The recorded game elements.
\r\n\tIn this book the amperometry principles, instrumentation, cells (including flow cells), and functional materials used in amperometric sensors are presented together with the numerous applications of the amperometric (bio)sensors and the amperometric titrations in the environmental, food, and clinical analysis.
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She obtained PhD and DSc degrees in Chemistry and Technical Sciences. She has participated in research and teaching in several universities in Bulgaria, Algeria, and France. From 2006 to the present, she has participated in activities of scientific research, technological development, and teaching at the Autonomous University of Baja California (Mexicali, Mexico) as a full-time researcher. Since 2008, she has been a member of the National System of Researches of Mexico, and since 2011 she has been a regular member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences. 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He was a fulltime researcher in the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and a part-time professor at Sofia University before accepting the position of full-time senior researcher in UABC in 2005. Dr. Zlatev is a member of the Mexican National System of Researchers and a regular member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences. He participates in research projects in France, Germany, and Mexico. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"15851",title:"Development of Resonant Magnetic Field Microsensors: Challenges and Future Applications",doi:"10.5772/16275",slug:"development-of-resonant-magnetic-field-microsensors-challenges-and-future-applications",body:'Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) integrate electrical and mechanical components with feature sizes in the micrometer-scale, which can be fabricated using integrated circuit batch-processing technologies (Gad-el-Hak, 2001). The development of devices using MEMS has important advantages such as small size, light weight, low-power consumption, high sensitivity and high resolution (Herrera-May et al., 2009a). MEMS have allowed the development of several microdevices such as accelerometers (L. Li et al., 2011), gyroscopes (Che et al., 2010), micromirrors (Y. Li et al., 2011), and pressure sensors (Mian & Law, 2010). Recently, some researchers (Mohammad et al., 2010, 2011a, 2011b; Wang et al., 2011) have integrated acceleration, pressure or temperature sensors using MEMS. A potential market for MEMS will include magnetic field microsensors for applications such as automotive industry, telecommunications, medical and military instruments, and consumer electronics products (Lenz & Edelstein, 2006).
The most sensitive magnetic field sensor is the Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID), which has a resolution on the order of several femptoteslas (Josephs-Franks et al., 2003). It operates at low temperature based on two effects: flux quantization and Josephson effects. This sensor needs a sophisticated infrastructure that increases its size and cost, which limits its commercial applications.
Hall effect sensors have a low cost, small size, and a power consumption from 100 to 200 mW. They are fabricated on standard Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology and can measure either constant or varying magnetic field between temperature ranges from -100 to + 100 ºC (Ripka & Tipek, 2007). Nevertheless, Hall effect sensors have a low resolution from 1 to 100 mT and require temperature compensation circuits (Popovic, 2004). Fluxgate sensors can measure static or low frequency magnetic field with a resolution of 100 pT (Ripka & Tipek, 2007). They have a size of several millimeters and a power consumption close to 100 mW. These sensors require a complex fabrication of the magnetic core and coils (Baschirotto, 2006); in addition, the reduction of their mass and power decreases both their sensitivity and stability (Diaz-Michelena, 2009). In order to miniaturize fluxgate sensors is needed to solve two problems: the miniaturization of the coils and the integration of the magnetic core (Perez et al., 2004).
Anisotropic Magnetoresistive (AMR) sensors have a resolution of 10 nT, a size on order of millimetres, and a power consumption of a few milliwatts (Ripka, 2000). AMR sensors employ the anisotropic magnetoresistive effect of ferromagnetic transition metals, whose electrical resistance depends on the angle between the electrical current and the direction of magnetization. However, these sensors require a complex resetting procedure and are saturated at low magnetic fields (close to several milliteslas).
Giant Magnetoresistive (GMR) sensors can detect magnetic fields form 10 to 108 nT (Lenz & Edelstein, 2006) and have a size close to 1 mm. They suffer a large change in the electrical resistance when a magnetic field is applied on their thin layers of ferromagnetic and non-magnetic materials. GMR sensors can be damaged under magnetic fields close to 1 T and have higher both temperature dependence and offset than AMR sensors (Ripka, 2008).
Fiber optic sensors can detect magnetic fields from 10-2 to 106 nT and are immune to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) (Bahreyni, 2006). These sensors exploit the magnetostrictive effect, which changes the dimensions of the magnetostrictive material under an external magnetic field. The magnetostrictive material is bonded over a piece of optical fiber that operates as a Mach-Zender interferometer. It measures the strain of the optical fiber under an external magnetic field. Unfortunately, fiber optic sensors are affected by both temperature and pressure shifts.
Resonant magnetic field microsensors based on MEMS are a new alternative in order to detect magnetic fields with a resolution close to nanoteslas (Herrera-May et al., 2009a). These microsensors employ resonant structures for monitoring magnetic fields through Lorentz force and use capacitive, piezoresistive or optical sensing techniques. They offer advantages such as a small size (on order of micrometers), low power consumption (around of milliwatts), high functionality, wide dynamic range, and low cost through batch fabrication. They can be more compact and lighter than the SQUIDs, fiber optic sensors, and search coil sensors. Magnetic field sensors based on MEMS can be placed closer to low-magnetic field sources in order to increase their output signals. These sensors need to be subjected to more studies of reliability in order to guarantee a safe operation in future commercial market. Several of they have problems such as nonlinear response, necessity of vacuum packaging, post-processing steps for releasing their resonant structures, and complex signal conditioning circuits.
This work presents the development of resonant magnetic field microsensors based on MEMS that exploit the Lorentz force principle. It describes the general performance, advantages, drawbacks, challenges and future applications of the resonant magnetic field microsensors.
This section presents the development of several resonant magnetic field microsensors based on MEMS. It describes the general performance and sensing techniques of these microsensors.
