These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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The present theme of this book is concomitant with the lithographic ways and means of deposition, optimization parameters and their wide technological applications. This book consists of six chapters comprehending with eminence of lithography, fabrication and reproduction of periodic nanopyramid structures using UV nanoimprint lithography for solar cell applications, large-area nanoimprint lithography and applications, micro-/nanopatterning on polymers, OPC under immersion lithography associated to novel luminescence applications, achromatic Talbot lithography (ATL) and the soft X-ray interference lithography. Individual chapters provide a base for a wide range of readers from different fiels, students and researchers, who may be doing research pertinent to the topics discussed in this book and find basic as well as advanced principles of designated subjects related to these phenomena explained plainly. The book contains six chapters by experts in different fields of lithographic fabrication and technology from over 15 research institutes across the globe.",isbn:"978-1-78923-031-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-030-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-293-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68234",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"micro-nanolithography-a-heuristic-aspect-on-the-enduring-technology",numberOfPages:134,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c94caf617c31b349bd3d9dd054a022a3",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6124.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8315,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:52,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 21st 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 12th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 8th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 6th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 7th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013. He worked as Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). Currently, he is working as Senior Assistant Professor of Physics, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin film opto-electronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books and member in several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. Currently, he served as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence based thin film opto-electronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. As an expert in opto-electronics and nanotechnology area, he has been invited as external and internal examiners to MSc and PhD theses, invited to give talk in some forum, review papers for international and national journals.",institutionString:"SASTRA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"751",title:"Nano Electronics",slug:"nano-electronics"}],chapters:[{id:"58555",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Eminence of Lithography—New Horizons of Next-Generation Lithography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70725",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-eminence-of-lithography-new-horizons-of-next-generation-lithography",totalDownloads:894,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58555",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58555",authors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],corrections:null},{id:"58220",title:"Fabrication and Replication of Periodic Nanopyramid Structures by Laser Interference Lithography and UV Nanoimprint Lithography for Solar Cells Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72534",slug:"fabrication-and-replication-of-periodic-nanopyramid-structures-by-laser-interference-lithography-and",totalDownloads:1415,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the fabrication and replication of periodic nanopyramid structures suitable for antireflection and self-cleaning surfaces are presented. Laser interference lithography (LIL), dry etching, wet etching, and UV nanoimprint lithography (UV-NIL) are employed for the fabrication and replication of periodic nanopyramid structures. Inverted nanopyramid structures were fabricated on Si substrates by LIL and subsequent pattern transfer process using reactive ion etching, followed by potassium hydroxide (KOH) wet etching. The fabricated periodic inverted nanopyramid structures were utilized as a master mold for the nanoimprint process. The upright nanopyramid structures were patterned on the OrmoStamp-coated glass substrate with high fidelity in the first nanoimprint process. In the second nanoimprint process, inverted nanopyramid structures were replicated on the OrmoStamp-coated substrate using the fabricated upright nanopyramid glass substrate as a mold. The replicated inverted nanopyramid structure on resist-coated substrate was faithfully resolved with the high accuracy compared to original Si master mold down to nanometer scale. Both upright and inverted nanopyramid structures can be utilized as surface coatings for light trapping and self-cleaning applications for different types of solar cell and glass surfaces.",signatures:"Amalraj Peter Amalathas and Maan M. Alkaisi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58220",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58220",authors:[{id:"6368",title:"Prof.",name:"Maan",surname:"Alkaisi",slug:"maan-alkaisi",fullName:"Maan Alkaisi"},{id:"207012",title:"Dr.",name:"Amalraj",surname:"Peter Amalathas",slug:"amalraj-peter-amalathas",fullName:"Amalraj Peter Amalathas"}],corrections:null},{id:"58424",title:"Large-Area Nanoimprint Lithography and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72860",slug:"large-area-nanoimprint-lithography-and-applications",totalDownloads:2069,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Large-area nanoimprint lithography (NIL) has been regarded as one of the most promising micro/nano-manufacturing technologies for mass production of large-area micro/nanoscale patterns and complex 3D structures and high aspect ratio features with low cost, high throughput, and high resolution. That opens the door and paves the way for many commercial applications not previously conceptualized or economically feasible. Great progresses in large-area nanoimprint lithography have been achieved in recent years. This chapter mainly presents a comprehensive review of recent advances in large-area NIL processes. Some promising solutions of large-area NIL and emerging methods, which can implement mass production of micro-and nanostructures over large areas on various substrates or surfaces, are described in detail. Moreover, numerous industrial-level applications and innovative products based on large-area NIL are also demonstrated. Finally, prospects, challenges, and future directions for industrial scale large-area NIL are addressed. An infrastructure of large-area nanoimprint lithography is proposed. In addition, some recent progresses and research activities in large-area NIL suitable for high volume manufacturing environments from our Labs are also introduced. This chapter may provide a reference and direction for the further explorations and studies of large-area micro/nanopatterning technologies.",signatures:"Hongbo Lan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58424",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58424",authors:[{id:"6642",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongbo",surname:"Lan",slug:"hongbo-lan",fullName:"Hongbo Lan"}],corrections:null},{id:"58772",title:"Micro/Nano Patterning on Polymers Using Soft Lithography Technique",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72885",slug:"micro-nano-patterning-on-polymers-using-soft-lithography-technique",totalDownloads:1365,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microfabrication is essential in the field of science and technology. The development and innovations in this field are already prominent in the society through microelectronics and optoelectronics. The lithography or transfer of pattern to the substrate/surface of a layer is an important process step in microfabrication and is usually carried out with photolithography. Though photolithography is a well-established technique, it suffers from drawbacks such as limited feature size due to optical diffraction, requirement of high-energy radiation for small features, and high-cost involvement for sophisticated instruments. Also, it cannot be applied to nonplanar surfaces. Soft lithography is complement to photolithography which overcomes the above-mentioned drawbacks. Soft lithography is a simple and inexpensive method, and also, it suits to wide range of materials and very large surface areas. High-quality micropatterns or nanopatterns can be made using a patterned elastomeric stamp. This article briefly describes the various soft lithography techniques to obtain high-resolution structures for nanofabrication.",signatures:"Sujatha Lakshminarayanan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58772",authors:[{id:"220545",title:"Dr.",name:"Sujatha",surname:"Lakshminarayanan",slug:"sujatha-lakshminarayanan",fullName:"Sujatha Lakshminarayanan"}],corrections:null},{id:"59996",title:"EUV/Soft X-Ray Interference Lithography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74564",slug:"euv-soft-x-ray-interference-lithography",totalDownloads:1023,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Based on the coherent radiation from an undulator source, extreme UV interference lithography (EUV-IL) technology is considered as the leading candidate for future nodes of high-volume semiconductor manufacturing. The throughput of this technique is much higher than that of traditional lithography methods such as e-beam lithography (EBL) and laser interference lithography (LIL). Different types of interference schemes based on reflection mirrors and transmission diffraction masks have been described in this chapter. Achromatic Talbot lithography (ATL) and the soft X-ray interference lithography (SXIL) with different photon energies have also been developed to produce highly dense, high-resolution periodic nanostructures. Two scan-exposure techniques, one is the method employing the broadband Talbot effect and the other based on the multi-grating EUV-IL with an order sorting aperture (OSA), have been used to obtain periodic nanostructures over large areas. Applications of EUV-IL on EUV-resist testing and nano-science have been illustrated.",signatures:"Shumin Yang and Yanqing Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59996",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59996",authors:[{id:"208197",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanqing",surname:"Wu",slug:"yanqing-wu",fullName:"Yanqing Wu"},{id:"237489",title:"Dr.",name:"Shumin",surname:"Yang",slug:"shumin-yang",fullName:"Shumin Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"58480",title:"Optical Proximity Correction (OPC) Under Immersion Lithography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72699",slug:"optical-proximity-correction-opc-under-immersion-lithography",totalDownloads:1552,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As advanced technology nodes continue scaling down into sub-16 nm regime, optical microlithography becomes more vulnerable to process variations. As a result, overall lithographic yield continuously degrades. Since next-generation lithography (NGL) is still not mature enough, the industry relies heavily on resolution enhancement techniques (RETs), wherein optical proximity correction (OPC) with 193 nm immersion lithography is dominant in the foreseeable future. However, OPC algorithms are getting more aggressive. Consequently, complex mask solutions are outputted. Furthermore, this results in long computation time along with mask data volume explosion. In this chapter, recent state-of-the-art OPC algorithms are discussed. Thereafter, the performance of a recently published fast OPC methodology—to generate highly manufactured mask solutions with acceptable pattern fidelity under process variations—is verified on the public benchmarks.",signatures:"Ahmed Awad, Atsushi Takahashi and Chikaaki Kodaman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58480",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58480",authors:[{id:"220602",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Awad",slug:"ahmed-awad",fullName:"Ahmed Awad"},{id:"227583",title:"Prof.",name:"Atushi",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"atushi-takahashi",fullName:"Atushi Takahashi"},{id:"227584",title:"Dr.",name:"Chikaaki",surname:"Kodama",slug:"chikaaki-kodama",fullName:"Chikaaki Kodama"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d982c49fed4423a0ea7367af4f917b82",slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6489",title:"Light-Emitting Diode",subtitle:"An Outlook On the Empirical Features and Its Recent Technological Advancements",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20818f168134f1af35547e807d839463",slug:"light-emitting-diode-an-outlook-on-the-empirical-features-and-its-recent-technological-advancements",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6489.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6242",title:"Hydroxyapatite",subtitle:"Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6a18a9b6617ae6d943649ea7ad9655cc",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6242.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5699",title:"Thin Film Processes",subtitle:"Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"164177fc1e3eca542ebad5fd34a79d1e",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5699.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9414",title:"Advances in Condensed-Matter and Materials Physics",subtitle:"Rudimentary Research to Topical Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3aebac680de7d3af200eadd0a0b2f737",slug:"advances-in-condensed-matter-and-materials-physics-rudimentary-research-to-topical-technology",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai and Sergey Ivanovich Pokutnyi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9414.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3635",title:"Polymer Thin Films",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"polymer-thin-films",bookSignature:"Abbass A Hashim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3635.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. 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1. Introduction
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Waste management issues are coming to the forefront of the global environmental agenda at an increasing frequency, as population and consumption growth result in increasing quantities of waste. Moreover, technological development often results in consumer products of complex composition, including hazardous compounds, which pose extra challenges to the waste management systems and environmental protection at the end of their useful life, which may often be fairly short (e.g. cell-phones and electronic gadgets). These end-of-pipe challenges are coupled with the deepening understanding that the Earth’s natural resources are finite by nature and their current exploitation rate unsustainable, even within a midterm perspective. The self-cleaning capacity of the Earth systems is often also viewed as a «natural resource» under stress, with climate change being the most pronounced expression of this risk.
