\r\n\tThe discovery of Nylon by Wallace Hume Carothers, a Harvard-educated world-renowned organic chemist born in Burlington, IA in 1896, successfully crowned the attempts developed by E.I du Pont de Nemours & Company to investigate the structure of high molecular weight polymers and to synthesize the first synthetic polymeric fibre.
\r\n\tWhen it hit the market, it was in the form of stockings and all the women in the US wanted to get their hands on a pair. Despite the successful launch of Nylon on the synthetic fibre market and the high expectations created by its extraordinary features, the unexpected war events in 1941 diverted the production of the new synthetic fibre almost exclusively on military applications. Parachutes, ropes, bootlaces, fuel tanks, mosquito nets and hammocks absorbed the production of Nylon, which helped to determine the WWII events. When the war ended and production returned to pre-war levels, consumers rushed to the department stores in search of stockings, accessories and high-fashion garments.
\r\n\tEven if the world of high fashion now seems to more appreciate the use of natural fibres, Nylon is one of the most widely used polymers for the production of technical fibres and fabrics, automotive and micromechanical components. The global nylon 6 & 66 market is expected to reach USD 41.13 billion by 2025, by the following growth at 6.1% CAGR owing to the Increasing focus on fuel-efficient and less polluting vehicles.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe amazing success story of Nylon still continues. While its wide availability inspired the development of innovative applications, such as the additive manufacturing, on the other hand, proper disposal after use of high amounts of Nylon resin energised the development of efficient recycling methodology, including chemical recycling. Moreover, the production of Nylon precursors from biomass has become desirable due to the depletion of fossil hydrocarbons and to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This unique combination of technical and socio-economic driving forces is one that aims to further promote the development of Nylon as one of the most suitable ""best polymers"" with a low ecological footprint.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe aim of this publication is to unveil the relationships between the chemical structure and the outstanding properties of the broad family of polyamides and to describe the most recent use of Nylon in fostering new applications and promoting a culture aware of environmental sustainability.
Cold rolled thin strip has a wide application in electronic and instrument industries, and its production has always been of major interest to the manufacturers and researchers in the area of metal plasticity. Thin strip rolling involves significant metal plasticity to produce a desired product. Iwamoto (2004), Stoughton & Yoon (2004) and Huh et al. (2004) were interested in dealing with the plastic deformation and plastic yielding of steel, and its micro-mechanics. With the need for higher quality and productivity in cold strip mill, mathematical models of cold rolling of a strip with a desired shape and dimension, both for mill set-up and for on-line control, have become a key issue in the steel rolling process. One major part of these models concerns the strip and roll deformation, plastically deformed strip shape and profile. The development of the roll deformation model can be divided into three groups, which includes simple beam model, slit beam model and finite element analysis model (Ginzburg, 1989). Stone & Gray (1965) modelled the roll deformation as the deflection of a simple beam on an elastic foundation. Shohet & Townsend (1968) proposed a slit beam deflection model, and then Edwards & Spooner (1973), Wang (1986) improved this theory and introduced a matrix method to solve the beam deflection considering strip plastic deformation. It has now been widely used in analysis of the roll deformation and strip shape and profile. Timoshenko & Goodier (1970), Jiang et al. (2003a, b, c), Komori (1998) and Lin & Lee (1997) used finite element model and numerical methods to analyse the strip rolling and to improve the simulation accuracy of the strip shape and profile. In order to improve the quality of the produced products, Kim & Oh (2003) used finite element method to analyse grain-by-grain deformation by crystal plasticity with couple stress, Simth et al. (2003) conducted a study of the effect of the transverse normal stress on sheet metal formability and Ho et al. (2004) developed integrated numerical techniques to predict springback in creep forming thick aluminum sheet components. Buchheit et al. (2005) performed simulations of realistic looking 3-D polycrystalline microstructures generated. The simulation on precipitate induced hardening in crystal plasticity was conducted (Han et al., 2004). Martin & Smith (2005) investigated the influence of the compressive through-thickness normal stress on sheet metal formability and tried to explore the ways to improve the sheet metal formability. However, the finite element analysis is rather complicated and may have a convergence problem, which is difficult to be used for on-line control of the thin strip rolling. An influence function method analysis considering the strip plastic deformation and roll deformation can be directly used in the control of strip rolling, especially in the control of the shape and profile of strip.
In practical rolling of thin strip, there is a phenomenon that the upper and lower work rolls may contact each other beyond the edges of strip if the strip is very thin and there is no work roll bending applied as shown in Fig. 1.