This section describes the general performance of resonant magnetic field microsensors. A resonant magnetic field microsensor uses a resonant structure in order to detect external magnetic fields. Due to the resonant structure, the sensitivity of this sensor can be increased by a parameter equal to its quality factor. The structure of the magnetic field microsensor is excited at its fundamental resonant frequency through Lorentz forces or electrostatic forces. Generally, this structure is integrated by beams and/or plates, which are fabricated using surface or bulk micromachining. An external magnetic field alters the deflections of the resonant structure that can be measured by means of capacitive, piezoresistive or optical sensing techniques.
Figure 1 shows the SEM image of a resonant magnetic field microsensor formed by thin silicon beams and a Wheatstone bridge with four p-type piezoresistors. It has been developed by the MEMS group from the Research Center for Micro and Nanotechnology (MICRONA) of the Veracruzana University into collaboration with the Microelectronics Institute of Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC). This microsensor exploits the Lorentz force and uses a piezoresistive sensing technique. It has a silicon structure that oscillates at its first resonant frequency under an external magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 2(a). A Lorentz force is generated by the interaction between an external magnetic field
where
The Lorentz force causes a bending moment on the resonant structure, which strains four bending beams as well as two piezoresistors placed on them. The maximum bending moment (
where L
The longitudinal strain (
where R
Thus, the magnetic input signal is converted to an electrical output signal through the Wheatstone bridge.
SEM image of a resonant magnetic field microsensor based on MEMS.
A schematic view of the (a) operation principle of a resonant magnetic field microsensor with piezoresistive detection and (b) its associated Wheatstone bridge.
For the two piezoresistors under a longitudinal strain (
where
The sensitivity (S) of the resonant magnetic field microsensor can be determined as the ratio of the output voltage (V
The sensitivity of the microsensor is limited by the quality factor of its resonant structure. The quality factor is defined as the ratio of the total energy stored in the resonant structure (E
The quality factor of the resonant structure depends of three damping sources (Beeby et al., 2004): a) energy lost to surrounding fluid; b) energy dissipated internally within the material of the resonant structure; and c) energy coupled through the structure’s support to a surrounding solid.
Quality factor (Q
Thermoelastic damping is the principal source of internal energy loss inside the material of the magnetic field microsensor. The oscillating strain gradient due to the vibration of microsensor’s structure generates an oscillating temperature gradient. This temperature gradient causes a thermal energy loss known as thermoelastic damping (Vangallatore, 2005; Tunvir et al., 2010). The quality factor (Q
Quality factor (Q
Total quality factor (Q
Most of the resonant magnetic field microsensors have been fabricated using silicon and polysilicon materials. The mechanical properties of these materials are affected by variations in their temperature. For instance, the silicon elastic modulus E(T) as function of the temperature from 250 K to 1500 K can be expressed as (Hull, 1999)
where E
The thermal expansion coefficient of silicon (
The thermal conductivity of silicon (k
Temperature fluctuations affect the elastic modulus, thermal expansion coefficient, and thermal conductivity of silicon. Thus, the fundamental resonant frequency of a magnetic field microsensor changes when its elastic modulus is modified. In addition, temperature shifts cause internal stresses on the resonant structure, which alter its resonant frequency. High temperatures may generate wear-out, corrosion, and performance degradation of a resonant structure (Darrin, 2006). Therefore, the temperature control is important issue in order to obtain a stability in the fundamental frequency of the magnetic field microsensor. It can be got through compensation electronic circuits.
This section presents several resonant magnetic field microsensors based on MEMS that use capacitive sensing techniques.
Kádár et al. (1998) developed a resonant magnetic field microsensor with capacitive sensing. It was fabricated using a combination of bipolar processing, micromachining, glass processing and glass-to-silicon anodic bonding. This microsensor consists of a resonant silicon plate (2800 1400 m) with electrodes and a rectangular coil deposited on its surface. The interaction of an external magnetic field with a sinusoidal current generates a Lorentz force that causes a seesaw motion of the silicon plate. The seesaw motion modifies the distance (gap) between the silicon plate and the electrodes located into its packaging, which changes the capacitance value. Thus, the magnetic field signal is related with the capacitance shift detected by the electrodes. This microsensor can reach a resolution of 1 nT, but requires a vacuum packaging and a complex electronic circuit for the signal processing. For a single loop, it has a sensitivity of 500 VT-1, a resonant frequency close to 2.4 kHz, a quality factor of 700 at 5 Pa, and a power consumption of a few milliwatts.
Emmerich and Schöfthaler (2000) fabricated a resonant magnetic field microsensor using a Bosch’s standard surface micromachining process. It constains a suspended polysilicon beam with movable and fixed fingers electrodes. The interaction of a current and external magnetic field displaces the suspended beam, which changes the capacitance between the movable and fixed electrodes. This capacitance shift depends of the magnitud and direction of the external magnetic field. The microsensor operates in its resonant frequency and into a vacuum ambient in order to increase its sensitivity. It presents a sensitivity of 820 VT-1 for an excitation current of 930 A, a quality factor close to 30 at 101 Pa, a resonant frequency around 1.3 kHz, and a resolution of 200 nT considering a frequency diference of 10 Hz. This microsensor needs a vacuum packaging and a complex fabrication process. In addition, it has an offset close to 60 T caused by the magnetic background field, voltage offsets and unbalanced parasitic capacitances.
Tucker et al. (2002) designed a xylophone microbar to detect external magnetic fields. It is the resonant structure of a magnetic field microsensor that was fabricated using a commercial 0.5 micron CMOS process. Post-CMOS processing was needed to release the xylophone microbar. Fig. 3 illustrates the operation principle of this microsensor. The microbar is supported by four arms at the nodes of its fundamental vibration mode in order to decrease the support damping. A Lorentz force is generated when a sinusoidal current flows through the microbar under an external magnetic field. This force causes a microbar vibration, which is measured capacitively. The microsensor has a die area close to 0.5 mm2, a resonant frequency around 100 kHz, a quality factor about 1000, a power consumption of 7.5 mW, and a noise of 0.5 nTHz-1/2. It must be vacuum packaging in order to increase the vibration amplitudes of the microbar.
