing pH up to 3, provided smaller amount of H+ than at pH 1, so that the protonation of H2O2 could be prevented, and further enhances the number of the OH radicals formed. In addition, at pH 3, the complex of Fe2+ with H2O2 should be decomposed allowing Fe2+ to catalyze H2O2 maximally, and much OH radicals could be provided [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. These explained clearly the highest photodegradation occurred at pH 3.
When the pH was increased up to 7, the number of hydroxide ion (−OH) were enriched, allowing Fe3+ ions to deposit as Fe(OH)3 (Eq. 15). As an effect, the sufficient Fe2+ catalyst did not remain in the solution. This caused lower decomposition of H2O2 and reduced the efficiency of the Fenton’s process. Also, studies have shown that at higher pH, the oxidative potential of OH radical decreased and H2O2 was believed to be less stable [16, 18, 19]. All the mentioned conditions obviously reduced the produced of OH radicals, and hence the amoxicillin degradation. The finding optimum pH (= 3) agreed with several other studies [17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
4. Modifications of photocatalysis and photo-Fenton processes
4.1 Photocatalysis method
Photocatalytic degradation using TiO2 has recently received considerable attention for removal of the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) due to its cost-effective technology, non-toxicity, fast oxidation rate, and chemical stability [24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. However, the wide band gap of TiO2, that is 3.2 eV for anatase, allows it only to be excited by photons with wavelengths shorter than 385 nm or UV region that limits its application under visible light [14, 22]. Therefore, an effort has been focused to overcome this deficiency, such as by doping TiO2 structure with either non-metal, and metals elements.
Doping Ag metal on TiO2 to increase the activity on the degradation of LAS in the laundry wastewater under visible light has been studied [14]. The results are seen as Figure 14. The increase of the TiO2-Ag activity is promoted by the smaller Eg allowing TiO2-Ag to be activated by visible light to provide OH radicals in adequate number. In contrast, TiO2 with higher Eg (3.0–3.2 eV) is difficult to be excited by the visible light, that can only form fewer number of OH radicals. Moreover, the process with TiO2-Ag under visible light takes place faster than TiO2-Ag under UV light. In this case, the metal dopant can act as a separation center, where electron transfer from the TiO2 conduction band to Ag particles at the interface is thermodynamically possible because the Fermi level of TiO2 is higher than that of Ag metal [14, 22]. This doping resulted in the formation of a Schottky barrier at metal semiconductor contact region and improved the photocatalytic activity of TiO2. Hence doping Ag atoms essentially reduced the band gap of TiO2 for the photo-excitation or red shift, and simultaneously reduced the recombination rate of photogenerated electron–hole pairs [14, 22].
Figure 14.
The effectiveness of the LAS degradation with conditions of: (1) TiO2/UV light, (2) TiO2/visible light, (3) TiO2-Ag/UV light, and (4) TiO2-Ag/visible light [14].
4.2 Photo-Fenton modification
The photo-Fenton process appears as an attractive alternative for removing emerging contaminants. Photo-Fenton processes are reported to be effective in removing several classes of contaminants, such as phenols [29], amoxicillin [30], and dyes [31]. On the other hand, the use of photo-Fenton process is restricted to acidic pH values, with associate high operating costs for industrial scale applications. To overcome these drawbacks, photo-Fenton processes modified by adding selected chelating agents such as polycarboxylates and amino polycarboxylates compounds, can be successfully performed at neutral pH. The chelating agent acting as a ligand is able to form strong complexes with Fe3+ that can prevent the precipitation of Fe(OH)3 [32, 33].
As pointed out in Eq. (17) and (18), such ligand (L) should be able to form stable complexes with Fe3+ which significantly absorb UV–vis light and then undergo photochemical reductions leading to Fe2+ ions [33].