In this chapter, a modified semi-infinite body model was introduced to calculate the flattening of work roll/backup roll, work roll/strip, and the Foppl model (Ginzburg & Azzam, 1997) was employed to simulate the edge contact between the upper and down work rolls. Based on the theory of the slit beam, this special cold rolling of thin strip was calculated using an influence function method. The rolling force determined from the plasticity of metal forming was iterated in the simulation, and the analysis of the mechanics of the rolls is for dealing with the plasticity of this special rolling through factors such as the rolling force and torque, and the strip plastic deformation such as the strip shape and profile. A comparison of the forces and the strip shape with or without the work roll edge contact was carried out. The effects of the different rolling parameters, such as the reduction, strip width, friction coefficient and transverse friction distribution, on the mechanics and deformation of the cold rolling of thin strip were analyzed. The developed model is useful in improving the shape and flatness quality of thin strip in cold rolling process. Based on the developed method and research results, a comprehensive model which is suitable for considering the work roll edge contact or not can be obtained.
Edge contact of work rolls and Slit beam deflection mode for a 4-high rolling mill
As symmetry of the mill about the mid-span of the rolls, the calculation process involves one half of a roll system. Given in Fig. 1, one half of the roll barrel and the strip are divided into
As shown in Fig. 2, if
where
where the influence function,
Deformation of the roll from an arbitrary load distribution
The deflection of the work rolls due to bending and shear forces can be described as the vertical displacement of the work roll at element
where
The exact forms of the influence functions
where
The deformation of the backup roll can be expressed as the vertical displacement of the backup roll at the
where
where
As shown in Fig. 3, the infinite plane
where
Semi-infinite body model
Flattening between the work roll and strip
Given in Fig. 4, the projected arc of contact between the work roll and strip,
where
where
where
Fig. 5 shows the flattening between the backup roll and work roll. It can also be found from Foppl model (Ginzburg & Azzam, 1997) that the flattening contact width between the backup roll and work roll is far less than the diameters of the work roll and backup roll, and it is suitable to calculate the flattening according to a semi infinite body model (Wang, 1986).
Flattening between the backup roll and work roll
Assuming the contact pressure between the backup roll and work roll,
Distribution of contact pressure along the contact width
where
where
The work roll contacts at the edges outside the strip width are considered here as a new analysis of the cold rolling of thin strip. As shown in Fig. 7, the contact length between the upper and down work rolls due to strip plastic deformation,
where
Flattening between the upper and down work rolls
Under a rolling load, the deformation of the work roll, backup roll and the strip are described in Fig 8. Compatibility for the contact of the work roll and backup roll varies with the sum of the contour of the deformed work roll and backup roll, and the local flattening of the rolls. It can be calculated by the relationship
where
The contour of the work roll surface in contact with the strip is determined by the combined influence of the rolling load, machined and thermal crown and the local flattening between the work roll and strip. The exit thickness of the strip at any point is the same as the loaded gap height at that point. Thus, the compatibility for contact of the work roll and strip can be expressed as
where
Compatibility for contact of the work roll and backup roll, the work roll and strip, the upper and down work rolls
In the rolling of thin strip, the sides of work rolls beyond the strip width may touch and deform. The edge contacts between the upper and down work rolls affect the deformation of the roll and the strip. The compatibility for edge contact of the upper and down work rolls is calculated from the deformed work roll profile and the centreline value of the flattening between the work roll and strip, which is written as Eq. (20).
Static equilibrium of the work roll is obtained by summing vertically the load between the work roll and backup roll, the load between the work roll and strip, the load between the upper and down work rolls, and the load applied to the work roll by the work roll bending mechanism. It can be expressed as Eq. (21).
The iterative method was used to calculate the roll and strip deformation and the strip shape, as shown in Fig. 9.
The parameters used in the simulation for cold rolling of thin strip are as follows.
Work roll diameter: 63 mm | Work roll barrel: 249 mm |
Work roll crown: 0 (m | Poisson’s ratio of work roll: 0.3 |
Young’s modulus of work roll: 22000 Kg/mm2 | Distance between housing screw: 340 mm |
Backup roll diameter: 228 mm | Backup roll barrel: 249 mm |
Backup roll crown: 0 (m | Poisson’s ratio of backup roll: 0.3 |
Young’s modulus of backup roll: 22000 Kg/mm2 | Slab thickness of strip: 0.5 mm |
Central distance between bending cylinder: 340 mm | Entry thickness of strip: 0.30 mm |
Exit thickness of strip: 0.10 mm | Width of strip: 140 mm |
Back tension: 0 kN | Front tension: 0 kN |
Rolling speed: 1 m/s | Initial crown of strip at entry: 0.0 mm |
Friction coefficient: 0.1 | Work roll bending force: 0 kN/chock |
Defining point of strip crown from edge: 10 mm |
Flow chart of the roll and strip deformation and strip shape calculation
Deformation resistance equation for strip is written as Eq. (22).