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In the context of the above mentioned challenge a New Paradigm for waste management has emerged, shifting attention to resources efficiency and minimisation of environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of waste management, from waste prevention to safe disposal. This is best expressed, but not confined, in the relevant EU policy and legislation (e.g. the Thematic Strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste, the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and the revised Waste Framework Directive, WFD-2008/98/EC). Especially the latter is of particular interest as it has a legally binding nature for all EU member states and sets a benchmark which is often also taken into consideration by the waste management systems of non-EU countries. The WFD reaffirms the need to move waste management higher in the so called “waste hierarchy”, preferring, in this order, prevention, reuse, recycling and energy recovery over disposal. Separate collection for dry recyclables in municipal solid waste (MSW) should be implemented while separate collection of biowaste should be promoted (although no specific legislative requirements are set) (Nash, 2009).
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Overall, EU and national waste management policies and legislation in many parts of the world are becoming increasingly demanding for the providers of these services, namely municipalities and their associations, demanding high recovery and recycling rates for a wide range of materials and goods, high diversion targets for the biodegradable fraction of the waste, advanced treatment processes, long after-care periods for existing and future landfills etc (COM, 2005; Lasaridi, 2009). Moreover, this increased level of service will need to be provided at the minimum possible cost, as the public will not be able to bear large increases in its waste charges and municipalities are increasingly being required to benchmark their performance, to ensure they offer their waste management services at the most efficient manner (Eunomia, 2002; Karadimas et al., 2007). The current economic crisis inevitably intensifies this need.
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The need for improved performance at low costs is not restricted to developed countries seeking to apply increasingly complex separate waste collection, treatment and recovery systems. Under a different context, it also exerts its pressure to the municipal services of the developing countries, which strive to ensure waste collection and public health protection for the large populations of highly urbanised areas with severe infrastructure and economic limitations (Gautam & Kumar, 2005; Ghose et al., 2006; Kanchanabhan et al., 2011; Vijay et al., 2005).
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Local authorities (LAs) constitute worldwide the main providers of municipal solid waste (MSW) management services, either directly or indirectly through subcontracting part or all of these services. Especially waste collection and transport (WC&T) are typically provided at the local municipality level and constitute the main interface between the waste generator and the waste management system. Assessing the different components of the solid waste management costs is a complex, poly-parametric issue, governed by a multitude of geographic, economic, organisational and technology selection factors (Eunomia, 2002; Lasaridi et al., 2006). However, in all cases WC&T costs constitute a significant component of the overall waste management costs, which may approach 100% in cases where waste is simply dumped. For modern waste management systems WC&T costs vary in the range of 50-75% of the total, which overall is significantly higher, as advanced treatment and safe disposal take their own, large share of the total costs (Sonesson, 2000).
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Therefore, the sector of WC&T attracts particular interest regarding its potential for service optimisation as
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waste management systems with more recyclables’ streams usually require more transport (Sonesson, 2000) and
this sector, even for commingled waste services only, already absorbs a large fraction of the municipal budget available to waste management (Lasaridi et al., 2006).
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Optimisation of WC&T making use of the novel tools offered by spatial modelling techniques and geographic information systems (GIS) may offer large savings, as it is analysed further in this chapter. In spite of their proved utility and a significant development of the relevant research in the last decades in many parts of the world, including most Greek local authorities, WC&T is typically organised empirically and in some cases irrationally, under public pressures.
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The aim of this chapter is to present a methodology for the optimisation of the waste collection and transport system based on GIS technology. The methodology is applied to the Municipality of Nikea (MoN), Athens, Greece based on real field data. The strategy consists of replacing and reallocating the waste collection bins as well as rescheduling the waste collection via GIS routing optimisation. The benefits of the proposed strategy are assessed in terms of minimising collection time, distance travelled and man-effort, and consequently financial and environmental costs of the proposed collection system.
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2. The role of GIS for sustainable waste management
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Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are one of the most sophisticated modern technologies to capture, store, manipulate, analyse and display spatial data. These data are usually organised into thematic layers in the form of digital maps. The combined use of GIS with advanced related technologies (e.g., Global Positioning System – GPS and Remote Sensing - RS) assists in the recording of spatial data and the direct use of these data for analysis and cartographic representation. GIS have been successfully used in a wide variety of applications, such as urban utilities planning, transportation, natural resources protection and management, health sciences, forestry, geology, natural disasters prevention and relief, and various aspects of environmental modelling and engineering (among others: Brimicombe, 2003). Among these applications, the study of complex waste management systems, in particular siting waste management and disposal facilities and optimising WC&T, have been a preferential field of GIS applications, from the early onset of the technology (Esmaili, 1972; Ghose et al., 2006; Golden et al., 1983; Karadimas et al., 2007; Sonesson, 2000). Nowadays, integrated GIS technology has been recognised as one of the most promising approaches to automate the process of waste planning and management (Karadimas & Loumos, 2008).
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As mentioned above, the most widespread application of GIS supported modelling on waste management lies in the areas of landfill siting and optimisation of waste collection and transport, which are discussed in detail in the following section. Additionally, GIS technology has been successfully used for siting of recycling drop-off centres (Chang & Wei, 2000), optimising waste management in coastal areas (Sarptas et al., 2005), estimating of solid waste generation using local demographic and socioeconomic data (Vijay et al., 2005), and waste generation forecasting at the local level (Dyson & Chang 2005; Katsamaki et al., 1998).
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2.1. GIS-based modelling for landfill selection
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The primary idea of superimposition of various thematic maps in order to define the most suitable location according to the properties of the complex spatial units derived after the map overlay, was first introduced in the late 60’s (McHarg, 1969). This idea was applied next within the context of early GIS in many optimal siting applications (Dobson, 1979; Kieferand & Robins, 1973). The allocation of a landfill is a difficult task as it requires the integration of various environmental and socioeconomic data and evolves complicated technical and legal parameters. During this process the challenge is to make an environmentally friendly and financially sound selection. For this purpose, in the last few decades, many studies for landfill site evaluation have been carried out using GIS and multicriteria decision analysis (Geneletti, 2010; Higgs, 2006; Nas et al., 2010; Sener et al., 2006), GIS in combination with analytic hierarchy process (Saaty, 1980) – AHP (Vuppala et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2009), GIS and fuzzy systems (Chang et al., 2008; Gemitzi et al., 2007; Lofti et al., 2007), GIS and factor spatial analysis (Biotto et al., 2009; Kao & Lin, 1996), as well as GIS-based integrated methods (Hatzichristos & Giaoutzi 2006; Gómez-Delgado & Tarantola 2006; Kontos et al., 2003, 2005; Zamorano et al., 2008).
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A large fraction of these applications produce binary outputs while most recent ones aim at evaluating a ”suitability index” as a tool for ranking of the most suitable areas (Kontos et al., 2005). The main steps of a typical GIS – based landfill allocation model (fig.1) are as following.
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Conceptualisation of the evaluation criteria and the hierarchy of the landfill allocation problem. This step is dedicated to the selection of the criteria related to the problem under investigation.
Creation of the spatial database. Here, the development of GIS layers for the modelling is implemented. These layers correspond to the primary variables.
Construction of the criteria – layers within the GIS environment. Criteria maps are primary or secondary variables.
Standardisation of the criteria – layers. This step includes reclassification of the layers in order to use a common scale of measurement. Most often, the ordinal scale is used.
Estimation of the relative importance for the criteria. This estimation is implemented by weighting, e.g. with the use of Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and pair wise comparison between variables.
Calculation of the suitability index. A standard procedure for this step is the weighted overlay of the standardised criteria/layers.
Zoning of the area under investigation is the next phase of the modelling. This classification action is based on the suitability index and reveals the most suitable areas for the application.
Sensitivity analysis and validation of the model.
Final selection – land evaluation.
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Figure 1.
Landfill site selection. A GIS approach.