Operation principle of a resonant magnetic field microsensor based on xylophone microbar proposed by
Bahreyni & Shafai (2007) designed a magnetic field microsensor based on an electrostatic resonator (shuttle) fabricated in MicraGEM technology available from Micralyne Inc. The shuttle is connected to two crossbars (520 9 10 m) by four microbeam springs (200 3 10 m), as shown in Fig. 4. The crossbars are designed to be much stiffer in the y direction than the x direction. The shuttle is driven and kept into resonance by means of electrostatic actuation and sensing. During the microsensor operation, a DC current (I
Ren et al. (2009) reported a magnetic field microsensor based on a silicon resonator, which was fabricated using conventional MEMS technology and a silicon-to-glass anodic bonding process. The resonator is formed by a low-resistivity silicon plate (3000 2000 60 m) suspended over a glass substrate by two torsional beams (500 20 60 m), as shown in Fig. 6. This silicon plate acts as electrode of sensing capacitances, which simplifies the fabrication process of the microsensor. Au capacitance plates are fabricated on the glass substrate and a multi-turn coil (Cr and Au layers) is deposited on silicon-plate surface. A Lorentz force is generated when a sinusoidal current flows into the excitation coil under an external magnetic field. This force causes an oscillating motion of silicon plate around the
Operation principle of the resonant magnetic field microsensor designed by
torsional beams. This motion produces a capacitance shift between the Au electrodes and the silicon plate. A capacitance detection circuit measured the capacitance change that depends of the magnitude and direction of the external magnetic field. The microsensor needs a vacuum packaging to increase its performance. For a pressure of 10 Pa and 150 mV driving voltage amplitude, the microsensor has a resolution of 30 nT, a sensitivity of 0.40 VT-1, a resonant frequency close to 1380 Hz, and a quality factor around 2500. Nevertheless, it presented a non-linear response from 0 to 3 T.
Operation principle of the magnetic field microsensor designed by
Brugger & Paul (2009) developed a novel magnetic field microsensor (dimensions of 7.5 3.2 mm) integrated by an electrostatically driven silicon resonator, an amorphous magnetic concentrator, and a pair of planar coils. Interdigitated combs (200 14 25 m) are employed for the electrostatic excitation of the resonator and the capacitive detection of its resonance (see Fig. 7). The silicon resonator is suspended by four straight flexural springs (1000 14 25 m). The magnetic concentrator (5000 250 18 m) is constructed using a Metglas 2714A ribbon and is cut into three segments separated by two narrow gaps. The inner segment is attached to the resonator surface and both outer segments are fixed. The magnetic concentrator saturates to magnetic field above of 713 T. An auxiliary magnetic field parallel to the magnetic concentrator is generated with the planar coils. Each coil comprises 12 windings with a linewidth of 55 m and a line-to-line spacing of 15 m. The resonator is excited at its resonant frequency applying a dc voltage (V
Operation principle of a magnetic field microsensor based on a magnetic concentrator developed by
Generally, a resonant magnetic field microsensor with capacitive detection needs a vacuum packaging in order to increase its sensitivity and resolution. It suffers from parasitic capacitances, which can be reduced through the monolithic integration of the micromachined resonators with electronic circuits.
This section includes the resonant magnetic field microsensors based on MEMS that use optical sensing.
Zanetti et al. (1998) fabricated a magnetic field microsensor formed by a xylophone microbar, which is supported (at the nodes of its fundamental vibration mode) by four microbeams. The microsensor uses optical detection for measuring the deflections of the xylophone microbar under an external magnetic field parallel to its length, as shown in Fig. 8. The interaction of this field with ac excitation current (I) flowing into the microbar produces a Lorentz force that deflects the microbar. If the ac excitation current is supplied with one frequency equal to the bending resonant frequency of the microbar, then, its deflection is increased. This deflection depends of the magnitude of the external magnetic field and is measured using a miniature laser and a position sensitive detector. Thus, the magnetic signal is proportional to the deflections of the xylophone microbar. The microsensor has dimensions of 5000 500 250 m, a quality factor close to 700, a resolution around 1 nT and a power consumption of few milliwatts.
Operation principle of a magnetic field microsensor with optical detection based on a xylophone microbar designed by
Keplinger et al. (2003, 2004) proposed a resonant magnetic field microsensor based on a micromachined U-shaped silicon cantilever and an optical sensing system. The cantilever (1100 100 10 m) contains on its surface a 0.5-m-thick Au layer, which flows an ac excitation current. A Lorentz force is generated due to the interaction of the current with a magnetic field parallel to the length of the U-shaped cantilever. This force causes a bending motion of the cantilever that is measured through optical fibers. Thus, the magnetic input signal is converted into a movement of the cantilever, which is increased when the cantilever operates at its resonant frequency. The optical sensing uses two-fiber arrangements for avoiding the problem of the interfering reflected light. In the first design the emitted light beam is reflected only once at the cantilever front side, as shown in Fig. 9. Nevertheless, it requires a large lateral space for the chip and microsensor. The second design considers a cracked cantilever to allow a parallel alignment of the fibers (see Fig. 10), which requires a perfect vertical front side of the cantilevers. This optical detection system allows the efficient transmission of the microsensor signal in an electromagnetically noisy environment. This microsensor detects magnetic fields from 10 mT to 50 T and has a resonant frequency close to 5 kHz, a quality factor of 200 at atmospheric pressure, a resolution of 10 mT, and a power consumption of a few milliwatts.