The slab thickness is 0.5 mm and the exit thickness of strip is 0.12 mm. The front and back tension is zero. The effects of the different rolling parameters such as the reduction, strip width, friction coefficient and the friction distribution along the strip width, on the mechanics and deformation of the cold rolling of thin strip are analyzed when an influence of edge contact force of the work rolls is considered. In the calculation, a significant concern is the rolling force, which is determined from the plasticity of the metal forming. The calculated rolling force is employed first, and then the further iterations are carried out.
For carbon steel rolling, the rolling force is calculated by using Bland-Ford-Hill model (Wang, 1983) considering the strip plastic deformation.
where
where
where
where
where\n\t\t\t\t is a constant (0.75).
where H and h are the entry and exit thickness of strip, respectively, CH is Hitchcock coefficient (Wang, 1983).
where is the reduction and f the friction coefficient.
When the entry and exit thickness of strip is 0.2 mm and 0.12 mm respectively, friction coefficient 0.1, strip width 160 mm and the work roll bending force is zero. The calculated results such as the exit thickness distribution of strip along the strip width and the specific force distribution between the work roll and backup roll, between the upper and down work rolls, between the work roll and strip along the roll barrel with or without edge contact of the work rolls are shown in Fig. 10 and Table 2. It can be seen that the intermediate force closer to the edge of the roll barrel increases and the rolling force close to the side of the strip reduces due to the work roll edge contact. The maximum edge contact force at the edge of the roll barrel is larger than the backup work roll intermediate force, which will result in further wear of work rolls at this zone. The edge contact force between the upper and down work rolls is nearly 11 % of the rolling force. Due to the effect of the edge contact force of the work rolls, the crown of the strip reduces from 45.56 to 36.54 m, and the edge contact of the work rolls can improve the strip shape when there is no work roll bending force applied. When the cold thin strip is rolled, the edge contact effect may occur and its effect must be introduced for calculating the roll and strip deformation, strip shape, thus forming a new analysis feature of the rolling process.
Status | Rolling force (kN) | Intermediate force (kN) | Edge contact force (kN) | Crown of exit strip ((m) | Edge contact length (mm) |
Edge contact | 595.99 | 661.29 | 65.30 | 36.54 | 36.0 |
No edge contact | 620.25 | 620.25 | 0 | 45.56 | 0 |
Comparison of specific forces and strip crown with or without edge contact effect
Comparison of specific forces and exit thickness distribution with or without edge contact effect
When the exit thickness of strip is 0.12 mm, friction coefficient 0.1, strip width 160 mm and no work roll bending force is applied, the entry thickness of the strip are 0.15, 0.17 and 0.2 mm respectively. The effect of the reduction on the specific forces (rolling force, intermediate force and edge contact force) and the exit thickness distribution is shown in Fig. 11 and Table 3. It can be seen that with increasing entry thickness of strip, the rolling force and intermediate force increase significantly, and at the same time the edge contact force and edge contact length of the work rolls have a tendency to increase, which are caused by an increase of reduction. It can also be seen that the strip profile (strip crown) reduces significantly when the reduction decreases (see Table 3). In the simulation, it is found that when the entry thickness is less than 0.1425 mm, which indicates that the reduction is less than 15.8 %, the upper and down work rolls do not touch and the edge contact force is zero. Therefore, under a certain exit thickness of strip, the strip shape and profile become poor with an increase of the reduction although there is a tendency of an increase of the edge contact forces.
Effect of entry thickness on specific force and exit thickness distribution
Entry thickness (mm) | Rolling force (kN) | Intermediate force (kN) | Crown of exit strip ((m) | Edge contact force (kN) | Edge contact length (mm) |
0.15 | 401.30 | 408.09 | 23.62 | 6.79 | 13.0 |
0.17 | 504.11 | 536.81 | 29.67 | 32.69 | 27.0 |
0.20 | 595.99 | 661.29 | 36.54 | 65.30 | 36.0 |
Comparison of specific forces and strip profiles for different entry thickness
The effect of the strip widths on the work roll edge contact force is more complex. In the calculation, the strip entry and exit thickness are 0.17 mm and 0.12 mm respectively, the friction coefficient is 0.1 and the work roll bending force is zero. The strip widths of 80, 100, 120, 140, 160 and 180 mm were introduced in the analysis. The effect of the strip widths on the exit strip thickness distribution is shown in Fig. 12. It can be seen that with a narrower strip, the strip shape and profile are improved and the rolling force, intermediate force and edge contact force also reduce significantly (see Table 4). If the strip width is larger and more close to the edge of the rolls, the deflection of the work roll increases by a combined effect of the change of the distribution of the rolling force and intermediate force when the strip widths vary (see Fig. 13a and b), so the edge contact force and contact length of the work rolls increase accordingly, as shown in Fig. 13c. If the strip widths are less than 100 mm, the deflection of the work roll at the edge and the edge contact force will reduce with a narrower strip. It can be concluded that the strip width has a significant influence on the edge contact force and edge contact length of work rolls, which can result in an unstable work roll edge wear.