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It should be noticed that for most of the aforementioned functions the geographic background (in digital format) of the area under investigation is required. Figure 1 demonstrates the data flow of the adopted procedure. Sumanthi et al. (2008) underline that the main advantages of applying GIS technology in the landfill siting process are: “the selection of objective zone exclusion process according to the set of provided screening criteria, the zoning and buffering function, the potential implementation of ‘what if’ data analysis and investigating different potential scenarios related to population growth and area development, as well as checking the importance of the various influencing factors etc., the handling and correlating large amounts of complex geographical data, and the advanced visualization of the output results through graphical representation.”\n\t\t\t\t
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Additionally, the incorporation of various spatial analysis methods, such as geostatistics, analytical hierarchy process, fuzzy logic modelling and many others, constitutes a major advantage of a GIS-based modelling approach. Finally, a particularly useful option of a GIS-based decision making model is the combination of experts knowledge with the opinions of citizens and stakeholders (Geneletti, 2010).
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3. GIS modelling for the optimisation of waste collection and transport
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The optimisation of the routing system for collection and transport of municipal solid waste is a crucial factor of an environmentally friendly and cost effective solid waste management system. The development of optimal routing scenarios is a very complex task, based on various selection criteria, most of which are spatial in nature. The problem of vehicle routing is a common one: each vehicle must travel in the study area and visit all the waste bins, in a way that minimises the total travel cost: most often defined on the basis of distance or time but also fuel consumption, CO2 emissions etc. This is very similar to the classic Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP) (Dantzig et al., 1954). However, the problem of optimising routing of solid waste collection networks is an asymmetric TSP (ATSP) due to road network restrictions; therefore adaptations to the classic TSP algorithm are required, making the problem more complex.
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As the success of the decision making process depends largely on the quantity and quality of information that is made available to the decision makers, the use of GIS modelling as a support tool has grown in recent years, due to both technology maturation and increase of the quantity and complexity of spatial information handled (Santos et al., 2008). In this context, several authors have investigated route optimisation, regarding both waste collection in urban and rural environments and transport minimisation, through improved siting of transfer stations (Esmaili, 1972), landfills (Despotakis & Economopoulos, 2007) and treatment installations for integrated regional waste management (Adamides et al., 2009; Zsigraiova et al., 2009).
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Optimisation of WC&T making use of the novel tools offered by spatial modelling techniques and GIS may provide significant economic and environmental savings through the reduction of travel time, distance, fuel consumption and pollutants emissions (Johansson, 2006; Kim et al., 2006; Sahoo et al., 2005; Tavares et al., 2008). These systems are particularly rare in Greek local authorities, where WC&T is typically organised empirically and in some cases irrationally, under public pressures.
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According to Tavares et al. (2008) “effective decision making in the field of management systems requires the implementation of vehicle routing techniques capable of taking advantage of new technologies such as the geographic information systems”. Using GIS 3D modelling in the island of Santo Antao, Republic of Cape Verde, an area with complex topography, they achieved up to 52% fuel savings compared to the shortest distance, even travelling a 34% longer distance. Nevertheless, most of the previous work relating to optimal routing for solid waste collection is based on the minimisation of the travelled distance and/or time (Apaydin & Gonullu, 2007; Lopez et al., 2008), which is considered a sufficient calculator parameter for fuel consumption and emissions minimisation in flat relief (Brodrick et al., 2002).
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\n\t\t\t\tSahoo et al. (2005) presented a comprehensive route-management system, the WasteRoute for the optimal management of nearly 26000 collection and transfer vehicles that collect over 80 million tons of garbage every year for more than 48 states of USA. The Implementation of WasteRoute across the USA from March 2003 to the end of 2003 yielded 984 fewer routes, saving $18 million.
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\n\t\t\t\tAlvarez et al. (2008) presented a methodology for the design of routes for the “bin to bin” collection of paper and cardboard waste in five shopping areas of the city of Leganés (Community of Madrid, Spain). Their proposed system was based on GIS technology and optimised urban routes according to different restrictions. From the comparison of their system with the previous situation they concluded that the proposed “bin to bin” system improved the quality of the paper and cardboard in the containers, avoiding overflow and reducing the percentage of rejected material.
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\n\t\t\t\tTeixeira et al. (2004) applied heuristic techniques to solve a collection model in order to define the geographic zones served by the vehicles, as well as the collection routes for recyclable waste collection of the centre-littoral region of Portugal. The study indicated that proper modelling of the collection procedure can provide cost effective solutions.
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\n\t\t\t\tNuortio el al. (2006) developed a GIS-based method for the optimisation of waste collection routes in Eastern Finland. They estimated an average route improvement in comparison with the existing practice of about 12%. Moreover they proposed a combination of routing and rescheduling optimisation. This combination in some cases introduced extremely significant savings (~40%). They concluded that by allowing rescheduling it is possible to significantly increase the improvement rate.
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\n\t\t\t\tKaradimas & Loumos (2008) proposed a method for the estimation of municipal solid waste generation, optimal waste collection and calculation of the optimal number of waste bins and their allocation. This method uses a spatial Geodatabase, integrated in a GIS environment and was tested in a part of the municipality of Athens, Greece. After the reallocation of the waste bins, their total number was reduced by more than 30%. This reduction had a direct positive impact on collection time and distance.
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\n\t\t\t\tChalkias & Lasaridi (2009) developed a model in ArcGIS Network Analyst in order to improve the efficiency of waste collection and transport in the Municipality of Nikea, Athens, Greece, via the reallocation of waste collection bins and the optimisation of vehicle routing in terms of distance and time travelled. First results demonstrated that all the examined scenarios provided savings compared to the existing empirical collection organisation, in terms of both collection time (savings of 3.0% -17.0%) and travel distance (savings of 5.5% - 12.5%).
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\n\t\t\t\tApaydin & Gonullu (2007) developed an integrated system with the combination of GIS and GPS technology in order to optimise the routing of MSW collection in Trabzon city, northeast Turkey. The comparison of the proposed optimised routes with the existing ones revealed savings of 4–59% in terms of distance and 14-65% in terms of time, with a benefit of 24% in total cost.
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Finally, Kanchanabhan et al. (2011) attempted to design and develop an appropriate storage, collection and routing system for Tambaram Municipality in South Chennai, India using GIS. The optimal routing was investigated, based on population density, waste generation capacity, road network, storage bins and collection vehicles. They roughly estimated 30% cost-savings with this approach.
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4. The Nikea case study, in Greece
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The total cost for waste collection and transport (WC&T) in Greece frequently accounts for more than 70% of the total municipal solid waste (MSW) management costs. Thus, it is crucial to improve the WC&T system through routing optimisation.
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Here we present a general methodology for the optimisation of the waste collection and transport system, based on GIS, technology for the municipality of Nikea (MoN), Athens, Greece. This methodology was developed using standard GIS and network analysis procedures in order to improve the efficiency of WC&T in the study area via:
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the reallocation of waste collection bins; and
the optimisation of vehicle routing in terms of distance and time travelled, via GIS routing.
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The outputs of various different scenarios examined are finally compared with the empirical routing, which is the current vehicle routing practice. Benefits are assessed in terms of minimising collection time, distance travelled and man-effort, and, consequently, financial and environmental costs of the collection system.
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In Greece Local Authorities (LAs) are by law responsible for waste management (Decrees 25/1975 and 429/1976). Waste collection and transport are provided at the individual municipality level, usually directly through their Waste Management Department. Currently, WC&T of commingled MSW in the country is responsible for a large portion of the total waste management cost (70% - 100%), which is considerably higher than the typical values, of between 50 and 75%, reported for modern waste management systems (Sonesson, 2000). This is observed because the largest fraction of the waste stream is currently landfilled at very low cost, without pre-treatment for materials and/or energy recovery, while in some cases illegal dumping may be still practiced (Lasaridi, 2009).
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4.1. The study area and the existing collection system
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The MoN (Fig. 2) is one of the largest in the Attica Region, lying in the SW part of Athens metropolitan area. It has a permanent population of 95,798 habitants according to the 2001 Census (National Statistical Service of Greece - NSSG, 2001) and a total area of 6.65 km2. Nikea is a typical Greek urban municipality, characterised by multi-storey apartment buildings, combined by lower multiple dwellings (2-4 apartments) and mixed residential and commercial land uses in many neighbourhoods. The annual MSW production in MoN is estimated at 45,625 tn, or 1.30 kg/ca/d.
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Waste collection is carried out mechanically, using 12,107 wheelie bins and 17 rear-end loaded compaction trucks with 9 tn average capacity. Most of the bins are small, of 120 and 240 L capacity, but a few larger ones exist in some central points. The total storage capacity of the bin system is 3.4 million litres. The crew size on the collection vehicle is three persons, a driver who never leaves the truck (as required by safety regulations) and two workers who move and align the bins with the hydraulic lifting mechanism of the truck.
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Nevertheless, due to traffic restrictions and narrow roads, it is estimated that only 70% of the bins are really mechanically collected, with the content of the rest being manually transferred in other bins, by an extra worker walking ahead of the collection vehicle. The Municipality is empirically divided into 15 sectors (collection zones), each of which is further divided into two sub-sectors. Waste is collected in each sub-sector four times per week.
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Figure 2.
The study area: Municipality of Nikea, Athens, Greece.