Fe3++L→FeL3+E17
FeL3++h√→FeL3+•→Fe2++L•E18
A study [32] reported that by addition of ethylenediamine-N,N′-disuccinic acid (EDDS), photo-Fenton process was more effective at neutral pH compared to the process at acidic condition. Other study as referred by Clarizia, et al. [33] also examined the effect of the adding humic acid to an aqueous solution containing benzene compound in the pH range of 5.0–7.0. The result exhibited that the rate for the oxidation of benzene were as high as those measured at pH 3.0 in absence of humic acid. However, so far, the use of chelating agents in the photo-Fenton for degradation of LAS in wastewater has not been explored. Therefore, there is a great challenge to realize experimentally the use of chelating compounds in the photo-Fenton for laundry wastewater treatment through LAS degradation.
In addition, the other drawback appearing in photo-Fenton is the use of UV light, that is more expensive and hazard for people health and ecosystem [14]. This limits in the large scale application of the photo-Fenton process [14, 21, 34]. Finding solutions of such weakness is obviously essential. An example solution of the weakness is by exploring synthetic or real solar light. The synthetic solar light is represented by wolfram or tungsten lamp [14] emitting visible light, that is low price and environmentally benign.
The results of the nitro-phenols degradation under solar light photo-Fenton, as well as under UV photo-Fenton [33] exhibit that the use of solar light can result in the degradation as high as resulted by UV photo-Fenton process. It is implied that the amount of OH radicals produced by decomposition of H2O2 induced by visible light is equal to that of by UV light. In fact, the power of UV light (λ < 350 nm) is higher than the visible one (λ > 350 nm), that should give more OH radicals, as seen in Eq. 8. This fact suggests that OH radicals provided by Fenton’s reagent is much more prominent compared to that of by light. With the promising results, the possibility of employing solar energy in photo-Fenton processes helps improving their economic and environmental sustainability.
5. Closing marks
Laundry wastewater containing high linear alkyl benzene sulfonate (LAS) surfactant is disposed into the environment with large volume, that can create serious environmentally and health problems. Removal of LAS in water and laundry wastewater can be successfully conducted through photodegradation mechanism by photocatalysis over TiO2 and by photo-Fenton process. In order to reach maximal degradation, the process has to be performed by employing the optimal TiO2 mass, or Fe2+/H2O2 mole ratio, irradiation time, and pH at a certain LAS concentration. Under the optimal condition, the LAS photodegradation effectively yields smaller and harmless molecules. Moreover, modifications of both methods allow them to be more effective and wider used methods for laundry wastewater treatment. In addition to the simplicity and effectiveness, the processes also suggest the low cost treatment method. It is obvious hence that the photodegradation methods have large potential to be applied in the field and large scale.
\n',keywords:"laundry, wastewater, treatment, photo-process, TiO2, photo-Fenton",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73804.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73804.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73804",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73804",totalDownloads:271,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 20th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 5th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 10th 2020",datePublished:"December 1st 2021",dateFinished:"October 29th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, surfactants as cleansing agent in detergent used in laundry, are described. The negative effects of the laundry wastewater on the environment and human health are highlighted. Several methods examined for laundry wastewater treatment are also illustrated. Among the treatment methods, photo-process in the presence of TiO2 photocatalyst and Fenton reagents are described in more detail. Furthermore, the factors influencing the effectiveness of photo-process including reagent dose, reaction time, and pH are discussed. Additionally, modifications of the photo-process to improve its performance that is associated with effectiveness and operational cost are also demonstrated. The photo-methods discussed in this chapter offered low-cost due to simplicity and effective technique for treating the laundry wastewater.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73804",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73804",signatures:"Endang Tri Wahyuni",book:{id:"9921",type:"book",title:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment",slug:"promising-techniques-for-wastewater-treatment-and-water-quality-assessment",publishedDate:"December 1st 2021",bookSignature:"Iqbal Ahmed Moujdin and J. Kevin Summers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9921.