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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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Biological signals and images processing such as galvanic skin response (GSR), electrocardiography (ECG), heart rate variability (HRV), electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG), event-related potentials (ERP), eye tracking, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have a great help in understanding the mentioned cognitive processes. Emotion, stress, and attention recognition systems based on different soft computing approaches have many engineering and medical applications. The book Emotion and Attention Recognition Based on Biological Signals and Images attempts to introduce the different soft computing approaches and technologies for recognition of emotion, stress, and attention, from a historical development, focusing particularly on the recent development of the field and its specialization within neuropsychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and engineering. 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He received his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran in 2016. He has a multidisciplinary background, 15 years of teaching experience, and a 1-year industry experience. He is currently an assistant professor at the Department of Electrical Engineering and Research Center of Biomedical Engineering, Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran. He is currently the Dean of Laboratory and Research Services at Khorasan Razavi, Islamic Azad University, Iran and the Director of Laboratories and Workshops at Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University. He is a senior researcher at the Center of Excellence on Soft Computing and Intelligent Information Processing, Iran. He has received 10 national and international awards and has published over 70 peer-reviewed papers and book chapters. 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Methods are needed to automatically detect heavy cognitive load and distraction to warn drivers in poor psychophysiological state. Existing methods to monitor a driver have included prediction from steering behavior, smart phone warning systems, gaze detection, and electroencephalogram. We build upon these approaches by detecting cues that indicate inattention and stress from video. The system is tested and developed on data from Motor Trend Magazine's Best Driver Car of the Year 2014 and 2015. It was found that face detection and facial feature encoding posed the most difficult challenges to automatic facial emotion recognition in practice. The chapter focuses on two important parts of the facial emotion recognition pipeline: (1) face detection and (2) facial appearance features. We propose a face detector that unifies state‐of‐the‐art approaches and provides quality control for face detection results, called reference‐based face detection. 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Le",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53872",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53872",authors:[{id:"189308",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Cruz",slug:"alberto-cruz",fullName:"Alberto Cruz"},{id:"194900",title:"Ms.",name:"Belinda",surname:"Le",slug:"belinda-le",fullName:"Belinda Le"},{id:"194932",title:"Prof.",name:"Bir",surname:"Bhanu",slug:"bir-bhanu",fullName:"Bir Bhanu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53727",title:"Affective Valence Detection from EEG Signals Using Wrapper Methods",doi:"10.5772/66667",slug:"affective-valence-detection-from-eeg-signals-using-wrapper-methods",totalDownloads:1743,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work, a novel valence recognition system applied to EEG signals is presented. It consists of a feature extraction block followed by a wrapper classification algorithm. 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The proposed methodologies allowed us to identify a frontal region and a beta band as the most relevant characteristics, extracted from the electrical brain activity, in order to determine the affective valence elicited by visual stimuli.",signatures:"Antonio R. Hidalgo‐Muñoz, Míriam M. López, Isabel M. Santos,\nManuel Vázquez‐Marrufo, Elmar W. Lang and Ana M. 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Human sound can encode emotional meanings by different vocal parameters in words, real‐ vs. pseudo‐speeches, and vocalizations. Based on the ERP findings, recent development of the three‐stage model in vocal processing has highlighted initial‐ and late‐stage processing of vocal emotional stimuli. These processes, depending on which ERP components they were mapped onto, can be divided into the acoustic analysis, relevance and motivational processing, fine‐grained meaning analysis/integration/access, and higher‐level social inference, as the unfolding of the time scale. ERP studies on vocal socioemotions, such as happiness, anger, fear, sadness, neutral, sincerity, confidence, and sarcasm in the human voice and speech have employed different experimental paradigms such as crosssplicing, crossmodality priming, oddball, stroop, etc. Moreover, task demand and listener characteristics affect the neural responses underlying the decoding processes, revealing the role of attention deployment and interpersonal sensitivity in the neural decoding of vocal emotional stimuli. Cultural orientation affects our ability to decode emotional meaning in the voice. Neurophysiological patterns were compared between normal and abnormal emotional processing in the vocal expressions, especially in schizophrenia and in congenital amusia. 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The idea of severe and enduring mental illness (SEMI) extends back to 1999 when the UK Department of Health published the National Service Framework [1]. In it, SEMI was defined as follows:
“
Clearly it was intended, rightly, to include non-psychotic disorders such as eating disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Since that time policy has changed, perhaps because of increasing demands on community psychiatric services due to bed closures and funding restrictions and the most recent definition is very restrictive. In 2018, the National Institute for Clinical and Care Excellence (NICE) [2] released the draft scope for SEMI and stated: “the groups that will be covered are
In this context in which access to services could be restricted by psychiatric teams on the basis that the patient did not have a severe and enduring mental illness, the author wrote a book entitled Severe and Enduring Eating Disorders [4] partly in an attempt to draw attention to the ongoing major problems experienced by people with long term eating disorders. In this chapter we will examine the SEMI concept as applied to eating disorders, review the symptoms experienced by SEED patients and look at the differences between different eating disorders, which have lasted for many years. In the last section, recommendations for management of SEED will be made.