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This work applies the developed waste collection and transport optimisation methodology in a typical sector (Sector 1) of the municipality with mainly residential land uses. However, some commercial establishments, schools, stadiums and parks are also found in the area. The served equivalent population in Sector 1 (i.e. taking into account the MSW load created by non-residential land uses) is 6,790 people, divided in 63 parcels (building blocks). The total average waste production is 2,610 ton/yr, according to the weighing sheets of the collection vehicles in the period 2005-2007. This corresponds to an average daily commingled waste production of 1.053 kg/ca eq. This is not in contrast with the municipality average reported above, as the former is calculated on the basis of the 2001 census population, while the latter also takes into account the equivalent population corresponding to the non-residential land uses.
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In the current waste collection system, 714 bins are located in Sector 1 (Fig.3), of which 501 are mechanically collected, with total capacity of 157,000 L. The content of the rest is manually transferred to the mechanically collected ones by the extra worker mentioned above. Since Sector 1 is rather flat (mean elevation ~ 50 m) it is assumed that fuel consumption and emissions are linearly related to collection time (Brodrick et al., 2002).
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For waste collection purposes Sector 1 is divided into two sub-sectors both served by one waste collection vehicle. Waste in each sub-sector is collected four times per week, in alternate week days, resulting into eight collection trips per week. Collected waste is disposed of at the Fyli landfill site, about 25 km north-west from Sector 1. The key points to the proposed optimisation approach are:
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the replacement of the existing large number of small bins (120 and 240 L) with a reduced number of larger bins (1100 L);
the resectorisation; and finally,
the optimal routing.
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Using the collected data and the analytical tools of the GIS software, specific proposals are developed regarding the optimisation of the existing WC&T system of commingled MSW. For results assessment both the vehicle trip within the sector and travel to and from the landfill are considered.
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Figure 3.
Waste bins in the study area.
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4.2. Data collection and spatial database description
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To efficiently manage the municipal solid waste system, detailed spatial information is required. This information is related to the geographical background of the area under investigation, as well as to spatial data related to the waste collection procedure. A large amount of waste management data for the period 1998-2007 has been collected and statistically analysed regarding the static and dynamic data of each existing collection program: population density; waste generation rate for mixed waste and for specific waste streams; number, type and positions of waste bins; the road network and the related traffic; the current routing system of the collection vehicles; truck capacities and their characteristics; and the geographic boarders and characteristics of the waste collection sectors. The range of data acquired and utilised is illustrated in Table1.
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For the optimisation of the collection process a spatial geodatabase was constructed, in a standard commercial GIS environment (ArcGIS, ESRI). This choice ensures compatibility with the available data from the municipality and access to many network analysis routines available from the software. The content of the spatial database is summarised in Table 2.
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Background spatial data for road network, existing routes, bins and building parcels were obtained from MoN. These data were updated with field work and other non spatial data such as road name, road type, vehicle average speed, travel time, road slope, bin number, bin type/capacity, bin collection time were added. Furthermore, special attributes of road network were registered. These attributes include traffic rules, traffic marks, topological conditions and special restrictions (e.g. turn restrictions) in order to efficiently model the real world road network conditions.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tData\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSource\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
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Study area boundary
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(MoN Corporation)
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Detailed urban plan of the municipality
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(official toposheet plan)
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Population density distribution
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(National Statistical Service of Greece: NSSG)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Land use of the study area
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(NSSG)
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Satellite image of the municipality
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(Google Earth)
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Road network of the study area
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(official toposheet plan, , field work)
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Road class information: restrictions and traffic volume details
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(official toposheet plan, MoN Corporation, field work)
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Location of waste bins
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(MoN Corporation, field work)
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Capacities of bins
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(MoN Corporation, field work)
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Time schedule for the collection process
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(MoN Corporation, field work)
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Existing collection routes
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(MoN Corporation, field work)
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Vehicle speed, fuel consumption, CO2 and other gas emissions of the compactors
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(MoN Corporation, field work, literature).
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Table 1.
Data collected and their source.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpatial Data\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tType\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGeometry\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Road network
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vector
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Line
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Waste bins
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vector
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Point
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Urban plan / parcels
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vector
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Polygon
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Existing run routes
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vector
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Line
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Street address
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tabular
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-
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Road network attributes / restrictions
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tabular
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-
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Waste bins’ attributes
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tabular
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-
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Population data
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tabular
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(join with parcels)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Land use data
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tabular
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-
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Satellite image of the MoN
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Raster
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-
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Table 2.
The spatial database - type of data and corresponding geometry.
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4.3. Methodology
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The key point of the proposed analysis is GIS technology. GIS provides a powerful context to import, manage and analyse spatially based data. The methodology implemented in this study comprised of three general steps (Fig. 4). Step 1 establishes the spatial database of the study area as described previously. Step 2 is dedicated on the reallocation of waste collection bins with the use of GIS spatial analysis functions. Finally, Step 3 consists of the waste collection routing optimisation for minimum time, distance, fuel consumption and gas emissions. The waste collection optimisation model was developed with the use of ArcGIS 9.2 Network Analyst (NA) GIS software.
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To analyse the spatial data for the optimisation of the waste collection scheme in MoN, a spatial database (SDB), within a GIS framework, was constructed, as previously described, using:
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analogue maps from MoN;
digital data from various official providers (e.g. National Statistical Service);
data derived from field work /on-site data capture with the use of GPS technology.
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Figure 4.
Data flow of the proposed methodology
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4.3.1. Reallocation of waste collection bins and resectorisation
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The next phase of the proposed methodology is related to the reallocation of waste collection bins. This analysis was implemented in a GIS environment with the use of the proper spatial analysis functions. The allocation of waste collection bins in their newly proposed locations was based on the following criteria /restrictions:
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On the basis of the population density and the type of buildings in the study area, bins of 1100L capacity were considered preferable, in order to minimise the number of required bins and vehicle stops. This is the typical bin type used in most Municipalities in the wider Athens area.
The required number of bins (N) was calculated to cover the waste production of the sector for a five trips per week schedule (D=7/5), assuming a waste density in the bin of ρ=110 kg.m-3, and a coefficient of filling the bin, ε = 0.80 of its capacity, according to the equation (1):
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t W\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx D \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV x \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tρ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t x \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tE1
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where WD (kg) is the daily waste quantity and V (m3) is the bin capacity. A 10% safety margin was added to this number (Panagiotakopoulos, 2002).
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Thus, instead of the existing 501 bins of various sizes (§2.2) Sector 1 is covered by 142 large bins (1100L).
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Next, these bins are allocated in the study area according to the following rules:
allocate bins on the road network (intersections are preferable);
install proposed bins near an existing bin location (in a buffer zone of 60 m radius); and,
allow the placement of more than one bin in the same intersection. The number of bins sharing the same intersection point is related to the land use and population of the covered area.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 5 illustrates the proposed reallocation of waste bins in the sector under investigation.
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Figure 5.
Reallocation of waste collection bins in the new sector
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The definition of the new sectors is restricted by the capacity of the available waste collection vehicles. Thus, the size (in terms of the number of bins) of a new sector was estimated at the 2/3 of the existing sector. Therefore, instead of 4 routes per week for each of the two subsectors (total: 8 routes per week) we designed smaller sectors and schedule 5 routes per week in these new sectors.
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As a result of the above mentioned approach, each new sector should contain 95 bins, which can be collected in one vehicle trip. The reallocation of bins was based on travel distance from each residence to the nearest bin and the general intention to decrease the total number of bins. A maximum travel distance of 60 meters from each resident to the proposed new site of the bin was allowed. Moreover, the introduction of new bins with larger capacity, to accommodate for the same waste quantity, ensures the decrease in the total number of bins and collection stops. A higher priority for the allocation of the new bins was given to locations of bins in the existing system and to crossroads in order to facilitate social acceptance and collection vehicle travel.
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Summarising, we assume a new waste collection planning: the MoN is divided into 22 new sectors and each collection vehicle should make 5 collections per week in each of these sectors. Thus we propose an improved collection schedule for the study area, as the vehicle collects each bin 5 times per week instead of 4, according to the existing situation. For this study we did not proceed to the full re-sectorisation for the total area of the municipality, but limited our approach within Sector1. Thus, we assumed a new sector (Sector_N1) within Sector1, with the properties described above (2/3 of the size of Sector 1, 5 collections per week). The evaluation of the results of the proposed modelling approach was based on the comparison between Sector_N1 and corresponding part of Sector1.
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4.3.2. Routing – Network Analysis
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After the reallocation of the waste collection bins and the definition of Sector_N1 the optimisation of waste collection vehicle routing was performed, using the ArcGIS Network Analyst modelling package. The optimal path finding algorithm of NA is an alteration of the classic Dijkstra\'s algorithm (Dijkstra, 1959) which solves the problem of optimal route selection on an undirected, nonnegative weighted graph in a reasonable computational time.
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Figure 6.
Optimal waste collection route.
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In the literature, many modifications and new algorithms have been used for the incorporation of the aforementioned restrictions. In the context of ArcGIS Network Analyst commercial GIS software, this algorithm is improved further, using effective data structures such as d-heaps (ESRI, 2006). To use it within the context of real transportation data, this algorithm must be modified in order to respect real problem restrictions, such as one-way roads, prohibited turns (e.g. U-turns), demand at intersections (nodes) and along the roads, and side-of-street constraints while minimising a user-specified cost attribute. The key point is to build a cost matrix containing the costs between origins and destinations. These points correspond to pairs of vehicle stops (waste bins).
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The total vehicle travel time is the sum of the travel time for each road segment plus the collection time for emptying of the bins. The user can define all the relevant traffic restrictions described above, the time delay for each stop for bin collection, as well as the first and last collection stop within the sector. The final output is the optimal solution in terms of distance or time criteria (fig. 6).