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-901-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-900-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-902-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"197244",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Iqbal",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"iqbal-ahmed",fullName:"Iqbal Ahmed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"225211",title:"Prof.",name:"Endang Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Wahyuni",fullName:"Endang Tri Wahyuni",slug:"endang-tri-wahyuni",email:"endang_triw@ugm.ac.id",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Gadjah Mada University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Surfactant in laundry waste water",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The laundry wastewater treatment methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 TiO2 photocatalyst and the photocatalysis process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 The influence of photocatalyst mass",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 The influence of the irradiation time under UV light",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 The influence of the solution pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4 The influence of the initial LAS concentration and the kinetic",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Photo-Fenton process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.1 Effect of H2O2 concentration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.2 Effect of Fe2+ concentration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.3 Effect of initial pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Modifications of photocatalysis and photo-Fenton processes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1 Photocatalysis method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.2 Photo-Fenton modification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Closing marks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Patil VV, Gogate PR, Bhat AP, Ghosh PK. Treatment of laundry wastewater containing residual surfactants using combined approaches based on ozone, catalyst and cavitation, Sep. Purif. Technol. 2020;239: 116594. 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116594'},{id:"B2",body:'Sugiharto E, Suratman A, Natsir TA, Wahyuni ET. Distribution of detergent waste in the environment and the removal by using photocatalytic degradation and coagulation methods. Am. Chem. Sci. J. 2014; 4(6): 715-725.'},{id:"B3",body:'Kyzas GZ,Peleka EN,Deliyann EA. Nanocrystalline akaganeite as adsorbent for surfactant removal from aqueous solutions. Materials. 2013; 6: 184-197. doi:10.3390/ma6010184'},{id:"B4",body:'Makarchuk OV, Dontsova TA. Removal of anionic surfactants from wastewater by magnetic mineral sorbents, J. Wat. Sec., 2016; 2: 1-9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15544/jws.2016.003'},{id:"B5",body:'Kaleta J, Elektorowicz M. The removal of anionic surfactants from water in coagulation process. Environ. Tech. 2013; 34(5-8):999-1005 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2012.733415.'},{id:"B6",body:'Aboulhassan MA, Souabi S, Yaacoubi A, Baudu M, Removal of surfactant from industrial wastewaters by coagulation flocculation process, Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech. 2006; 3 (4): 327-332.'},{id:"B7",body:'Korzenowskia C, Martins MBO, Bernardes AM, Ferreira JZ , Duarte ECNF, De Pinhoa MN. Removal of anionic surfactants by nanofiltration : Desalin Water Treat. 2012; 44: 269-275. doi: 10/5004/dwt.2012.3111, .'},{id:"B8",body:'Kowalska I, Klimonda A. Application of nanofiltration membranes for removal of surfactants from water solutions. E3S Web of Conferences. 2017; 17: 00044. DOI: 10.1051/e3sconf/20171700044'},{id:"B9",body:'Braga JK,Motteran F,Macedo TZ,Sakamoto IK,Delforno TP,Okada DY,Silva EL , Varesche MBA. Biodegradation of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate in commercial laundry wastewater by an anaerobic fluidized bed reactor. J. Environ. Sci. Heal A : Toxic/Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering. 2015; 50 (9): 946-957.'},{id:"B10",body:'Oliveir LL, Costa RB, Duarte ICS, Silva EL, Varesche MBA, Anaerobic degradation of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate in fluidized bed reactor, Braz. J. Chem. Eng. 2010; 27 (04): 539-543.'},{id:"B11",body:'Jariyanorasade A, Junyapoon S. Factors affecting the degradation of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate by TiO2 assisted photocatalysis and its kinetics Environ. Asia. 2018; 11(1): 45-60. DOI 10.14456/ea.2018.4.'