Operation principle of a resonant magnetic field microsensor integrated by a U-shaped silicon cantilever and two fibers placed in curved channels, which was developed by
Operation principle of a resonant magnetic field microsensor integrated by a U-shaped cracked cantilever and two parallel fibers, which was developed by
Wickenden et al. (2003) reported a resonant magnetic field microsensor formed by a polysilicon xylophone microbar (500 50 2 m), which has a similar performance to microsensor designed by Zanetti et al. (1998). A magnetic input signal is converted into an oscillating motion of the xylophone microbar. This motion is detected by an optical readout system based on a laser diode beam and a position sensitive detector. This microsensor has a resonant frequency of 78.15 kHz, a quality factor around 7000 at 4.7 Pa, ac current of 22 A, a thermal noise of 100 pTAHz-1/2, and a resolution on the order of nanoteslas. However, it presents a linear response up to 150 T and its performance is affected by variations of pressure and temperature. The optical readout system used in resonant magnetic field microsensors allows a reduction in their electronic circuitry and weight. Furthermore, the microsensors with optical sensing have immunity to EMI.
This section includes the description of several resonant magnetic field microsensors with piezoresistive sensing.
Beroulle et al. (2003) reported a magnetic field microsensor integrated by a resonant U-shaped cantilever (520 m length and 80 m thick), a planar aluminium coil of 8 turns, and a Wheatstone bridge of polysilicon strain gauges. This microsensor exploits the Lorentz force principle in order to measure an external magnetic field, converting it into an electrical output signal through Wheatstone bridge. The microsensor was fabricated using an industrial CMOS processes with a post-processing etch step to release its resonant structure. It has a sensitivity of 0.53 VT-1, a theoretical resolution of 2 T, a thermal noise of 5.3 nVHz-1/2, a resonant frequency of 8.97 kHz, a quality factor of 59, and a mass of 750 ng.
Sunier et al. (2006) developed a magnetic field microsensor using a resonant silicon structure, a planar aluminium coil, two heating resistors, and P-channel Metal Oxide Semiconductor (PMOS) transistors (see Fig. 11). This microsensor operates based on Lorentz force principle and provides a frequency output signal. The silicon structure vibrates at its resonant frequency because of the thermal actuation of two heating resistors. The oscillating motion of the silicon structure is detected using PMOS transistors connected in a Wheatstone bridge. A Lorentz force (generated by the interaction between an electrical current flowing through coil and an external magnetic field) changes the total spring constant of the resonant structure. This modifies the resonant frequency value of the silicon structure. Thus, the resonant frequency shift is related to the magnitude of the external magnetic field. This microsensor has an efficient continuous offset cancelation, high robustness, and low cross sensitivity. In addition, it presents a sensitivity of 60 HzT-1, a resolution of 1 T, a resonant frequency of 175 kHz, a quality factor of 600, and a power consumption close to 5 mW.
Operation principle of a resonant magnetic field microsensor with frequency output designed by
Herrera-May et al. (2009b) developed a resonant magnetic field microsensor with piezoresistive sensing, which contains a resonant silicon microplate (400 150 15 m) supported by four bending microbeams, an aluminium loop, and a Wheatstone bridge of four p-type piezoresistors (see Fig. 12). It exploits the Lorentz force for monitoring external magnetic fields. This force causes an oscillating motion of the microplate and microbeams that strains two piezoresistors. This changes the piezoresistors resistance, modifying the output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge. Then, the magnetic input signal is converted into an electrical signal. This microsensor was designed for Tenaris TAMSA Corporation for measuring residual magnetic fields in welded steel tubes. It was fabricated using the bulk micromachining technology of the Microelectronics Institute of Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC). Its characteristics are: sensitivity of 0.403 VT-1, resolution of 143 nT, resonant frequency of 136.52 kHz, quality factor of 842, and a power consumption below 10 mW. However, this microsensor presents a offset and a nonlinear response for low magnetic fields.
SEM image of a die with two resonant magnetic field microsensors with piezoresistive sensing designed by
The MEMS group (Herrera-May et al., 2011) from MICRONA-UV into collaboration with IMB-CNM developed a resonant magnetic field microsensor integrated by a rectangular loop (700 450 5 m) of silicon beams suspended with four bending beams (130 12 5 m), an aluminium loop (1 m thick), and four p-type piezoresistors connected into a Wheatstone bridge (see Fig. 13). This microsensor operates based on Lorentz force and has a linear response under weak magnetic fields from 40 to 2000 T. In addition, it has sensitivity 4.8 times larger than the microsensor reported by Herrera-May et al. (2009b). This microsensor presents a resolution close to 43 nT, a resonant frequency of 22.99 kHz, a quality factor of 96.6 at atmospheric pressure, and a low power consumption of 16 mW. Later, researchers of MICRONA-UV designed other resonant magnetic field microsensor with piezoresistive sensing (see Fig. 14). It was used for monitoring magnetic fields generate by an electronic neuron developed by researchers from Institute of Physiology-BUAP (Tapia et al., 2011). This microsensor exploits the Lorentz force and is formed by an arrangement of silicon microbeams (700 450 5 m) suspended by four bending microbeams, an aluminium loop (1 m thick), and a Wheatstone bridge with four p-type piezoresistors. It has a compact structure, a response linear to low magnetic fields, a sensitivity of 1.2 VT-1, a resolution of 80 nT, a resonant frequency of 13.87 kHz, a quality factor of 93 at atmospheric pressure, a power consumption of 2.05 mW, and a simple signal processing.
Microphotograph of a die with two resonant magnetic field microsensors designed by the MEMS group of MICRONA-UV.
SEM image of a die with two resonant magnetic field microsensors with piezoresistive detection used for neural applications (
A piezoresistive sensing system used into magnetic field microsensors can allow them a simple signal processing, high sensitivity, and low-cost fabrication. Nevertheless, it is affected by temperature variations, which can be reduced through compensation circuits.
Most the resonant magnetic field microsensors have a compact structure, small size, and high sensitivity, wide dynamic range, and easy signal processing. Several of them can measure low magnetic fields around nanoteslas with low consumption power. Their dynamic range can be adjusted changing the magnitude of the excitation current, allowing them to measure lower or higher magnetic fields. A comparison of the main characteristics of these microsensors are indicates in Table 1. They could compete with conventional magnetic sensors for monitoring magnetic fields with resolution on the order of nanoteslas.