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4.4. Results and discussion
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The method described above was applied to simulate the waste collection procedure of the study area. Based on the methodology presented in the previous sections and the criteria and restrictions introduced in ArcGIS Network Analyst, different routing solutions were created for the collection of the new bins (95 bins of 1100 L) in their new location within Sector_N1. Evaluation of the results of the developed methodology is based on the comparison of the proposed waste collection scenario (Sp) with the existing one (Se). The time needed during waste collection has three distinct components:
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time for hauling; (assumed as 25+25 km with average speed 50 km/h);
time for driving during collection; and,
time for emptying the bins.
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The parameters input to the model were based on real data provided by the MoN and verified by field studies. More specifically, the time for emptying of the bins (bin loading, emptying and unloading – component 3) is 30 sec for bins with capacity up to 330 L and 60sec for bins with capacity equal to or larger than 660 L. The time for driving during collection (component 2) is determined by the average speed of the collection vehicle in the travel between stops and the total distance travelled in the collection segment of the route. For MoN the average speed is 5, 10 and 15 km/hr for 1-way, 2-way and central roads, respectively.
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Both parameters are not readily available and default literature values are scarce. Sonesson (2000) reports values for the time required for bin emptying from empirical data for the wider Uppsala area in Sweden, as follows: 68.4 sec for inner city, 43.2 sec for suburbia and 57.4 sec for rural areas. Although the bin size is not defined, these values are in good agreement with the observed figures in the MoN. The author also reports an average collection speed of 20, 30 and 50 km/h for inner city, suburbs and rural areas, respectively. This is higher than the values achieved in MoN (conditions comparable with the inner city in Uppsala). Possible explanation is twofold:
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different conditions of the road network and traffic in the two cities; and,
a denser matrix of collection points, due to a higher population density, allowing for shorter distances travelled between collection points and therefore lower speed.
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Nevertheless, the vehicle speed used for central roads in Nikea (15 km/h) compares well with the inner city collection speed in Uppsala (20 km/h).
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The comparison of results, on a weekly basis, between the existing collection scenario (Se) and the proposed one (Sp) is illustrated in Table 3. The optimal solution expressed in Scenario Sp (Fig. 6) corresponds to 287 km of distance travelled by the waste collection vehicle on a weekly basis. This provides a 3% improvement when compared to the existing equivalent empirical route (Se). The improvement is more significant if assessed in terms of the total travel time in the optimal route, defined as the runtime of the collection vehicle plus collection time for the waste bins. The total travel time, on a weekly basis, for the optimal route (Sp) is estimated to be 1225 minutes (18% reduction compared to the empirical route (Se). For the calculations the hauling time to the Fyli landfill (~25 km from Sector 1) should be added. Assuming an average speed of 50 km/h, the travel time to and from Fyli is about one hour.
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Restricting the discussion to the collection phase only of the WC&T cycle, it is expected that fuel consumption relates more to time of operation and number of stops than distance travelled, as most of the collection time is spent for bin loading and emptying. Fuel consumption and corresponding gas emissions are functions of work performed for stopping and accelerating, actual driving, traffic related stops and lifting and compacting the waste (Sonesson 2000).
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSavings\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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Distance (km)
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296.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
287.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9 (3.1%)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Time (h)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
24.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.5 (18.1%)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Vmean (km/h)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.1
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2.2 (18.5%)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fuel consumption (L)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
266.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
230.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
36.9 (13.8%)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cost (in €, 1L=1.4 E)
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373.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
322.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
51.6 (13.8%)*
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
CO2 (kg)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
274.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
240.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.9 (12.7%)
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\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Comparison between the existing (Se) and the proposed (Sp) waste collection scenarios. (*) Cost savings are restricted to fuel costs and would be higher if maintenance and personnel costs were considered.
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Therefore, even for the same distance travelled, changes in the number of stops, i.e. the number of the collected bins, can considerably affect fuel consumption and respectively, CO2 emissions. In this study fuel consumption values and CO2 emissions were calculated for heavy vehicles (8 – 16 tones) using the following formula (Hickman, 1999):
where: ε is the emission value (gr/Km); K: constant value; a-f: coefficients; and, v: mean velocity of the vehicle (km/h).
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The heavy dependence of collection time on the number of stops in combination with the new time schedule constitutes the main explanatory factor for the significant differences in the percentage savings in distance and time. Routing using the GIS modelling resulted to a 3.1% improvement of the distance travelled, although larger new sectors were proposed in comparison with the existing subsectors. In all the other values (fuel consumption, collection cost and CO2 emissions, the percentage savings are estimated to exceed 10%. Finally, according to rough calculations, (extrapolation of the percentage savings to the total area of the municipality), the total savings for the municipality in one year, only from the reduction in fuel consumption, could approximate €68,000 and 46 tons CO2 emissions, compared with the existing collection procedure.
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5. Conclusions
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GIS technology supports the optimisation of municipal solid waste management as it provides an efficient context for data capture, analysis and presentation. Two main categories of GIS-based waste management applications can be identified in the international literature. In the first, GIS is used for the selection of waste disposal landfills, and to a smaller extent, other waste treatment facilities. Most of these applications benefit from map overlay GIS functions and spatial allocation modelling methods. The final output of an application of that type is the suitability map of the area under investigation. This map could be the core of a spatial decision support system for a landfill site / waste treatment facility selection problem.
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The second, more complex category of GIS supported waste management applications is related to waste collection. There are several applications for route optimisation, reallocation of waste bins and complete redesign of the collection sectors. The main aim of these applications is to reduce the collection distance and/or time of the collection vehicle fleet. The implementation of GIS-based modelling for waste collection optimisation in many countries with different socioeconomic conditions and technological background shows that significant savings could be achieved in most setups. The optimisation of routing has a direct positive impact on cost savings (reduction of fuel consumption and maintenance costs) as well as significant environmental impacts due to the lower levels of sound pollution within the urban environment and the reduction of greenhouse gases emissions. The application of GIS-based waste collection modelling should consider the following aspects, in order to provide reliable results:
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Accurate and up to date information about the road network of the area under investigation.
Detailed capture of the spatial properties of the existing collection system (collection routes, location and attributes of waste bins, existing time schedule). Most often, especially in developing countries, the research team has to acquire this information with field work.
Installation of a modern GIS facility within the municipality enriched with network analysis functions. Advanced training of the staff is a very important factor for the efficient operation of this system.
Validation of the outputs from GIS-based modelling in order to ensure the applicability of the proposed routes in real life conditions.
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Nowadays, although GIS-supported waste collection modelling is a mature scientific field the general diffusion of this technology is hampered by factors such as the absence and the poor quality of digital spatial data, the high cost of spatial data capture and the lack of personnel with the proper technological background to operate such modelling.
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The methodology developed in this study and its application to the Municipality of Nikea, Athens, resulted in significant savings, especially in terms of time (18%), fuel consumption (13.8%) and CO2 emissions (12.7%). The study demonstrated the value of GIS technology as a waste collection optimisation tool, capable of supporting decision making, in the context of a Mediterranean, densely populated city. The adoption of this technology could provide significant financial and environmental benefits for local communities.