},{id:"B12",body:'Ahmari H, Heris SZ, Khayyat MH. Photo catalytic degradation of linear alkyl benzene sulfonic acid. Res. Chem. Intermed. 2016; 42:6587-6606 DOI 10.1007/s11164-016-2483-1'},{id:"B13",body:'Ghanbarian M, Nabizadeh R, Mahvi AH, Nasseri S, Naddaf K. Photocatalytic degradation of linear alkyl benzene sulfonate from aqueous solution by TiO2 nanoparticles, Iran. J. Environ. Health. Sci. Eng. 2011; 8(4): 309-316.'},{id:"B14",body:'Wahyuni ET, Istiningsih I, Suratman A. Use of visible light for photo degradation of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate in laundry wastewater over Ag- doped TiO2., J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020; 13: 124-130.'},{id:"B15",body:'Mehrvar M, Venhuis HS. Photocatalytic treatment of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) in water. J. Environ. Sci. Heal A. 2005; 40(5): 1003-1012, DOI: 10.1081/ESE-200056129'},{id:"B16",body:'Wahyuni ET, Roto R, Sabrina M, Anggraini V, Leswana NF, and Vionita C. Photodegradation of detergent anionic surfactant in wastewater using UV/TiO2/H2O2 and UV/Fe2+/H2O2 processes. Am. J. Appl. Chem.2016; 4: 174-180.'},{id:"B17",body:'Hassan MAA, Yusof R, Muhamad SHA. Fenton degradation of linear alkylbenzene sulphonates (LAS ), JCNaR. 2015; 2:22-30.'},{id:"B18",body:'Malakootian M,Jaafarzadeh N,Dehdarirad A. Efficiency investigation of photo-Fenton process in removal of sodium dodecyl sulphate from aqueous solutions , Desalin. Water Treat. 2016; 57(51): 24444-24449. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2016.1140082'},{id:"B19",body:'Kıran I,Bektaş N,Yatmaz HC,Tekbaş M. Photocatalytic Fenton oxidation of sodium dodecyl sulfate solution using iron-modified zeolite catalyst. Desalin Water Treat. 2013. 51 (28-30): 5768-5775 , https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.759517.'},{id:"B20",body:'Mousavi SAR, Mahvi H, Nasseri S, Ghafar S. Effect of Fenton Process (H2O2 / Fe2+) on removal of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate using central composite. Iran. J. Environ. Health. Sci. Eng. 2011; 8 (2): 129-138.'},{id:"B21",body:'Miranzadeh MB, Zarjam R, Dehghani R, Haghighi M, Badi HZ, Marzaleh MA, Tehrani AM. Comparison of Fenton and photo-Fenton processes for removal of linear alkyl benzene sulfonate (LAS) from aqueous solutions. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2016; 25 (4), 1639-1648'},{id:"B22",body:'Wahyuni ET, Yulikayani PY, Aprilita NA. Enhancement of visible-light photocatalytic activity of Cu-doped TiO2 for photodegradation of amoxicillin in water. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 2020; 11 (4): 670-683'},{id:"B23",body:'Miyake M, Yamashita Y. Chapter 24 - Molecular structure and phase behavior of surfactants. Cosmetic Science and Technology: Theoretical Principles and Applications. 2017; 389-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802005-0.00024-0'},{id:"B24",body:'Konstantinou IK, Albanis TA. TiO2-assisted photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes in aqueous solution: kinetic and mechanistic investigations: A review. Appl. Catal.B: Environmental. 2004; 49: 1-14'},{id:"B25",body:'Akpan UG, Hameed BH. Parameters affecting the photocatalytic degradation of dyes using TiO2-based photocatalysts: A review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009; 170:520-529'},{id:"B26",body:'Hänel A, Moreń P, Zaleska A, Hupka J. Photocatalytic activity of TiO2 immobilized on glass beads for phenol removal. Physicochem. Probl. Miner. Process. 2010; 45: 49-56'},{id:"B27",body:'Dimitrakopoulou D, Rethemiotaki I, Frontistis Z, Xekoukoulotakis NP, Venieri D, Mantzavinos D. Degradation, mineralization and antibiotic inactivation of amoxicillin by UV-A/TiO2 photocatalysis. J. Environ Manage. 2012; : 168-174'},{id:"B28",body:'Akpan UG, Hameed GH. Parameters affecting the photocatalytic degradation of dyes using TiO2-based photocatalysts: A review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009; 170 : 520-529.'},{id:"B29",body:'Kusi H, Koprivanac N, Bo ˇ zi ˇ AB, Selanec I. Photo-assisted Fenton type processes for the degradation of phenol: A kinetic study. J. Hazard. Mater. 2006; B136 : 632-644.'},{id:"B30",body:'Pouran SR, Aziz ARA, Daud WMAW. Review on the main advances in photo-Fenton oxidation system for recalcitrant wastewaters. J Ind Eng Chem. 2015; 21 : 53-69'},{id:"B31",body:'Torrades F, García-Montaño J. Using central composite experimental design to optimize the degradation of real dye wastewater by Fenton and photo-Fenton reactions. Dyes Pigm. 2014; 100 : 184-189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2013.09.004'},{id:"B32",body:'Huang W. Homogeneous and heterogeneous Fenton and photo-Fenton processes : impact of iron complexing agent ethylenediamine-N,N’- disuccinic acid (EDDS), Universit’e Blaise Pascal - Clermont-Ferrand II, 2012.'},{id:"B33",body:'Clarizia L, Russ D, Di Somma I, Marotta R, Andreozzi R, Homogeneous photo-Fenton processes at near neutral pH: A review. Appl. Catal. Environmental. 2017; 209 : 358-371.'},{id:"B34",body:'Kavitha V, Palanivelu K. Degradation of nitrofenol by Fenton and photo- Fenton processes. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem A; Chemistry. 2005; 170: 83-95'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Endang Tri Wahyuni",address:"endang_triw@ugm.ac.id",affiliation:'