The lubrication and friction of the strip is a key issue in cold rolling process. The values of the friction coefficient may change significantly in different cold rolling mills and different operating conditions. The effects of the different friction coefficients on the edge contact of the work rolls are shown in Table 5 and Fig. 14. The entry and exit thickness of strip are 0.17 and 0.12 mm respectively, the strip width is 160 mm, and no work roll bending force is applied. With an increase of friction coefficient, the rolling force, intermediate force and edge contact force of the work rolls increase significantly. On the other hand, the strip shape reduces to 25.91 m from 31.61 m when the friction coefficient increases from 0.07 to 0.13. Although a higher rolling force has a tendency to make the strip shape poorer, the increase of edge contact forces with friction coefficient has a major effect on the improvement of the strip profile. Therefore, when the friction coefficient increases, the edge contact force of the work rolls increases, which is helpful in improving the strip profile.
The friction coefficient along the strip width is not a constant due to the change along the strip width of operating parameters, i.e. the rolling force, reduction and rolling speed etc.
Effect of the strip widths on the distribution of exit strip thickness
Effect of the strip widths on the roll deflection and flattening (a), specific forces (b) and edge contact forces (c)
However, there are no reports on the effect of the friction variation along the strip width due to the complexity of this problem. In this section, the entry thickness of strip is 0.30 mm, exit thickness of strip 0.10 mm, strip width 140 mm, back tension 0 kN, front tension 0 kN, metal flow resistance is described by Eq. (22), and no work roll bending force is applied, and the different transverse friction coefficients were assumed to be constant f, parabolic increasing fi and parabolic decreasing fd along the strip width as shown in Fig. 15.
Width of strip (mm) | Rolling force (kN) | Intermediate Force (kN) | Crown of exit strip ((m) | Edge contact force (kN) | Edge contact length (mm) |
80 | 235.39 | 264.05 | 14.48 | 28.66 | 33.0 |
100 | 300.27 | 337.74 | 18.78 | 37.48 | 35.0 |
120 | 367.83 | 411.52 | 23.05 | 43.68 | 35.0 |
140 | 435.91 | 478.38 | 26.70 | 42.47 | 32.0 |
160 | 504.11 | 536.81 | 29.67 | 32.69 | 27.0 |
180 | 569.96 | 587.76 | 31.65 | 17.80 | 20.0 |
Comparison of specific forces and strip crowns with different strip widths
Effect of friction coefficient on exit thickness distribution and specific forces
Friction coefficient | Rolling force (kN) | Intermediate force (kN) | Crown of exit strip ((m) | Edge contact force (kN) | Edge contact length (mm) |
0.07 | 362.04 | 365.20 | 31.61 | 3.17 | 9.0 |
0.10 | 504.11 | 536.81 | 29.67 | 32.69 | 27.0 |
0.13 | 686.28 | 776.22 | 25.91 | 89.94 | 40.0 |
Comparison of specific forces and strip crowns with different friction coefficients
Distribution of friction coefficient along the strip width
The effects of the transverse friction on the strip profile and specific forces i.e. the rolling force, intermediate force and edge contact force are shown in Figs. 16 and 17. It can be seen that the transverse friction has a significant effect on the strip profile. As the friction coefficient at the edge of strip increases, the exit crown of strip reduces, which indicates that the strip shape becomes better. Thus the strip shape and profile of thin strip can be improved by increasing the edge friction along the strip width. It can also be seen that the rolling force P increases significantly with the friction coefficient at the edges of strip. The intermediate force Q and edge contact force P increase substantially with a higher friction coefficient at the edge of strip, and the length of edge contact also increases. Therefore, the length of edge contact can be determined from this developed model, which is helpful in understanding the feature of the thin strip rolling with work roll edge contact.