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\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/17448.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/17448.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17448",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17448",totalDownloads:8967,totalViews:2597,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:24,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:9,impactScorePercentile:97,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 18th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 15th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 23rd 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/17448",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/17448",book:{id:"171",slug:"integrated-waste-management-volume-i"},signatures:"Christos Chalkias and Katia Lasaridi",authors:[{id:"27223",title:"Prof.",name:"Christos",middleName:"N.",surname:"Chalkias",fullName:"Christos Chalkias",slug:"christos-chalkias",email:"xalkias@hua.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Harokopio University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"33249",title:"Prof.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Lasaridi",fullName:"Katia Lasaridi",slug:"katia-lasaridi",email:"klasar@hua.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Harokopio University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The role of GIS for sustainable waste management ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. GIS-based modelling for landfill selection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. GIS modelling for the optimisation of waste collection and transport",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. The Nikea case study, in Greece",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1. The study area and the existing collection system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2. Data collection and spatial database description",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.3. Methodology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.3.1. Reallocation of waste collection bins and resectorisation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.3.2. Routing – Network Analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.4. Results and discussion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAdamides\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. 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Management of Environmental Quality, 1477-7835\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t19\n\t\t\t\t\t444\n\t\t\t\t\t454\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B51",body:'\n\t\t\t\tTeixeira, J., Antunes, A., P., de Sousa, J., P.2004\n\t\t\t\t\tEuropean Journal of Operational Research\n\t\t\t\t\tRecyclable waste collection planning-a case study.\n\t\t\t\t\t0377-2217\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t158\n\t\t\t\t\t543\n\t\t\t\t\t554\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B52",body:'\n\t\t\t\tVijay, R., Gupta, A., Kalamdhad, A.S., Devotta, S.2005\n\t\t\t\t\tWaste Management & Research\n\t\t\t\t\tEstimation and allocation of solid waste to bin through geographical information systems.\n\t\t\t\t\t0073-4242\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t23\n\t\t\t\t\t479\n\t\t\t\t\t484\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B53",body:'\n\t\t\t\tVuppala, P., Asadi, S.S., Reddy, M.A.2006\n\t\t\t\t\tPollution Research\n\t\t\t\t\tSolid waste disposal site selection using analytical hierarchy process and geographical information system.\n\t\t\t\t\t0257-8050\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t73\n\t\t\t\t\t76\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B54",body:'\n\t\t\t\tWang, G., Qin L., Li G., Chen L2009\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Environmental Management\n\t\t\t\t\tLandfill site selection using spatial information technologies and AHP: A case study in Beijing, China.\n\t\t\t\t\t0301-4797\n\t\t\t\t\t8\n\t\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t\t\t2414\n\t\t\t\t\t2421\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B55",body:'\n\t\t\t\tZamorano, M., Molero E., Hurtado A., Grindlay A., Ramos, A.2008\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Hazardous Materials\n\t\t\t\t\tEvaluation of a municipal landfill site in Southern Spain with GIS-aided methodology.\n\t\t\t\t\t0304-3894\n\t\t\t\t\t30\n\t\t\t\t\t160\n\t\t\t\t\t473\n\t\t\t\t\t481\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B56",body:'\n\t\t\t\tZsigraiova, Z., Tavares, G., Semiao, V., Carvalho, M.G.2009\n\t\t\t\t\tEnergy\n\t\t\t\t\tIntegrated waste-to-energy conversion and waste transportation within island communities.\n\t\t\t\t\t0360-5442\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t34\n\t\t\t\t\t623\n\t\t\t\t\t635\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B57",body:'\n\t\t\t\tHickman, Α. J. (1999). Methodology for Calculating Transport Emissions and Energy Consumption, Project Report SE/491/98, UK: Transport Research Laboratory.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B58",body:'\n\t\t\t\tLopez Alvarez, J.V., Aguilar Larrucea, M., Fernandez-Carrion Quero, S., Jimenez del Valle, A. (2008). Optimizing the collection of used paper from small businesses through GIS techniques: The Legane΄s case (Madrid, Spain). Waste Management, Vol.28, No. 2, 2008, pp. 282–293, ISSN: 0956-053X\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Chalkias Christos",address:null,affiliation:'
Harokopio University, Department of Geography, Greece
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1. Introduction
The foundation of Lean thinking dates back to the 1900s, when Henry Ford, founder of Ford Motor Company, came up with an entire production process relying on interchangeable parts with standard work and moving conveyance for creating a flow production [1]. Melton [2] defines Lean as a revolution indicating that Lean is not just utilizing tools and techniques or making a few changes in processes, rather he defines Lean as a complete change in businesses to observe supply chain operations, managerial decisions, and daily work of employees in an organization. The authors of the book named “The Machine that Changed the World”, which is one of the most influential books implied that the Lean way results in better products at a lower cost as well as encouraging employees to overcome challenges in production processes [3]. Even though Lean manufacturing has first found its roots at Ford, it was later investigated by Toyota Motor Company. The Japanese engineer Taiichi Ohno, who had several visits to Ford factories to observe production processes. However, Taiichi Ohno found some methods implemented at Ford as needing improvements. Therefore, Sakichi Toyoda, his son, Kiichiro Toyoda, and Taiichi Ohno came up with the concept of Lean Manufacturing, which was first called just-in-time (JIT) production [4]. Taiichi Ohno was responsible for implementing the new ideas that evolved into the Toyota Production System (TPS). Then, Taiichi Ohno hired Shigeo Shingo to work on the setup reduction problem at Toyota. Shingo later named this successful process the famous Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED) system. This is how production ideas evolved at Toyota leading to technical innovations.
The lean manufacturing concept was first articulated as a shop floor practice to reach higher efficiency in processes being implemented with JIT and Toyota Production System (TPS) [5, 6]. It was also mentioned that Lean manufacturing in the 1980s rather focused on shop floor techniques and inventory reduction as well as value-added processes in the supply chain [7, 8]. Lean manufacturing is now implemented as a popular manufacturing practice in various countries and industries [9]. The ultimate goal intended by Lean organizations is to have a high-quality organization responsive to customer demands with no waste. On the other hand, most manufacturing organizations fail to realize the transformation for Lean due to a range of challenges faced [6]. The majority of the previous studies implied that even though most Lean organizations aim to implement Lean in the best way, they fail at some point as a matter of fact [10, 11]. However, the organizations are still seeking ways to improve their Lean approach and effectively practice Lean methods.
The success of Lean thinking in the manufacturing industry positively affected the construction industry. However, the construction industry is a conservative and fragmented industry, which makes innovations less welcomed by industry practitioners [12]. On the other hand, low productivity rates and intentions to improve workforce efficiency led the construction industry to implement innovative technologies.
The term ‘Lean Construction’ was first articulated by the International Group for Lean Construction (IGLC) in 1993. Glenn Ballard and Greg Howell, the two construction practitioners who first considered Lean in construction projects, started the Lean Construction Institute (LCI) in 1997 to provide and share information about the management of construction projects in the most effective way. They observed that only 50% of the tasks on weekly work plans in construction projects are completed on time by foremen in a given week [13, 14, 15]. They proposed that construction practitioners can avoid these problems with active management of variability, starting with the structuring of the project (temporary production system) and continuing through its operation and improvement” [16]. This indicated that the construction industry is facing similar challenges to the manufacturing industry. Hence, the principles of the TPS and methods of Lean productions started to have been practiced in the industry by adapting them for construction.
Considering the similarity of challenges and need for improvement in both manufacturing and construction, the Lean methods have evolved with the methods for implementing. Hence, the main purpose of this chapter is to provide the background of Lean thinking in both manufacturing and construction along with presenting a bunch of Lean methods, which are widely practiced by industry practitioners. The chapter also mentions how Lean methods in production have changed when they are being implemented in the construction industry.
2. Background of lean production and lean construction: Interaction in terms of tools, techniques, and methods
Due to the quick industrialization after the industrial revolution, the world has become a place, where natural resources are unconsciously consumed and environmental problems increase. All these negative conditions have caused the run out of natural resources, distortion in the ozone layer, decrease in biodiversity, increase in environmental contamination, and global warming. Therefore, the removal of all these problems and negative conditions is one of the most important challenges of today’s world. This leads to a considerable increase in the number of studies regarding the prevention of environmental problems, conscious use of natural resources, and a cleaner and healthier environment to be inherited by the next generations. In this context, Lean is a newly emerging concept for the majority of industry encouraging the effective use of resources. One of the major challenges of today’s world is to execute projects more efficiently with respect to project objectives. At this point, Lean thinking aims to minimize waste while maximizing value to the customer.
Lean Production was the term coined by [17] to refer to Toyota’s offering of high value, low-volume, and cost-competitive production to best address customer desires [18]. After the success of lean production in the automotive industry [19], Toyota’s Lean thinking was applied in other industries. The construction industry produces more waste than any other industry in the entire world [20]. The waste oftentimes occurs in the form of workforce loss, safety breaches, material waste, and low efficiency. To avoid these, Lean construction has proven to be an effective means of production management for project delivery, i.e., designing and building capital facilities. Lean Construction is important in that it adopts the principle of minimizing waste and maximizing value while improving the total project performance per customer expectations. The need behind Lean construction comes from the failure of mass production and the persistence of craft-based production in the construction industry. Due to the changing needs of the customer, Lean construction is essential to provide the desired variety. To minimize waste and maximize value, researchers have previously focused on several different Lean construction methods. For example, it was implied that modular construction is effective in reducing waste and achieving resource efficiency [21]. This study also demonstrated that modular is reusable, which evidences the essential function of modular construction. In another study, it was indicated that there are several waste factors in mid/high-rise building projects and the determination of those waste factors is essential [22]. Therefore, Lean construction has proposed an opportunity for estimating the impacts of waste on overall project performance [23].
Sacks et al. [24] implied the importance of Lean production management systems in reducing waste in construction. Kalsaas [25] highlighted that measurement of waste and workflow is essential for the achievement of continuous improvement in construction projects. El.Reifi et al. [26] emphasized that Lean thinking is essential in the briefing process, where the design team develops their designs with respect to clients’ desires. Fullalove [27] provided that the use of Lean techniques resulted in significant benefits such as an increase in return on investment and efficiency savings in UK road constructions. Marhani et al. [28] indicated that the application of Lean thinking into the construction industry provides a tremendous opportunity for the reduction of waste and an increase in production. Zhao and Chua [29] demonstrated that the reduction of non-value adding activities has a significant contribution to the construction productivity improvement. Aziz and Hafez [30] concluded that lean projects are safer, easier to manage, completed sooner, cost-effective, and are of better quality by referring to the impact of lean in minimizing waste in construction. Boyce [31] investigated the aspects of Lean thinking and concluded that it helps to improve the design phase of complex projects by emphasizing the essential function of a collaborative planning process in highway design. Going Lean is needed for the defective processes in mass production and craft production. Hence, Lean is an effective approach for customer satisfaction and enhanced project performance as previously implied by several studies [32, 33]. However, there is still a need for more effective Lean techniques to be applied in the construction projects especially given that the industry generally is reluctant to embrace and slow to adopt change.
Given this background, this chapter presents the most applied methods of Lean in the construction industry with inference to Lean production. The construction industry is utilizing most of the Lean techniques developed for manufacturing. Hence, it is essential to present these tools and techniques to guide industry practitioners for the proper implementation of the methods.
3. Lean methods: how tools and techniques are evolved
Lean methods have been heavily implemented in the manufacturing industry. Over time, the efficiency and reliability of the methods have been proven. This encouraged other industries to benefit from Lean methods. Since the construction industry relies on a heavy workforce, it is essential to utilize safer, reliable, and efficient methods and technologies.