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
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Kevin Summers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9921.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-901-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-900-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-902-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"197244",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Iqbal",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"iqbal-ahmed",fullName:"Iqbal Ahmed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"132233",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Jin",email:"tjin@riken.jp",fullName:"Takashi Jin",slug:"takashi-jin",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Osaka University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"32392",title:"Neurochemistry in the Pathophysiology of Septic Encephalopathy",slug:"neurochemistry-in-the-pathophysiology-of-septic-encephalopathy",abstract:null,signatures:"Yukio Imamura, Huan Wang, Naoya Matsumoto, Hiroshi Ogura, Takeshi Shimazu, Takashi Jin and Akitoshi Seiyama",authors:[{id:"104157",title:"Dr.",name:"Yukio",surname:"Imamura",fullName:"Yukio Imamura",slug:"yukio-imamura",email:"yimamura-ns@umin.net"},{id:"107971",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoya",surname:"Matsumoto",fullName:"Naoya Matsumoto",slug:"naoya-matsumoto",email:"naomasamatsu2@yahoo.co.jp"},{id:"107972",title:"MSc.",name:"Huan",surname:"Wang",fullName:"Huan Wang",slug:"huan-wang",email:"0012669@zju.edu.cn"},{id:"107974",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Ogura",fullName:"Hiroshi Ogura",slug:"hiroshi-ogura",email:"ogura@hp-emerg.med.osaka-u.ac.jp"},{id:"107975",title:"Dr.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Shimazu",fullName:"Takeshi Shimazu",slug:"takeshi-shimazu",email:"shimazu@hp-emerg.med.osaka-u.ac.jp"},{id:"107976",title:"Dr.",name:"Akitoshi",surname:"Seiyama",fullName:"Akitoshi Seiyama",slug:"akitoshi-seiyama",email:"aseiyama@hs.med.kyoto-u.ac.jp"},{id:"132233",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Jin",fullName:"Takashi Jin",slug:"takashi-jin",email:"tjin@riken.jp"}],book:{id:"1592",title:"Neuroscience",slug:"neuroscience-dealing-with-frontiers",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{id:"54786",title:"In Vivo Imaging of Septic Encephalopathy",slug:"in-vivo-imaging-of-septic-encephalopathy",abstract:"Septic encephalopathy is a devastating symptom of severe sepsis. Many studies have been performed to uncover the pathophysiological mechanisms of septic encephalopathy; however, novel technical approaches are still required to overcome this complex symptom. Because patients are suffering from severe cognitive impairment, coma, or delirium, which burden not only patients but also caregivers, overcoming septic encephalopathy is still a major social problem worldwide, especially in the intensive care. Septic encephalopathy seems to be caused by cytokine invasion and/or oxidative stress into the brain, and this pathological state leads to imbalance of neurotransmitters. In addition to this pathophysiology, septic encephalopathy causes complicated symptoms (e.g., ischemic stroke, edema, and aberrant sensory function). For these pathophysiological mechanisms, electrophysiology using animal models, positron emission tomography (PET), computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging for septic patients has provided important clues. However, the research for septic encephalopathy is currently confronted with the difficulty of complex symptoms. To overcome this situation, in this chapter, we introduce our novel methods for in vivo imaging of septic encephalopathy using near infrared (NIR) nanoparticles, quantum dots. 