Table 1. Main characteristics of resonant magnetic field microsensors.
This section considers some challenges and potential applications of the resonant magnetic field microsensors.
Future commercial markets will require the development of multifunctional sensors on a single chip for monitoring several input signals such as magnetic field, pressure, acceleration, and temperature. These sensors will be integrated by several microstructures, transducers, and electronic circuits on a same substrate using monolithic fabrication. They will have important advantages such as small size, compact structure, low power consumption, and high functionality. Therefore, the integration on a single chip of the resonant magnetic field microsensors with other type of sensors is an important challenge.
Another challenge is the suppression of any background noise in order to increase the magnetic resolution. The performance of the future magnetic field microsensors will be limited by the variations in Earth’s magnetic field because of geological effects. In addition, the reduction of the output response offset and the temperature dependence of future microsensors are needed. Potential applications into the automotive industry, telecommunications, and consumer electronics products demand magnetic field microsensors of low cost and high reliability. Also, a challenge is the optimization of their performance and the decrease of the design-phase time. Investigations on new materials with better electrical and mechanical properties than silicon could be used into the future microsensors.
Automotive industry could be a future market of the magnetic field microsensors in order to detect the speed and size of vehicles (see Fig. 15). A traffic’s detection system may be formed by two microsensors (separated by 1 meter distance from each other) placed in parallel beside the road. The microsensors will measure the change of the Earth’s magnetic field due to the vehicle motion, which will be proceeded to A/D converter and digital data processing system. The magnetic variation will depend of the vehicle’s size and speed, and it will be detected by the microsensors in different times (t
Schematic diagram of a traffic’s detection system based on magnetic field microsensors.
Also, magnetic field microsensors could be employed at the electronic stability program (EPS), which keeps the vehicle dynamically stable in critical situations such as hard braking and slippery surfaces. ESP systems needs data about steering-wheel angle, lateral accelerations, yaw rate, and wheel speed. These parameters could be measured through accelerations, gyroscopes, pressure sensors, and magnetic field microsensors.
Another potential application of the magnetic field microsensors is the monitoring of the corrosion and geometrical defects in ferromagnetic pipeline. Fig. 16 depicts an inspection platform for oil pipeline walls reported by Nestleroth & Davis (2007). It is integrated by a rotating permanent magnetic exciter, which may induce uniform eddy currents in the pipe wall. The eddy currents are deflected pipeline defects such as corrosion and axially sligned cracks. The variation of the current densities (that causes a magnetic flux leakage in the pipe wall) could be measured by magnetic field microsensors. Therefore, the defects location could be reached with these microsensors.
Schematic view of an inspection platform of oil pipeline walls that consists of a rotating permanent magnetic exciter and an array of magnetic field microsensors.
Magnetic field microsensors could detect cracks, geometrical defects or stress concentration zones in ferromagnetic structures using passive magnetic techniques such as Metal Magnetic Memory (MMM). This technique relies on the self magnetization of ferromagnetic structures by ambient magnetic fields such as the Earth’s field (Wilson et al., 2007). It measures changes in the self magnetic leakage field of the ferromagnetic structures due to geometrical discontinuities and high density dislocations.
New cell phones could use resonant magnetic field microsensors, accelerometers, and gyroscopes integrated on a single chip for their global positioning system (GPS). This could reduce the size, cost, and power consumption of the cell phones.
The important advantages of resonant magnetic field microsensors will allow their incorporation in future commercial markets, principally into the automotive sector, telecommunications, and consumer electronics products.
The development of resonant magnetic field microsensors based on MEMS has been presented. These microsensors exploit the Lorentz force for measuring magnetic fields and can use different sensing types such as: capacitive, optical, or piezoresistive. Their main advantages are small size, compact structure, light weight, low power consumption, high sensitivity, and high resolution. Most microsensors with piezoresistive detection have had an easy signal processing and a straightforward fabrication process. However, temperature fluctuations have affected their performance. Optical readout systems have allowed microsensors with a reduction in the electronic circuitry and immunity to electromagnetic interference. Microsensors with capacitive sensing have presented little dependence on the temperature, but have needed vacuum packaging and complex electronic circuitry. Future commercial markets will need multifunctional sensors on a single chip for measuring several parameters such as magnetic field, pressure, acceleration, and temperature. several
This work was supported by CONACYT through grant 84605. The authors would like to thank B. S. Fernando Bravo-Barrera of LAPEM for his assistance with the SEM images.
Due to the digitalization of information, the use of several technologies has been introduced in people’s habits, which, consequently, signifies the prevalence of applications utilization, pertaining to many sectors [1]. The Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) may have different scopes and concepts based on the preferences and the aim of their developers. A variety of such technologies [2, 3] have been provided, aiming at educating users on specific topics, for example, by educational platforms for students and teachers, at endorsing products for marketing purposes, or other reasons, depending on the concept of each application.
\nSpecific techniques or methods have been developed in order to improve the provision of their concept, such as a more appealing and interactive environment [4]. By achieving to gain this benefit, a service will be more interesting, and its use will be increased. Consequently, the aim of its developer will be satisfied, as for instance in marketing domain, this will support the company’s profits. An example of such methods is gamification [4], the use of game elements in applications that are not games. Many game elements have been recorded in the literature and have been implemented in gamified services [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11] in order to support several domains [7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. The benefits, provided by the implementation of the game elements, differ based on the concept of each service. The singularity of this method concerns on the increased engagement of users with gamified environments [4].