Effect of transverse friction on strip shape
In order to verify the simulation results, the clod rolling of thin strip was conducted in lab. When the rolling speed is 0.27 m/s, entry thickness of strip is 0.55 mm, exit thickness 0.12 - 0.17 mm, strip widths 100 - 160 mm, a low carbon steel was rolled on Hille 100 rolling mill, friction coefficient is 0.1, its deformation resistance as described in Eq. (30) replaces Eq. (22) in the simulation.
Effect of transverse friction on specific forces
Other rolling mill parameters are the same as above. Comparison of the calculated rolling forces with the measured values for various strip widths is shown in Fig. 18. It can be seen that the calculated rolling force increases with the strip width, and it is in good agreement with the measured value. Fig. 19 shows a comparison of the measured rolling force with the calculated rolling force under various strip widths and rolling speeds. It can be seen that the rolling force decreases significantly with an increase of the rolling speed. The variation of interference friction features between the roll and strip under various rolling speeds is the main reason for this result. The calculated rolling force is in good agreement with the measured value, which verifies the plastic deformation model we have developed for this thin strip rolling. At lower rolling speeds, the work roll edge contact force becomes higher.
Comparison of the calculated rolling forces with the measured values
Effects of the rolling speeds and strip widths on rolling forces
The average percentages of work roll edge contact force with respect to the total rolling force for various strip widths are 15.0 and 15.6 % for rolling speeds of 0.27 and 0.15 m/s, respectively. Therefore, the work roll edge contact force plays an important role in this rolling process.
A new model for rolling mechanics of thin strip in cold rolling has been developed successfully when the work rolls edge contacts. A strip plastic deformation-based model of the rolling force was employed in the calculation, and a modified semi-infinite body model was introduced to calculate the flattening between the work roll and backup roll, and the flattening between the work roll and strip, as well as a Foppl model was employed to calculate the edge contact between the upper and down work rolls. Based on the theory of the slit beam, the special rolling and strip deformation was simulated using a modified influence function method.
The calculated results show that the specific forces such as the rolling force, intermediate force and the shape and profile of the strip for this special rolling process are significantly different from the forces in the traditional cold rolling process, and those form a new theory of metal plasticity in metal rolling. The edge contact of the work rolls can improve the strip shape when no work roll bending force is applied. With an increase of reduction, the rolling force, intermediate force and edge contact force increase significantly, however the strip shape becomes poor. Strip width has a significant influence on the edge contact force and edge contact length of the work rolls, which can result in an unstable work roll edge wear. When the friction coefficient increases, the edge contact force between the two work rolls increases, this can improve the strip profile. The transverse friction has a significant effect on the rolling force, edge contact force and the length of edge contact. It affects the strip shape and profile significantly, which is helpful in improving the strip shape and profile by modifying transverse friction. The calculated rolling force increases when the strip width increases and the rolling speed decreases, and it is in good agreement with the measured value. At lower rolling speeds, the work roll edge contact force becomes higher as a percentage of the total rolling force.
B Width of strip
Fl Roll flattening
F Friction coefficient
H1 Slab thickness
H Entry thickness of strip
H Exit thickness of strip
k0 Constant
kp Dynamic deformation resistance
ks Static deformation resistance
Yw Roll deflection
Β Constant
The work was supported by Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery-Project grant including an Australian Research Fellowship.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an essential tool in the characterization of environmental risks in the different stages of a product’s life cycle [1]. Research on LCA is a source of important information in management and decision-making strategies designed to improve environmental practices and execute technological adjustments or transformations in organizations [2].
With the use of LCA on the increase, the biofuel sector is the object of considerable research publications, followed by energy generation and agriculture [3]. In addition, LCA is the foundation of studies that assess environmental impacts in several production chains such as the steel industry [4], construction [1, 2], steel recycling processes [4], and urban solid waste management [5, 6].
Standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO 14.040, the execution of an LCA is divided into four stages, namely the definition of goal and scope, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation of results [7].
In LCA studies, environmental impact is classified according to the methodology used to assess it. The methods used for life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) establish the relationship between each stage of the life cycle inventory and the corresponding environmental impacts [8]. Several LCIA methods based on software and inventory databases have been developed. Notably, the variety and the specific aspects of these methods may affect the end results of LCA [9]. Moreover, it is important to understand the implications of LCA studies from a broader, more inclusive perspective that considers not only the environment but also human health, since important factors may be overlooked if an all-encompassing, holistic approach to environmental impact is not carried out [10]. For this reason, LCA studies require the evaluation of the LCIA method that best characterizes the potential environmental impacts in a given process considering the scope and hypotheses guiding the conduction of study.