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Here, the main purpose of cooperative control protocol is to track a time-variant reference trajectory while maintaining a desired formation. The reference trajectory is defined to a leader, which has at least one information connection with one of the agents in the network. The design procedure includes a robust adaptive law for estimating the unknown nonlinear terms of each agent’s dynamics in a model-free format, that is, without the use of any regressors. Moreover, an observer is designed to have an approximation on the values of control parameters for the leader at the agents without connection to the leader. The entire design procedure is analysed successfully for the stability using Lyapunov stability theorem. Finally, the simulation results for the application of the proposed method on a network of nonholonomic wheeled mobile robots (WMR) are presented. Desirable leader-following tracking and geometric formation control performance have been successfully demonstrated through simulated group of wheeled mobile robots.",book:{id:"5996",slug:"multi-agent-systems",title:"Multi-agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-agent Systems"},signatures:"Muhammad Nasiruddin bin Mahyuddin and Ali Safaei",authors:[{id:"204129",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nasiruddin",middleName:null,surname:"Mahyuddin",slug:"muhammad-nasiruddin-mahyuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Nasiruddin Mahyuddin"},{id:"206489",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Safaei",slug:"ali-safaei",fullName:"Ali Safaei"}]},{id:"56255",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69844",title:"Time Critical Mass Evacuation Simulation Combining A Multi- Agent System and High-Performance Computing",slug:"time-critical-mass-evacuation-simulation-combining-a-multi-agent-system-and-high-performance-computi",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter presents an application of multi-agent systems to simulate tsunami-triggered mass evacuations of large urban areas. The main objective is to quantitatively evaluate various strategies to accelerate evacuation in case of a tsunami with a short arrival time, taking most influential factors into account. Considering the large number of lives in fatal danger, instead of widely used simple agents in 1D networks, we use a high-resolution model of environment and complex agents so that wide range of influencing factors can be taken into account. A brief description of the multi-agent system is provided using a mathematical framework as means to easily and unambiguously refer to the main components of the system. The environment of the multi-agent system, which mimics the physical world of evacuees, is modelled as a hybrid of a high-resolution grid and a graph connecting traversable spaces. This hybrid of raster and vector data structures enables modelling large domain in a scalable manner. The agents, which mimic the heterogeneous crowd of evacuees, are composed of different combinations of basic constituent functions for modelling interaction with each other and environment, decision-making, etc. The results of tuning and validating of constituent functions for pedestrian-pedestrian, car-car and car-pedestrian interactions are presented. A scalable high-performance computing (HPC) extension to address the high-computational demand of complex agents and high-resolution model of environment is briefly explained. Finally, demonstrative applications that highlight the need for including sub-meter details in the environment, different modes of evacuation and behavioural differences are presented.",book:{id:"5996",slug:"multi-agent-systems",title:"Multi-agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-agent Systems"},signatures:"Leonel Aguilar, Maddegedara Lalith and Muneo Hori",authors:[{id:"203530",title:"Prof.",name:"Maddgedara",middleName:null,surname:"Lalith",slug:"maddgedara-lalith",fullName:"Maddgedara Lalith"},{id:"204168",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar",slug:"leonel-aguilar",fullName:"Leonel Aguilar"},{id:"204169",title:"Prof.",name:"Muneo",middleName:null,surname:"Hori",slug:"muneo-hori",fullName:"Muneo Hori"}]},{id:"56327",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69845",title:"Motion Coordination Problems with Collision Avoidance for Multi-Agent Systems",slug:"motion-coordination-problems-with-collision-avoidance-for-multi-agent-systems",totalDownloads:1406,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter studies the collision avoidance problem in the motion coordination control strategies for multi-agent systems. The proposed control strategies are decentralised, since agents have no global knowledge of the goal to achieve, knowing only the position and velocity of some agents. These control strategies allow a set of mobile agents achieve formations, formation tracking and containment. For the collision avoidance, we add a repulsive vector field of the unstable focus type to the motion coordination control strategies. We use formation graphs to represent interactions between agents. The results are presented for the front points of differential-drive mobile robots. The theoretical results are verified by numerical simulation.",book:{id:"5996",slug:"multi-agent-systems",title:"Multi-agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-agent Systems"},signatures:"Jesús Santiaguillo-Salinas and Eduardo Aranda-Bricaire",authors:[{id:"16943",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Aranda-Bricaire",slug:"eduardo-aranda-bricaire",fullName:"Eduardo