\nAccording to the above, it is clear that these technologies consist of a basic activity for users, and some of them may be helpful for their lives, for example, educational platforms. However, there are some issues that arise, namely security and privacy issues. While using all these ICTs, users’ information is stored, and their activities are recorded [17, 18, 19]. As a consequence, users’ personal information may be harmed. Thus, it is crucial to consider the protection of users’ security and privacy while designing services. Regarding the relation between gamification and these two important aspects, some studies have been published [13, 14, 20, 21], in which the harmful side of gamification, focusing on users’ security and privacy, is presented. Besides the importance of designing privacy-friendly and secure gamified services, it is also crucial for a user to be able to protect his/her own security and privacy. If a user becomes aware of this, then, several ethical and social issues will be addressed. So, on the one hand, it is important for developers to design security and privacy-friendly gamified services and on the other hand, users should be security- and privacy-aware. Adding to this point, in this work, the importance of users’ privacy awareness on protecting their privacy through gamification is discussed, and some preliminary results are presented.
\nThe rest of the chapter is organized as follows. In Section 2, gamification is described, providing its benefits and implementation on several sectors. In Section 3, the relation between gamification and privacy is presented. Additionally, the importance of security and privacy awareness regarding gamification is highlighted and the contribution of gamification on educating users on privacy is discussed. Finally, Section 4 concludes the work, providing steps for future work.
\nAround 2010, the method of gamification has been introduced in ICTs, aiming to engage users on using technologies and to increase their interest [22]. By implementing this method and especially by introducing game elements, the main principle of gamification, namely a more gameful interaction environment, can be developed [23]. The definition, which is highly cited in previous research, was published in 2011 by [4], who defined gamification as the use of game elements in nongame contexts. Many game elements have been presented in the literature and their choice depends on the developers’ scope, the concept, and the structure of the gamified service. Each study mentions and describes an amount of game elements [24, 25, 26]. In [27], all mentioned game elements have been presented by conducting a review that recorded all game elements and introduced them in the relevant literature. In Table 1, the amount of game elements is presented along with the explanation of their concept. Additionally, some examples of gamified applications in several sectors are given out with the respective elements that have been assigned to them. In this work [27], the connection among elements can be identified. For instance, in order for a user to win badges, levels have to be passed or points have to be collected [39]. So, with the intention of an application to be gamified, it is usual to include many game elements.
\nGame elements | \nExplanation | \nExamples of studies or gamified services | \n
---|---|---|
Alternative activities | \nMany provided choices and tasks to users | \n[28, 29] | \n
Achievements | \nThe accomplishment of a task | \n[29, 30, 31] | \n
Avatars | \nUsers’ representation through animated processes | \n[31, 32] | \n
Badges | \nAfter winning or accomplishing a task, badges are given | \n[12, 22, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] | \n
Challenges | \nThe ability of a user to challenge a friend in order to compete | \n[5, 12, 22, 28, 31, 33, 39, 40, 41] | \n
Communication with other players | \nUsers’ communication through respective platforms | \n[12, 28, 30, 32] | \n
Competition | \nUsers’ competition on some steps | \n[12, 29, 31, 32, 34, 39, 42] | \n
Content unlocking | \nSteps that have to be passed in order to unlock the next phase | \n[31] | \n
Feedback and progressive information | \nProvided information to help users for their status and recommendations | \n[22, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 39, 42] | \n
Leaderboards | \nUsers’ status on the service regarding their points or level | \n[12, 22, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35, 39, 42, 43] | \n
Levels | \nPhases that have to be passed | \n[12, 22, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 39, 42] | \n
Location | \nThe connection with users’ location | \n[28, 32] | \n
Notification | \nUsers are notified to accomplish actions | \n[28, 32, 39, 40] | \n
Points | \nThe result of finishing a task can be illustrated by the collection of points | \n[5, 22, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42] | \n
Profiles | \nEach user has his own profile on the service | \n[28, 32, 39, 40, 42] | \n
Quiz | \nQuestions on a specific topic | \n[29, 32, 40, 42] | \n
Rewards | \nThe result for winning an opponent or effectively completing a task | \n[5, 12, 22, 29, 39, 40, 41, 42] | \n
Roles | \nThe character that a user wants to have | \n[28, 29] | \n
Rules | \nThe dos and don’ts that users have to follow | \n[28, 29, 31, 32, 39] | \n
Scoring systems | \nSystems which record users’ score and status | \n[12, 28] | \n
Team tournaments, group tasks and collaboration | \nTasks where users have to collaborate | \n[28, 29, 31, 32, 39, 40, 42] | \n
Time constraints | \nActions that have to be completed during a specific time period | \n[12, 28, 29] | \n
The recorded game elements.
The gamification method has been implemented in several sectors. Starting from the sector of education, many gamified services provide a more entertaining environment, which automatically gains users’ engagement. Therefore, users can be educated on different topics, without having in mind the literal sense of the education process. In some educational services, users can be either teachers or students, where teachers provide feedback and communicate with students. Communication can be also achieved among students, while having the opportunity to compete with each other [42]. In this way, apart from the knowledge benefits, it is also important that users’ sociability can be expanded. In marketing domain [10, 12, 44], the aim of this method is to raise each company’s selling. By providing applications, where users collect points after buying a product with the deal to win a gift card or a product, the application can be further used. Gamification in this domain is a smart idea so as to engage users and sell more products. Additionally, in some cases, the interaction among users is enhanced, either through competition or collaboration, leading to users’ amiability.
\nThe role of gamification in health domain is quite crucial [23, 45, 46, 47]. The aim of the most gamified healthcare services is to educate users and engage users on protecting their health. A variety of such services can be found either for children or for adults. Some of them provide the opportunity of interaction between doctors and consultants, where, as an example, doctors can monitor the patients’ progress on taking their medication [40]. Most of them notify users every time they have to take their prescription [40]. The gamified principle in such services can be the collection of points after responding to doctors’ advices and prescriptions, resulting, sometimes, in the win of gifts. Therefore, users can protect their health through a more entertaining process. Beyond the above sectors, gamified services have been developed for cultural [11, 25] or touristic purposes [10, 48] offering benefits, such as cultural education and tourism’s expansion, respectively. Furthermore, some studies tried to combine gamification with software engineering, indicating the state of the art on this field and the research gaps [49], while others elaborated research on gamification and education on software engineering in order to identify the discussed works [8].