The objective of this study was to identify the key LCIA methods used today and characterize the main categories of environmental impact assessed using these methods.
This chapter is structured so as to initially characterize the obstacles and difficulties faced when classifying the environmental impacts central to the conduction of LCA. Next, we carried out a literature review using specific keywords currently used to define the main criteria and the most important categories of environmental impact. Early research already warned of the implications of not including all relevant categories of environmental impact in LCA when comparing the impacts of recycling paper solid waste and incinerating it [11].
Prior to the literature review carried out, we first discussed cases of environmental impact that indicated the importance of a diagnostic evaluation of the selection of all impact categories used in decision-making.
This study was carried out searching the Journals Portal of University Professor Improvement Bureau (CAPES), which includes more than 250 databases of theses, journals, and books. Some of the databases included are SCIELO, Science Direct (Elsevier), and Scopus (Elsevier). The search was carried out in November 2018, and the keywords used were industrial solid waste and LCA. Initially, the keywords retrieved 87 publications issued from 1993 to 2018. Subsequently, the articles were screened so as to include only the publications addressing the study topic, namely the use of LCA to investigate solid waste from industrial processes. Some of the articles included were noteworthy literature reviews on the use of LCA [12, 13]. Waste management assessments carried out using other methodologies were excluded from the present report [14, 15]. Similarly, studies that used advanced environmental tools like material flow analysis (MFA) [16, 17], circular economy [18], and industrial symbiosis [19] but did not employ LCA were also disregarded.
The inclusion criteria adopted concern the third stage of LCA studies, namely LCIA. Software, the LCIA method, and the categories of environmental impacts used in these publications were considered. If a study presented assessments of more than one category such as midpoint and endpoint categories like global warming potential and climate change, for example, it was still considered one publication only. The impact categories considered had to be addressed in more than one single publication. However, studies that have produced significant findings were mentioned in the assessment. Later, evidence explaining the selection of environmental impact categories assessed in each study was analyzed.
The use of a LCIA is justified considering the effort to generate a priority matrix that may be used to define the most relevant impact categories in LCA studies. This matrix would be helpful in the characterization of the impact categories that should be considered in each LCA based on specific criteria and score systems.
The criteria to be defined should take into account the importance of each impact in each case studied. Therefore, criteria like type of process (that is, the environmental impacts that are more important in a given process and the most affected compartments) and region (the scarcest or most susceptible natural resources in a determined area, for example) become important factors to be considered in the definition of the priority matrix. Other important requisites include spatial coverage, duration, reversibility, probability of occurrence, harm to human health, harm to ecosystems, exhaustion of resources, and treatment alternatives [20].
Therefore, based on these criteria, the priority matrix may be helpful in the definition of the most appropriate impact categories to be considered in a given LCA study. It is also important to evaluate the metric that most accurately and realistically represents the categories defined.
For example, the contaminants generated by a given industrial activity are a function of the associated production processes [21]. A metalworking company carries out processes like purification, surface treatments, and quenching. For this reason, such a company would generate by-products like
foundry sand waste
cured resin waste
polymer paint bottoms
boiler ashes and soot
quenching salt waste
galvanizing bath dregs
metal scrap in general
More specifically, metal processing may generate waste items like metal scrap and sand casting scrap that in turn release phenols, cyanides, mineral oil, and heavy metals. In turn, surface treatments and quenching operations are sources of antimony, arsenic, petroleum ether, benzene, lead, cadmium, chromium, cyanides, copper, mineral oil, nickel, mercury, acids, bases, selenium, and zinc. Investigation on these contamination hazards is an important source of data on the major environmental impact categories in LCA of products manufactured using such processes.
Concerning the situation of a given region in order to assess how its environmental compartments behave and how degraded the region is, the Rio Grande harbor, in southern Brazil, provides a good example. According to Fundação Estadual de Proteção Ambiental Henrique Luiz Roessler (FEPAM), the local environmental authority that records incidents with hazardous materials (
Three minor accidents took place in the Rio Grande harbor in the past 20 years. Two of these events involved fuel oil and one involved bunker fuel, in 2001 and 2004, respectively. However, since these fluids are poorly soluble and less dense than water, the contamination of the canal floor could be ruled out.
But a lead acetate spill was recorded in the container park of the harbor in July 2001. Different from the accidents with oil, lead acetate was being transported in the solid state. Due to the high solubility in water and high density compared with sea water, the compound posed a high risk of contamination of the canal floor. Though lead acetate is a low-hydrolysis rate organic salt formed from a weak acid, the compound is toxic and the possibility that hydrolysis takes place indicates that Pb2+ ions might have reacted with the ions in solution in the waters of the canal of Rio Grande harbor.