Aranda-Bricaire"},{id:"204125",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Santiaguillo-Salinas",slug:"jesus-santiaguillo-salinas",fullName:"Jesús Santiaguillo-Salinas"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Multi-Agent Systems",slug:"introductory-chapter-multi-agent-systems",totalDownloads:2429,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"5996",slug:"multi-agent-systems",title:"Multi-agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-agent Systems"},signatures:"Jorge Rocha, Inês Boavida-Portugal and Eduardo Gomes",authors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"},{id:"214969",title:"Prof.",name:"Inês",middleName:null,surname:"Boavida-Portugal",slug:"ines-boavida-portugal",fullName:"Inês Boavida-Portugal"},{id:"214971",title:"MSc.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",slug:"eduardo-gomes",fullName:"Eduardo Gomes"}]},{id:"55920",title:"Hybrid Architecture to Support Context‐Aware Systems",slug:"hybrid-architecture-to-support-context-aware-systems",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Any system that is said to be context‐aware is capable of monitoring continuously the surrounding environment, that is, capable of prompt reaction to events and changing conditions of the environment. The main objective of a context‐aware system is to be continuously recognizing the state of the environment and the users present, in order to adjust the environment to an ideal state and to provide personalized information and services to users considering the user profile. In this chapter, we describe an architecture that relies on the incorporation of intelligent multi‐agent systems (MAS), sensor networks, mobile sensors, actuators, Web services and ontologies. We describe the interaction of these technologies into the architecture aiming at facilitating the construction of context‐aware systems.",book:{id:"5996",slug:"multi-agent-systems",title:"Multi-agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-agent Systems"},signatures:"Maricela Bravo, José A. Reyes‐Ortiz, Leonardo Sánchez‐Martínez\nand Roberto A. Alcántara‐Ramírez",authors:[{id:"204084",title:"Dr.",name:"Maricela",middleName:null,surname:"Bravo",slug:"maricela-bravo",fullName:"Maricela Bravo"},{id:"204085",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes",slug:"alejandro-reyes",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes"},{id:"204086",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonardo",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez",slug:"leonardo-sanchez",fullName:"Leonardo Sánchez"},{id:"204087",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Alcántara-Ramírez",slug:"roberto-alcantara-ramirez",fullName:"Roberto Alcántara-Ramírez"}]},{id:"56184",title:"Multiagent Systems in Automotive Applications",slug:"multiagent-systems-in-automotive-applications",totalDownloads:1773,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The multiagent systems have proved to be a useful tool in the design of solutions to problems of distributed nature. In a distributed system, it is possible that the data, the control actions or even both, be distributed. The concept of agent is a suitable notion for capturing situations where the global knowledge about the status of a system is complex or even impossible to acquire in a single entity. In automotive applications, there exist a great number of scenarios of distributed nature, such as the traffic coordination, routes load balancing problems, traffic negotiation among the infrastructure and cars, to mention a few. Even more, the autonomous driving features of the new generation of cars will require the new methods of car to car communication, car to infrastructure negotiation, and even infrastructure to infrastructure communication. This chapter proposes the application of multiagent system techniques to some problems in the automotive field.",book:{id:"5996",slug:"multi-agent-systems",title:"Multi-agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-agent Systems"},signatures:"Raul Campos‐Rodriguez, Luis Gonzalez‐Jimenez, Francisco\nCervantes‐Alvarez, Francisco Amezcua‐Garcia and Miguel\nFernandez‐Garcia",authors:[{id:"178524",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",middleName:null,surname:"Campos-Rodriguez",slug:"raul-campos-rodriguez",fullName:"Raul Campos-Rodriguez"},{id:"204584",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Cervantes Alvarez",slug:"francisco-cervantes-alvarez",fullName:"Francisco Cervantes Alvarez"},{id:"204586",title:"Mr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Amezcua Garcia",slug:"francisco-amezcua-garcia",fullName:"Francisco Amezcua Garcia"},{id:"204587",title:"BSc.