In production, it is of utmost importance to eliminate ‘waste’. Waste or ‘muda’ in Japanese is simply defined as anything other than the minimum amount of parts, materials, equipment, and work time specific to production [34]. There are seven waste types defined as overproduction, waiting time, transportation, inventory, processing, motion, and product defects. Lean manufacturing aims to manage processes without waste. However, it was evidenced that several companies are still challenging with staying Lean [35]. Kongguo [36] implied that Lean thinking helps conceive the Lean principles better, which first starts with realizing the customer value and continues with identifying value-added activities, generating flow, implementing the pull system, and sustaining continuous improvement. To improve the efficiency in those, various Lean methods and techniques are developed and practiced in manufacturing organizations. Some of them have been more effective in other industries such as construction.
Below are the widely implemented Lean techniques that have evolved and be used in the construction industry.
3.1 The last planner system (LPS)
LPS was originally developed by Glenn Ballard in 1993 in accordance with Lean construction principles. LPS is a Lean construction tool that focuses on increasing productivity by creating weekly work plans. The weekly plan includes tasks related to work and the individuals executing these tasks are called the Last planners [13]. LPS allows quick monitoring of the work-related issues for all construction personnel. LPS also provides an environment, where mistakes are visible. However, problems might occur, and timely actions are not taken in traditional construction management leading to late delivery of projects [36]. The Last planner is the person, who directly supervises the work. This person is usually responsible for production capability. The Last planner can be anybody like a project engineer, department manager, or foreman [37]. Figure 1 presents the Last Planner System.
Figure 1.
Last planner system (adapted from [38]).
The tasks are split into two as needed and weekly. As needed tasks involve ‘should’ tasks, whereas weekly tasks include ‘can’, will’, ‘did’ tasks. In ‘should’, the tasks include work to be done to reach the determined milestones according to the project plans. These tasks are created from different data such as customer demands, project goals, and information, planner stuff’s former experiences. In ‘can’, the fundamental tasks are reflecting the actual work that is executed with respect to the constraints of the project. In this process, the required materials and labor are ready, where the previous project stage is completed. In ‘will’, the tasks ensure the work to be completed after all constraints are assessed. In ‘did’, the tasks refer to completed work [39].
3.2 5S method
5S is a Japanese method of organizing the workspace in a clean, efficient, and safe manner to create a productive work environment. The 5S is a starting point for any company aiming to be recognized as a responsible and reliable producer [40]. In Japanese, the 5S methodology represents 5 different words, which all start with the letter S. Figure 2 presents these five steps, respectively.
Figure 2.
5S stages.
Sort (Seiri): Sorting is the first stage of 5S. It is the process of sorting out (separating) materials and equipment needed or unneeded. This process might result in fewer complaints, improved communication among employees, and an increase in the quality and efficiency of production. This process allows workers to take the next steps such as tagging the items.
Set in order (seiton): This stage refers to make all equipment needed for production accessible and prepared for use. This step also refers to organize all equipment and material for easy access and facilitation for production. This step requires the work area to be organized for production. A map can be drawn to represent station and equipment places.
Shine (seiso): This step refers to cleaning polluted equipment and work area. Pollution can be detected by sense organs and this might help find out the problem before it occurs. This stage also refers to sweeping everywhere cleanly and taking all kinds of unwanted objects away from the working environment. Thus, abnormalities can be noticed immediately, and the decision to clean materials after separation becomes easier.
Standardize (seiketsu): This stage refers to cleaning and maintaining the arrangement and standardizing that. The main purpose of this step is to fully meet 3S requirements and to detect and eliminate the root cause of problems. The way to ensure these is to constantly check the environment and detect deficiencies.
Sustain/self-discipline (shitsuke): This step encompasses all stages. It includes checking the existing system, training the employees, establishing good communication, and rewarding. The main purpose of this step is to get into the habit of maintaining the correct procedures [41].
3.3 Mistakeproofing (Poka yoke)
“Mistake proofing, or its Japanese equivalent poka-yoke (pronounced PO-ka yo-KAY), is the use of any automatic device or method that either makes it impossible for an error to occur or makes the error immediately obvious once it has occurred” [42]. Mistake proofing is an effective quality control technique to avoid human error, which might cause mistakes or defects [43]. Shingo [44] defines three inspection techniques for quality control, namely the judgment inspection, informative inspection, and source inspection. Judgment inspection is for discovering defects, whereas informative inspection is used to lower defect rates by controlling the process and prevent defects. Source inspection rather searches the conditions that exist for an error-free action.
Poka yokes might be grouped into three as shutdown poka-yoke, control poka-yoke, and warning poka-yoke in terms of their functions. The poka-yoke devices check different and important parameters and detect whether the process has an improper action. This check allows detecting whether the product manufactured has defects or not. The shutdown of poka-yokes constitutes an important part to prevent defects eliminating the possibility of error. The control poka-yoke is built into the production equipment and works as a redactor. When the device finds an unwanted condition that occurred during manufacturing processes, it signals production to avoid defects. The warning poka-yoke warns the operator with either visual symbols or sound signals for errors. The warning poka-yokes rely on human factors, where it is not quite certain to avoid defects in the production processes [45].
Mistake-proofing has six principles namely elimination, prevention, replacement, facilitation, detection, and mitigation. The first four principles intend to prevent the occurrence of human error, whereas the last two principles are to minimize the effects after the occurrence of human error. Figure 3 presents these six principles along with their tasks.
Figure 3.
Mistake proofing principles.
The use of mistake-proofing devices also provides various advantages in terms of safety at the workplace [46]. It is possible to create fail-safe approaches in manufacturing with the use of such tools and devices. Considering the high accident rates in the construction industry, the use of mistake-proofing devices is also effective means of enhancing safety performance and avoiding human errors leading to work-related accidents.
3.4 Visual management
Visual management is a broadly implemented Lean technique in the manufacturing industry. This technique helps to make information visible for all showing the information through visual signals [47]. Visual management has recently been used as a system enabling employees to better understand their role and contribution with respect to organizational values and customer needs. Nevertheless, the critical role of visual management has not yet been understood well by the construction industry. For example, two types of visual means such as 3D and visual planning are utilized in construction design [48]. Visual management helps increase communication, transparency, and stakeholders’ capabilities [49, 50]. Therefore, construction companies must make use of these techniques to provide a better environment for their employees increasing efficiency and productivity.
3.5 Target value design (TVD)
Target Value Design (TVD) is simply defined as “a management practice that steers the design and construction of the project to the customer’s constraints while maximizing the value delivered within those constraints” [51]. TVD is an emerging practice in the U.S. construction industry for cost predictability during design, construction, and delivery. It is adapted from the Target Costing method of manufacturing, which first appeared as a profit planning and strategic management approach in the 1930s [52]. This technique is promising for several benefits for the construction industry, where the companies are still struggling with project constraints such as cost, quality, and time. Therefore, TVD is an effective means of collaborative Lean approach in terms of reducing construction costs [53]. It was further indicated that the systematic application of TVD resulted in significant improvement in project performance based on 12 construction projects, where TVD was introduced. Figure 4 presents the TVD process with respect to construction project phases.
Figure 4.
TVD process scheme [53].
3.6 Value stream mapping (VSM)
Value Stream Mapping is an essential tool to identify and comprehend the productive stream focusing on the identification of waste sources, such as waiting for products and inventories, rework, information lost in the process, non-value-adding activities besides the identification of opportunities for improvement [54]. With VSM, it is possible to improve the information stream in the design process through the inclusion of alternative methods of control. This creates a base for incentives and future actions to generate value [55].
VSM helps visualize the whole rather than isolated parts of the process as well as monitoring the products, documents, and information. It also allows simultaneous visibility of streams of materials and information; visualization of indicators such as throughput time, percentage of value aggregation, lots size, and cycle time for the performance of activities [56].
VSM consists of several steps such as mapping activity for a family of products, defining the current state map of the value stream, and creating the future value stream map, where improvement takes place based on the proper identification of problems [54, 56]. Figure 5 presents the steps for VSM.
Figure 5.
VSM processes.
3.7 5 whys and root cause analysis
5 Whys is a quality management tool of problem-solving aiming to find the root cause of an event [57]. It directs that one needs to ask five times repeatedly to identify the root cause of a problem for the fact that the solution is clear. This procedure aims to eliminate the root cause to prevent its recurrence [58]. Figure 6 shows the 5 Whys procedure for finding the problem’s root cause.
Figure 6.
5 whys analysis procedure.
Considering the risky nature of construction projects, it is of utmost importance to determine the root cause of the problems leading to unwanted situations. Therefore, 5 Whys analysis is an essential method for preventing problems either from occurring or recurring. Therefore, utilizing the 5 Whys method might result in higher efficiency and productivity, where risky conditions are eliminated.
3.8 Gemba walks
Gemba is a Japanese word and it stands for the “actual place” [59]. For creating value in the organization, the actual place must enable employees to manufacture with less waste, fewer challenges, less overload, land ess overproduction. At this point, Gemba walks are essential to go and see the current situation and understand the root cause of the problem. In the Lean construction context, walking means “go see, ask why, show respect” [60]. Gemba walks help making the problems visible and create improvement ideas with the proper consideration of the root cause. It also allows collecting data regarding the root cause leading to problems. In the construction industry, it is clear that Gemba walks constitute an important part since the majority of the processes in construction need improvements and require the proper identification of the root cause for problems.