\nTo a lesser extent, studies which concern on gamification and security have been recorded [13, 14], aiming to highlight the important role of security in services. Apart from the importance of gamification in security, it is also crucial to educate users on privacy issues, since by using these services, users’ information is often disclosed. However, few research attempts have been identified, which combine gamification and privacy [19]. A more detailed analysis regarding gamification and privacy has been provided by [17], who focused on the software aspect of gamified applications regarding users’ privacy. They identified that gamification is a method, whose principles may harm privacy requirements. Especially, in [26], a metamodel has been published, aiming to point out how privacy violation can be achieved by the core of gamification, in particular, the game elements. However, studies regarding the importance of users’ awareness on privacy issues, as in the security area, have not been recorded yet, which is a crucial research gap.
\nAccording to the literature [22, 26], gamifying a service is a useful process for many reasons, discussed above. Since it consists of a method that has been introduced in ICTs the last years, more research is needed to be conducted concerning its relationship with other sectors, such as privacy and security.
\nAlthough privacy is an aspect that should be considered during the design phase of each type of service, it has been identified that few researchers have been focused on its relation with gamification. According to the literature, privacy satisfaction is based on the analyzation and elicitation of privacy requirements on the systems [50]. Many relevant engineering methodologies have been published which describe these requirements and explain how they can be analyzed within the systems [13, 17, 18, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58]. In [58], all requirements that were mentioned and used in [27] for the conduction of the results are described. These requirements are presented in Table 2 along with their aim. An in-depth combination between gamification and this aspect, focusing on the peculiarity of gamified services related to the privacy requirements is provided in [27]. This relation has been examined, paying particular attention to the impact of gamification on privacy domain. Specifically, they recorded all game elements reported in the literature and identified which of them may harm users’ privacy. This identification was based on the concept and the scope of each game element. Based on their findings, specific elements are identified whose concept is harmful for privacy requirements. In Figure 1, the categorization among harmful and nonharmful game elements is presented. For instance, when using a service which records users’ personal information (HGE11), location (HGE6), and his/her interaction with other users (HGE2, HGE3, HGE4, and HGE10), then user’s privacy cannot be protected. On the other hand, the selection of points (nHGE8) in order to pass levels (nHGE7) or the rules (nHGE10) and time constraints (nHGE1) are not harmful game elements, as, for instance, user’s information or actions are not recorded due to the constraint of time.
\nPrivacy requirements | \nAim | \n
---|---|
Anonymity | \nThe identity cannot be compromised | \n
Pseudonymity | \nThe use of a pseudonymous to ensure identity’s anonymity | \n
Unlinkability | \nThe actions and identities cannot be linked | \n
Udetectability | \nThe existence of a component cannot be detected | \n
Unobservability | \nThe actions The actions between identities cannot be observed | \n
Privacy requirements.
Harmful and nonharmful game elements for privacy. HGE, harmful game element; nHGE, non-harmful game element.
Afterwards, a more detailed analysis has been published in [26], where authors presented their findings by designing a metamodel. In detail, after the first investigation of the relation between game elements and privacy requirements [27], authors selected some existent gamified services and recorded the used elements in order to examine their findings on real environments. According to the results [27], the game elements that have been implemented in these gamified services may harm users’ privacy by violating the privacy requirements. The findings are illustrated in a metamodel which presents how each element is in conflict with the privacy requirements [26]. This conflict arises from the identified disadvantages of the game elements in [27]. Expanding previous work and according to this way of examination, in Table 3, the relation between game elements and privacy requirements is presented. In particular, the game elements, presented in the metamodel have some advantages, which it is noted that at the same time are turned into disadvantages and consist the reason of their conflict with requirements. The disadvantages of the elements concern on the violation of (a) users’ anonymity and (b) pseudonymity, due to the record of personal characteristics, preferences, and information, (c) the unlinkability and (d) undetectability of actions and identities, as actions are recorded and monitored in parallel to the identities, and (d) the unobservability, since by recognizing the identity and the actions, a third party can monitor them. For instance, even if “avatars” is an element which provides an animated representation of the user, the technique which is implemented to achieve that is the one of the face recognitions. In case, users’ faces, that is, users’ characteristics, are recorded, their identity can be compromised, so their anonymity can be violated, as the actions can be linked to this identity.
\nGame elements | \nReason of violation | \nViolated privacy requirements | \n
---|---|---|
Avatar | \nRecognition and recording of user’s characteristics | \nR1, R2, R3, R4, R5 | \n
Challenge | \nRecognition of the opponent’s information and connection between identities | \nR1, R3 | \n
Communication with other players | \nRecognition of the user’s characteristics and interaction between identities | \nR1, R2, R3, R4, R5 | \n
Competition | \nRecognition of personal information and connection between identities | \nR1, R2, R3, R4, R5 | \n
Leaderboards | \nRecognition and recording of the opponent’s information | \nR1, R2, R3 | \n
Location | \nRecording of user’s location | \nR1, R2, R3, R4, R5 | \n
Notification | \nRecording user’s actions depending on his reaction | \nR1, R2, R3, R4, R5 | \n
Quiz | \nRecording of user’s awareness and information | \nR1, R2, R3 | \n
Roles | \nRecognition of the user’s preferences and behavioral characteristics | \nR1, R2, R3, R4, R5 | \n
Team tournaments, group tasks, collaboration | \nRecording and recognition of the user’s interaction and information | \nR1, R2, R3, R4, R5 | \n
Profiles | \nRecording of user’s personal information and connection with their actions and preferences | \nR1, R2, R3, R4, R5 | \n
The relation of game elements and privacy requirements.
R1, anonymity; R2, pseudonymity; R3, unlinkability; R4, undetectability; R5, unobservability.