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez Garcia",slug:"miguel-fernandez-garcia",fullName:"Miguel Fernandez Garcia"},{id:"207383",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-Jimenez",slug:"luis-gonzalez-jimenez",fullName:"Luis Gonzalez-Jimenez"}]},{id:"56297",title:"Multiagent System for Image Mining",slug:"multiagent-system-for-image-mining",totalDownloads:1381,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The overdone growth, wide availability, and demands for remote sensing databases combined with human limits to analyze such huge datasets lead to a need to investigate tools, techniques, methodologies, and theories capable of assisting humans at extracting knowledge. Image mining arises as a solution to extract implicit knowledge intelligently and semiautomatically or other patterns not explicitly stored in the huge image databases. However, spatial databases are among the ones with the fastest growth due to the volume of spatial information produced many times a day, demanding the investigation of other means for knowledge extraction. Multiagent systems are composed of multiple computing elements known as agents that interact to pursuit their goals. Agents have been used to explore information in the distributed, open, large, and heterogeneous platforms. Agent mining is a potential technology that studies ways of interaction and integration between data mining and agents. This area brought advances to the technologies involved such as theories, methodologies, and solutions to solve relevant issues more precisely, accurately and faster. AgentGeo is evidence of this, a multiagent system of satellite image mining that, promotes advances in the state of the art of agent mining, since it relevant functions to extract knowledge from spatial databases.",book:{id:"5996",slug:"multi-agent-systems",title:"Multi-agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-agent Systems"},signatures:"Nicksson Ckayo Arrais de Freitas and Marcelino Pereira dos Santos\nSilva",authors:[{id:"203201",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Nicksson",middleName:"Ckayo Arrais",surname:"De Freitas",slug:"nicksson-de-freitas",fullName:"Nicksson De Freitas"},{id:"203204",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelino",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"marcelino-silva",fullName:"Marcelino Silva"}]},{id:"56255",title:"Time Critical Mass Evacuation Simulation Combining A Multi- Agent System and High-Performance Computing",slug:"time-critical-mass-evacuation-simulation-combining-a-multi-agent-system-and-high-performance-computi",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter presents an application of multi-agent systems to simulate tsunami-triggered mass evacuations of large urban areas. The main objective is to quantitatively evaluate various strategies to accelerate evacuation in case of a tsunami with a short arrival time, taking most influential factors into account. Considering the large number of lives in fatal danger, instead of widely used simple agents in 1D networks, we use a high-resolution model of environment and complex agents so that wide range of influencing factors can be taken into account. A brief description of the multi-agent system is provided using a mathematical framework as means to easily and unambiguously refer to the main components of the system. The environment of the multi-agent system, which mimics the physical world of evacuees, is modelled as a hybrid of a high-resolution grid and a graph connecting traversable spaces. This hybrid of raster and vector data structures enables modelling large domain in a scalable manner. The agents, which mimic the heterogeneous crowd of evacuees, are composed of different combinations of basic constituent functions for modelling interaction with each other and environment, decision-making, etc. The results of tuning and validating of constituent functions for pedestrian-pedestrian, car-car and car-pedestrian interactions are presented. A scalable high-performance computing (HPC) extension to address the high-computational demand of complex agents and high-resolution model of environment is briefly explained. Finally, demonstrative applications that highlight the need for including sub-meter details in the environment, different modes of evacuation and behavioural differences are presented.",book:{id:"5996",slug:"multi-agent-systems",title:"Multi-agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-agent Systems"},signatures:"Leonel Aguilar, Maddegedara Lalith and Muneo Hori",authors:[{id:"203530",title:"Prof.",name:"Maddgedara",middleName:null,surname:"Lalith",slug:"maddgedara-lalith",fullName:"Maddgedara Lalith"},{id:"204168",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar",slug:"leonel-aguilar",fullName:"Leonel Aguilar"},{id:"204169",title:"Prof.",name:"Muneo",middleName:null,surname:"Hori",slug:"muneo-hori",fullName:"Muneo Hori"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"526",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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