3.9 Daily huddle meetings
Daily huddle meetings take place, where team members are ready to share what they achieved and what they challenge. A huddle meeting can also be organized as a weekly work plan meeting highlighting the completion of assignments for the following week in addition to discussing the work to be done that day [61]. The huddle meetings enhance the job satisfaction of employees while strengthening two-way communication among the team [62]. Daily huddle meetings create an opportunity for employees to involve in discussions and indicate the positive and negative sides of their tasks. The employees also find room for solving problems together during those meetings. These meetings also help detect the causes of accidents, which are associated with poor communication and coordination [63]. Hence, daily huddle meetings must be organized, and employees are encouraged to speak up on the tasks listing good and bad sides.
4. Conclusions
This chapter presented the historical evolution of Lean management and how Lean is adopted in the construction industry. The study presented the core principles of Lean along with the most widely adopted practices. According to the information presented in this chapter, one may advocate that the construction industry still struggling with the adaption of various Lean manufacturing practices into construction. Therefore, it is apparent that more research has to be conducted to provide a guideline for the industry practitioners in terms of benefitting from Lean practices at maximum. On the other hand, the methods, tools, and techniques presented in this chapter are expected to lead industry practitioners in terms of scrutinizing Lean concepts and evaluate those in the context of project conditions. As future work, the efficiency of Lean methods both applied in manufacturing and construction might be compared based on different operating processes.
\n',keywords:"lean manufacturing, productivity, efficiency, lean construction, lean methods",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75657.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75657.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75657",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75657",totalDownloads:340,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"November 1st 2020",dateReviewed:"January 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 10th 2021",datePublished:"November 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"March 10th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Lean manufacturing first emerged in the automotive industry. However, low productivity and low efficiency in production are major problems for the majority of industries relying on a heavy workforce. Being one of these, the construction industry suffers from low productivity rates along with inefficient work practices. To prevent those, the industry has shifted its focus from the traditional approach to a more innovative one, which is called Lean construction. Lean construction aims to maximize value while minimizing waste. Therefore, it intends to create safer, smoother, and more efficient processes to eliminate waste. This chapter focuses on Lean construction and highlights the generic Lean tools and techniques practiced in the construction industry indicating its historical journey from Lean manufacturing. The chapter aims to raise awareness towards the efficiency of Lean methods in the construction industry with respect to practices observed in manufacturing.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75657",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75657",signatures:"Sevilay Demirkesen",book:{id:"10548",type:"book",title:"Lean Manufacturing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Lean Manufacturing",slug:"lean-manufacturing",publishedDate:"November 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Karmen Pažek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10548.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-150-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-149-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-151-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"179642",title:"Prof.",name:"Karmen",middleName:null,surname:"Pažek",slug:"karmen-pazek",fullName:"Karmen Pažek"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"338001",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sevilay",middleName:null,surname:"Demirkesen",fullName:"Sevilay Demirkesen",slug:"sevilay-demirkesen",email:"demirkesen@gtu.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background of lean production and lean construction: Interaction in terms of tools, techniques, and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Lean methods: how tools and techniques are evolved",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 The last planner system (LPS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 5S method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Mistakeproofing (Poka yoke)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Visual management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Target value design (TVD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Value stream mapping (VSM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.7 5 whys and root cause analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.8 Gemba walks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.9 Daily huddle meetings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lean Enterprise Institute (LEI) 2021. 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Y., Tommelein, I. D., Swanlund, E. S. and Howell, G. A. 2004. Work Structuring to Achieve Integrated Product-Process Design. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. Vol. 130, Iss. 6. pp. 180-189.'},{id:"B59",body:'Imai, M. (2007). Gemba Kaizen. A commonsense, low-cost approach to management. In Das Summa Summarum des Management (pp. 7-15). Gabler.'},{id:"B60",body:'Womack, J. (2011). Gemba Walks. Lean Enterprise Institute.'},{id:"B61",body:'Zhang, L., & Chen, X. (2016). Role of lean tools in supporting knowledge creation and performance in lean construction. Procedia Engineering, 145, 1267-1274.'},{id:"B62",body:'Ogunbiyi, O., Oladapo, A. and Goulding, J. (2013), “A review of lean concept and its application to sustainable construction in the UK”, International Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering and Technology, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 82-92.'},{id:"B63",body:'Enshassi, A., Saleh, N., & Mohamed, S. (2019). 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Various technical variants of this test can detect antigen (native or foreign) or antibody, determine the intensity of the immune response whether pathological or not; the type of induced immune response as well as the innate immunity potential; and much more. These capabilities, as well as the high sensitivity and robustness of the test and a small price, make it possible to quickly and reliably diagnose diseases in most laboratories. Besides, ELISA is a test that is also used in veterinary medicine, toxicology, allergology, food industry, etc. Despite the fact that it has existed for almost 50 years, different ELISA tests with different technical solutions are still being developed, which improves and expands the application of the this exceptional test. The aim of this chapter is to empower the rider to optimize, standardize and validate an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.",book:{id:"9850",slug:"norovirus",title:"Norovirus",fullTitle:"Norovirus"},signatures:"Rajna Minic and Irena Zivkovic",authors:[{id:"325806",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Zivkovic",slug:"irena-zivkovic",fullName:"Irena Zivkovic"},{id:"325839",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajna",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"rajna-minic",fullName:"Rajna Minic"}]},{id:"56750",title:"Laboratory Approach to Anemia",slug:"laboratory-approach-to-anemia",totalDownloads:6255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Anemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and can be defined as a decreased quantity of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The epidemiological studies suggested that one-third of the world’s population is affected with anemia. Anemia is not a disease, but it is instead the sign of an underlying basic pathological process. However, the sign may function as a compass in the search for the cause. Therefore, the prediagnosis revealed by thorough investigation of this sign should be supported by laboratory parameters according to the underlying pathological process. We expect that this review will provide guidance to clinicians with findings and laboratory tests that can be followed from the initial stage in the anemia search.",book:{id:"5942",slug:"current-topics-in-anemia",title:"Current Topics in Anemia",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Anemia"},signatures:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez and Abdullah Tuli",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"209103",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"33133",title:"Waist Circumference in Children and Adolescents from Different Ethnicities",slug:"waist-circumference-in-children-and-adolescents-from-different-ethnicities",totalDownloads:8023,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"642",slug:"childhood-obesity",title:"Childhood Obesity",fullTitle:"Childhood Obesity"},signatures:"Peter Schwandt and Gerda-Maria Haas",authors:[{id:"29867",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Schwandt",slug:"peter-schwandt",fullName:"Peter Schwandt"}]},{id:"54411",title:"Isolation and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Animals, Humans, and Environment",slug:"isolation-and-characterization-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-from-animals-humans-and-environment",totalDownloads:6182,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Working on a diverse species of bacteria that have hundreds of pathotypes representing hundreds of strains and many closely related family members is a challenge. Appropriate research design is required not only to achieve valid desired outcome but also to minimize the use of resources, including time to outcome and intervention. This chapter outlines basics of Escherichia coli isolation and characterization strategies that can assist in research designing that matches the set objectives. Types of samples to be collected, collection and storage strategies, and processing of samples are described. Different approaches to isolation, confirmation and concentration of various E. coli strains are summarized in this chapter. Characterization and typing of E. coli isolates by biochemical, serological, and molecular methods have been explained so that an appropriate choice is made to suite a specific E. coli strain/pathotype. Some clues on sample and isolate preservation for future use are outlined, and general precautions regarding E. coli handling are also presented to the researcher to avoid improper planning and execution of E. coli-related research. Given different options, the best E. coli research design, however, should try as much as possible to shorten the length of time to outcomes.",book:{id:"5493",slug:"-i-escherichia-coli-i-recent-advances-on-physiology-pathogenesis-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Escherichia coli",fullTitle:"Escherichia coli - Recent Advances on Physiology, Pathogenesis and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Athumani Msalale Lupindu",authors:[{id:"185959",title:"Dr.",name:"Athumani",middleName:"Msalale",surname:"Lupindu",slug:"athumani-lupindu",fullName:"Athumani Lupindu"}]},{id:"53085",title:"Malaria in Pregnancy",slug:"malaria-in-pregnancy",totalDownloads:3220,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Malaria infection during pregnancy is an important public health problem with substantial risks to both the mother and foetus. Pregnant women are the most vulnerable group of malaria‐associated morbidity and mortality. A pregnant woman has an increased risk (up to four times) of getting malaria and twice the chances of dying from malaria, compared to a non‐pregnant adult, becuase the immune system is partially suppressed during pregnancy. Malaria in pregnancy not only affects the mother but also has a dangerous sequel for the developing foetus, resulting in premature delivery or intrauterine growth retardation. Diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy remains a challenge due to the low parasite density and placental sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum. Thus, there is an urgent need for new diagnostic methods to detect malarial parasites in the pregnant women. Though antimalarial drugs are available, which can be safely given in the pregnancy, increasing drug resistance of malarial parasite may pose a big problem in the future. In this chapter, we review the burden of pregnancy‐associated malaria (PAM), its pathogenesis, diagnostic issues during pregnancy and recent guidelines for chemoprophylaxsis and treatment.",book:{id:"5270",slug:"current-topics-in-malaria",title:"Current Topics in Malaria",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Malaria"},signatures:"Kapil Goyal, Alka Sehgal, Chander S. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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