In view of that, the record of incidents in the Rio Grande harbor clearly indicates the categories of environmental impacts that are essential to be considered in LCA studies in the region—or in any other harbor zone. These events signal that the activities carried out in a harbor may have high environmental impact hazard.
Considering the prerequisites discussed in previous research [20] and the criteria defined above, which are represented in detail in the accidents described, the present study indicates the need for a priority matrix that addresses these prerequisites. The objective is to provide a decision-making tool in the definition of the main life cycle impact categories to be considered in an LCA.
Of the 87 studies initially retrieved, 11 met the objectives of this review and were appraised. The studies included in this investigation were about LCA of industrial waste like copper tailings [23], management of hazardous industrial waste [24], steel recycling processes [4], solid urban waste management [5, 6], and cement industry [1, 2, 25, 26]. Table 1 shows the case studies and the environmental impact categories assessed.
Study | Region | Functional unit | Software | LCIA | Impact categories | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | |||||
Chen et al. [4] | China | 1 kg steel (raw state) | SIMAPRO 7 | IPCC 2007 | x | ||||||||
Morris [28] | USA | Solid waste management | BEES 3.0 | — | x | x | x | ||||||
Song et al. [23] | China | 1 t copper | GaBi 4 | Eco-Indicator 99 | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Al-maaded et al. [6] | Arabia | 10 kg plastic waste | GaBi 4 | CML 2001 | x | x | x | x | |||||
Banar et al. [29] | Turkey | 1 t urban solid waste | SIMAPRO 7 | CML 2000 | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||
Song et al. [1] | China | 1 t Portland cement | NI | CML 2001 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | |
Yang et al. [2] | China | 1 t cement of different resistance values | NI | IMPACT2002+ | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Shen et al. [25] | China | Portland cement | Not used | — | x | ||||||||
Changzai et al. [26] | China | 1 t SAC clinker production | IKE Environmental Technology Co. Ltd | eBalance | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Hong et al. [24] | China | 1 t of mixed industrial hazardous waste | NI | ReCiPe and USEtox™ | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Wang et al. [16] | China | 1 t of coal and 1 MWh power | IKE Environmental Technology Co. Ltd | eBalance | x | x | x |
Case studies selected and their relationships with environmental impact categories.
1: Global warming potential; 2: acidification potential; 3: eutrophication potential; 4: human toxicity potential; 5: ecotoxicity potential; 6: abiotic depletion potential; 7: ozone depletion potential; 8: photochemical oxidation potential; 9: respiratory toxicity potential (inorganic).
It is possible to observe that the LCIA method called CML was the most applied in research, being used in three articles carried out in Turkey, China, and Arabia [1, 5, 6]. The Eco-Indicator 99 method [23] and the Impact2002+ method [2] were also used. Other studies used the software tool developed by IKE Environmental Technology Co. Ltd., the eBalance package, which defines 16 midpoint categories of LCA [26, 27].
The use of the LCIA method is explained based on how a method is applied in LCA studies [2, 23]. However, some studies provide no explanation about the decision concerning the LCIA method selected. The use of a given method based on technical criteria was not reported in any study reviewed.
In LCA studies, environmental impacts are classified into categories based on the methodology used to assess the impact. The selection of categories of environmental impacts to systematically understand the aspects involved in each process is highly important at this stage, since the paucity of information may affect all decision levels.
The results of this review show that the main categories of environmental impacts taken into account in LCIA studies were global warming potential and acidification potential, which were used in 11 and 9 studies, respectively. Ecotoxicity was a category assessed in three studies.
More specifically, the four LCA studies that addressed cement as the only product were carried out in China using different methods. Only one category was assessed in the four studies, namely global warming potential. The categories acidification potential, eutrophication potential, and ecotoxicity were evaluated in two studies [1, 2]. The fact that these categories were evaluated does not mean that they were relevant in the respective studies. In the studies that assessed industrial waste and processes, the main categories used were global warming potential followed by acidification potential and eutrophication potential.
Previous research carried out an environmental evaluation of a typical Portland cement production line in China and compared the environmental impacts observed with the best available technologies with effects of the replacement of raw materials and of calcination fuels [1]. The functional unit defined was the production of 1 ton of Portland cement. The data were collected in a company operating in northern China and compiled as a database. The environmental impact categories were assessed using the CML 2001 method. The environmental impacts assessed were normalized. It was possible to observe that the category global warming potential is more severe compared with the other categories, followed by acidification potential and photochemical oxidation. The authors observed that the most efficient way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Portland cement production in China includes the study of alternative raw materials and fuels, especially due to the effects of calcination and coal consumption. These results were similar to the findings published in previous research [2], which found that the use of alternative materials like industrial waste and by-products is an efficient way to reduce environmental and economic impact generated in cement production.