Eating disorders have been fully described in the DSM 5 [5] and these definitions will not be considered here. However, the questions of duration and severity do give rise to controversy and although the term Severe and Enduring” has been applied to eating disorders [4, 6], the precise length of history and severity required are still undecided.
This can be approached in a number of ways. One is to ask the question: At what point do eating disorders become significantly harder to treat? This is an important question, because if we knew the answer, we could make all possible efforts to begin treatment before that point. Unfortunately there is rather little evidence to guide us, although it has been suggested [7] that after 3 years of illness, anorexia nervosa may become more intractable. This is based on a randomised controlled study of anorexia nervosa [8] in which patients with a length of history of restricting anorexia nervosa of <3 years did significantly better in family therapy than patients with a longer history. Another approach is to look at the proportion of patients who still fulfil criteria for the disorder at different times after onset. In Table 1, a number of studies in which this proportion is reported are displayed. In each study, the proportion of patients with a “poor outcome” is noted in the 5th column. The proportion includes all deaths, as well as patients with a poor outcome due to reasons other than the eating disorder, so the measure is somewhat flawed. However, the proportion after 9–24 years (average 13.4 years) ranges from 12 to 59%, average 27.9%. This tells us that the proportion of patients initially diagnosed as having anorexia nervosa and who go on to do badly is high, and we can expect around a quarter of patients to follow this course. A more conservative estimate is shown in the 3rd column, namely the proportion of patients still fulfilling diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa. The range is from 3 to 37% with an average of 14.4%. The highest estimate in that column, 37% [13] is from a national service which accepted referrals from all over the UK. Hence the severity of disease in patients admitted is likely to be higher and length of illness proportionately longer. Without that centre the average proportion fulfilling criteria at average 14 years is 9.14% which may be a more representative figure.
Condition studied | Length of follow-up (years) | Proportion % fulfilling disease criteria | Notes | Poor outcome (ED and other reasons) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anorexia nervosa | 24 | Diagnoses not recorded | Mortality 12.8% | 29% | Theander et al. [9] |
Anorexia nervosa | 9 | 17 | Mortality 11% | 59% | Deter et al. [10] |
Anorexia nervosa | 12 | 19 | Mortality 7.7%, BN 9.5% | 39.6% | Fichter et al. [11] |
Anorexia nervosa | 10 | 3 | Adolescents, no deaths, 5% BN, 23% personality disorder | Herpertz-Dahlmann et al. [12] | |
Anorexia nervosa | 20 | 37 | 15% BN, 15% died | 36.6% | Ratnasuriya et al. [13] |
Anorexia nervosa | 15 | 13 | No deaths, 30% binge eating | Strober et al. [14] | |
Anorexia nervosa | 10 | 6 | Community screening, mean age onset 14 | 27% | Wentz et al. [15] |
Anorexia nervosa | 18 | 6 | Same cohort as above | 12% | Wentz et al. [16] |
Average | 13.4 | 14.4 | 27.9% |
Follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa.
Four of the above studies [9, 10, 11, 16] provided data on outcome of anorexia nervosa at several time points which allows us to draw a survival curve (Figure 1).
Percentage of participants who fulfilled diagnostic criteria at each assessment from four follow-up studies of anorexia nervosa. The curve is exponential, derived from these data points.
This shows that as time goes on, the number of cases reduces and almost, but not quite, reaches the horizontal, that is the curve seems to represent an asymptote. It should be noted that at no time does the curve ever stop falling, although the gradient does flatten, showing that anorexia nervosa can always recover, at any stage. The graph suggests that significant flattening seems to occur between 5 and 10 years, and in that period after diagnosis recovery does become less likely. Figure 1 also shows the exponential curve that was derived from the data points shown and this also suggests an asymptotic pattern.
The proposal by Treasure and Russell [7] that a history of more than 3 years might be accompanied by a decreased responsiveness to treatment was further examined in a study by Gardini [17]. In this audit of routine questionnaires, results in patients with anorexia nervosa with under 3 years history were compared with a group of patients with a history of 3–10 years and a further group with over 10 years duration. A comparable study was performed for patients with a diagnosis of bulimia nervosa and the same durations of illness.