Based on the results published in [26, 27], gamification is a method which should be considered in parallel with privacy issues during the design of systems, since several game elements are harmful for privacy requirements. Despite the adequate number of published privacy engineering methodologies, it would be useful to combine the concept of them with the principles of gamification, so that privacy is protected in gamified services. Thus, a more comprehensive analysis regarding the recommended steps of these methodologies in relation to the game elements would be useful, in order to identify if and how they can be implemented on gamification processes. In addition, focusing on the privacy aspect, in [59], privacy patterns have been published which present how privacy requirements can be protected when developing a system. Such software patterns are important to be developed in relation to game elements in order for the software developers to implement them during the design of gamified systems. The design of privacy-friendly gamified systems is crucial, likewise the education of users on privacy issues. By this way, users will be able to use systems which protect their privacy, while in parallel, users’ will be aware of how they can protect their privacy on their own.
\nAlthough it is important to provide gamified services which respect users’ security and privacy, the crucial role of privacy and security awareness is undisputed. Especially, under the GDPR regulation, it is very important for users to know in which processes and why they give their permissions while using all ICTs. Information control is recognized as a key element in the perception and assumption of privacy risks [60]. Since, during the last years, many users use several types of ICTs to support their habits, the need of their awareness in order to protect their safety and personal information is increased even more. In [61], authors have published processes for the development of security awareness and training programs (SAT programs). The aim of these programs is the comprehension of security rules and the acquisition of skills regarding security, so as users avoid security violations that harm both themselves and the systems. For the development of SAT programs, four phases are recommended in [61]. The “Design phase” is the first step, where the budget, the target group, the needs of this group, and the program schedule have to be identified. The “Development phase” includes the determination of the concept and the issues that users should be aware of, for example, the protection of users’ passwords and threats related to users’ vulnerabilities. The third phase is the “Implementation phase”, where the SAT program has to be implemented. In this step, it is important to explain the program to users in order for its purpose to be understandable. The “Post-Implementation phase” aims to record the use of the program for possible needed improvements, vulnerabilities, and advantages of it. Through a system, the results of its use should be recorded, so as the administrators of the program are able to monitor it during its implementation. Questionnaires, interviews, and other methods of evaluation are recommended for future improvement of the program.
\nLikewise, for the security issues, it is also important for users to be aware on privacy issues, so as to protect their personal information and actions. In order for a user to achieve his/her own protection, he/she has to be aware of some issues, such as if other users know their information, by whom, how, why, and which of the information can be distributed [62]. Users’ privacy protection is ethically, legally, technically, and socially very important, for the sake of addressing any social harmfulness, deriving from privacy violation. For instance, cyberbullying, related to the disclosure of personal information, is a social phenomenon observed mostly in young people and concerns on users’ harassment and unauthorized use of their personal information [63]. In accordance to this example, several respective phenomena arise by violating privacy, and therefore, privacy awareness is a crucial aspect in order to address them.
\nAccording to the findings of [26, 27], described above, there are game elements which harm privacy requirements. Thus, between privacy and gamification, the conflict concerns only the harmful game elements, as presented in Figure 2. By designing educational gamified systems, which provably [7, 12] engage users, with their concept to be on privacy issues, users will be able to protect their selves. In this figure, the major entities of privacy and gamification are illustrated, where on privacy domain the analyzation of privacy requirements in systems is needed to protect users’ privacy, while in gamification, the design of gameful environments is crucial for the engagement of users. The relationship among entities is indicated and represented by directional bows that lead on the educational role of gamification in order for users to be aware of privacy issues. By adopting the harmful relation of these two entities [26, 27], which concerns on the harmful elements for privacy requirements, users can be trained on this, so that they will be educated (a) on the importance of protecting the privacy requirements, (b) on recognizing the harmful game elements, (c) on how to protect their privacy while using these elements, and (d) on the consequences of their privacy violation if these elements carry on harming privacy requirements. The result of this process concerns the existence of awareness of users on privacy issues. Such educational programs, aiming to enhance users’ privacy awareness level, are therefore significant in achieving a balance between users’ need for the protection of their personal information during using gamified services and their need for using game elements within them that are harmful for their privacy.
\nPrivacy protection by harmful game elements.
Thus, in order to spread awareness to users through more entertaining processes, gamification can be considered, while developing privacy awareness services as well. Some examples have been recorded regarding security awareness [64, 65], but gamified attempts are also needed as far as privacy awareness concerns. The contribution of gamification in these services concerns on the engagement of users on using them, resulting on the effective education of users.
\nThe implementation of game elements in ICTs is undeniably an effective way to engage users on using them. Several domains utilize gamification for the achievement of their purposes and many users prefer them for their tasks. While using them, personal information and actions are recorded, and therefore, privacy is an aspect that should be considered during developing them. Several respective methods which analyze security and privacy requirements have been recorded, but few attempts which combines them with gamification have been published. In this work, the relation between privacy and gamification is discussed, where it was highlighted that privacy may be violated by gamification. However, it is equally important for users to have awareness on privacy and security, so as to be able to protect themselves. Related programs which educate users on these two aspects are needed. Their combination with gamification is important in order for the users to be trained through a more interesting way. Some attempts have been recorded. In this work, it was identified that privacy awareness can be achieved by designing gamified systems which educate users on how to protect their privacy by the harmful game elements and on the consequences of privacy requirement violation. Thus, while using gamified systems, users will be able to know as on which game elements should pay attention in order to protect their privacy as how to be protected by their harmful consequences. In future work, software patterns for designing security- and privacy-friendly software will be recommended. As far as of the users’ concern, privacy and security awareness will be studied in relation to gamification. In our purposes, the relation between gamification, security, and privacy is important to be examined as from the side of software developers as from the side of users.
\nThe research work was supported by the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) under the HFRI PhD Fellowship grant (Fellowship Number: 671).
\n\n
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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