The environmental performance of cements produced to yield various resistance levels has been compared [2]. The functional unit chosen was the production of 1 ton of cement. Mean annual production data of cement types were obtained from a research carried out by the China United Cement Corporation. Energy, coal, and shipping data were obtained from the literature. The LCIA method used was Impact 2002+. The environmental impacts were calculated based on midpoint and endpoint categories and were normalized. Based on an LCA, the authors concluded that the cement produced to yield high resistance caused the highest environmental impacts compared with lower resistance cements. The results showed that the categories that most contributed to global environmental impacts are global warming potential, respiratory toxicity potential, non-renewable energy consumption, and terrestrial acidification/eutrophication. Therefore, two categories were significant in these studies, namely global warming potential and acidification potential.
Also, CO2 emissions by the cement industry in China were quantified using an LCA [25]. Although these authors did not use a specific software, the calculations were carried out based on the necessary equations.
In another study, environmental impacts of the production of sulfoaluminate clinker using industrial solid waste were compared to the results obtained with the conventional method [26]. The results showed that industrial solid waste may significantly reduce the environmental load of the process due to the lower consumption of natural resources and greenhouse gas emissions. The production of sulfoaluminate clinker using industrial waste may reduce the total environmental impact by 38.62% compared with the conventional process.
It has been maintained that most studies about cement production considered only CO2 emissions and ignored the other environmental impacts [2]. It is observed that this is the case of several LCA studies not only about cement production, but also about other processes. The category global warming potential was considered in all studies, which explains the concern of industrial sectors to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Another study assessed the generation of energy from coal in China considering the steps of the mining life cycle and the washing and shipping of coal [27]. The authors observed that the main environmental impact category was smoke and dust, which is associated with the emission of total suspended particles.
However, it is important to consider all environmental impacts associated with LCA, in view of the relevance of the results of assessments to all decision-making levels. Therefore, it is essential to consider the specific aspects of the regions where a LCA is conducted and identify the relevance of the likely environmental impacts and aspects involved locally.
In addition, decision-makers have to consider a full LCIA, taking into account the associated economic and environmental impacts [4].
The lack of a holistic assessment of environmental impacts was observed in LCA carried out today based on a critical evaluation of LCA studies about concrete [10]. The author reports that LCA studies about concrete published in the literature are based on the use of energy and greenhouse gas emissions, despite the importance of questions like volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, and other toxic emissions involved in the production of concrete components.
Based on the rationale presented to determine the selection criteria and the survey carried out about LCA studies on industrial solid waste, it is observed that there is a long way ahead in the definition of a methodology to establish the life cycle environmental impacts that best fit each study in particular. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the methods that include the set of priorities established for the definition of the categories of impact that are of relevance in LCA studies. The priority matrix should include items such as type of activity and overall regional characteristics [20].
The objective of this chapter was to evaluate the use of different methods to define the most representative categories of environmental impact in LCA of industrial solid waste. Although initially 87 studies were selected, no study on LCA was carried out using a method that actually helped identify these categories. However, the categories global warming prevailed in research, followed by acidification potential and eutrophication potential.
This chapter also aimed at demonstrating the importance of assessing processes and respective downcycling and upcycling by-products as well as the most frequent pollutants, as in the example of the metalworking organization discussed. The importance of considering the physicochemical characteristics and behavior of compartments like water, air, and soil in the region where an impact occurs is highlighted. It is essential to evaluate the region considering its record of environmental accidents that affect its vulnerability to a given impact category. As opposed to what was observed in this literature review, these peculiarities should not be overlooked, meaning that specific aspects have to be considered in the search for critical points in LCA studies.
In view of that, the present literature review warns of the need to use appropriate LCA methods that consider the factor cited and address spatial area, duration of impact, reversibility, probability of occurring, human health hazards, harm to ecosystems, resource exhaustion, and treatment alternatives. Therefore, research on LCA requires a clearly developed approach to select impact categories that are more relevant in the establishment of environmental critical points, which is one of the objectives of LCA. These considerations form the foundation for a modernized production chain based on sustainable development under research, where LCA is the main tool in decision-making.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\\n\\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\\n\\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\\n\\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\\n\\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\\n\\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\\n\\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\\n\\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\\n\\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\\n\\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\\n\\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\\n\\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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