The results were intriguing. For anorexia nervosa (but not for bulimia nervosa), time had a significant impact on EDE-Q restraint and a borderline significant impact of EDE-Q weight concern and EDE-Q global score. The scores increased between <3 and 3–10 years and then declined after 10 years. The results are summarised in Figure 2.
EDE-Q scores in three groups of patients with anorexia nervosa (total n = 87) with length of history of <3 years, 3–10 years and >10 years. The p values derive from a Manova comparing the three length of history groups. *≤3 years group vs. 3–10 year group p = 0.048, **≤3 years group vs. 3–10 year group p = 0.017 (post-hoc tests). EDE-Q-G: global score, EDE-Q-R: restraint, EDE-Q-E: eating concern, EDE-Q-S: shape concern, EDE-Q-W: weight concern.
This study provides some evidence for the 3 year threshold proposed by Treasure and Russell [7]. Some eating disorder symptoms significantly increase after 3 years illness and this could relate to increasing difficulty in helping patients achieve remission. The increased restraint score could reflect increased resistance to the parents encouraging the patient to consume a weight gaining diet, an essential element in family based therapy.
In this section, SEED-AN symptoms [18] will be compared with SEED-BN (unpublished data).
In SEED-AN, many participants complained of physical problems, but also denied their seriousness:
“
“
In SEED-BN most participants either did not complain of any physical problem, or felt they were manageable.
In SEED-AN, most participants were depressed, and self esteem was often extremely low:
“
In SEED-BN depression and mood instability were the rule.
“
“
In SEED-AN, social disruption, lack of intimate relationships and social isolation were common.
“
In SEED-BN most participants were not in relationships and were living alone.
“
In SEED-AN, the patient sometimes ended up as their parents’ carer.
“
In other cases, difficult relationships improved over time.
“
In SEED-BN, family difficulties were frequent. Some felt their families did not take the eating disorder seriously. One patient after she had confessed her bulimia to her mother, reported that her mother said “
For SEED-AN, patients were often poor, living on benefits without paid work. They also described clinical frugality, in which they had extreme difficulty spending money on themselves:
“
For SEED-BN, the illness was often very costly because of the large quantity of food consumed. One patient interviewed was seeing a debt counsellor to manage loans from 5 different lenders: “
SEED-AN: These patients often reported being out of work and surviving on benefits. “
SEED-BN: These individuals were often in work, and some valued the structure of work to help manage their eating disorder: “
Outcome research in the area of management of SEED is sparse. There are several examples of publications in which clinicians have expressed their opinion in this area [14, 19, 20]. One question that constantly appears in the area of management is what general approach to use. As already discussed full recovery from an eating disorder is always possible although less likely as the years pass. The patient (and the clinician and family) are thus confronted with the question each time therapy is contemplated: Should I go for a full recovery or for the best quality-of-life given that I have a long-term disorder.
From the point of view of the clinician, there may be a moral dilemma. Funding for services may depend on inpatient units being full. This applies to both the public and private health sectors. There may therefore be perverse incentives to admit the SEED patient for a prolonged hospital stay in pursuit of weight gain. Most professionals in charge of an inpatient eating disorders service will be aware of these pressures, and how they sometimes conflict with patient care. Hospital admission is essential in the case of a patient who presents life threatening physical illness. However the likelihood of long-term recovery after prolonged admission in someone with a long illness is probably small and one is left with a suspicion that some SEED patients may be admitted for long periods without much benefit.
It seems to the author evident that all patients with SEED to be offered treatment and that fully alleviating disorder. However not all patients benefit from this approach especially if it is provided against the patient’s consent and in such cases a harm minimization or recovery approach focused on improving quality of life maybe more humane and helpful.
This approach [21] that originated amongst service users in the United States posits that improved mental and physical health can be achieved even though the illness at the root of a person’s difficulties cannot be cured. Thus a person with schizophrenia who hears voices, believes he is being bugged and has interpersonal difficulties can still be helped to deal with the symptoms through individual family and social interventions even though medication has had limited impact.
Can a similar approach applied to eating disorders? Here we will go through the different realms indicated by see patients as problematic and identify ways to approach them.
The role of medication in the eating disorders is limited and the main group who appear to benefit are those with bulimia nervosa. Antidepressants such as high-dose fluoxetine can be tried with patients who have had at least one evidence-based psychological treatment for bulimia nervosa [22]. Of other drugs olanzapine has been tried in anorexia nervosa [23] and although the evidence is currently weak, some eating disorder specialists believe that the drug reduces anxiety and may have an impact in improving weight gain. Adequate randomised trials are awaited.
Patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are in both quantitative and qualitative studies are found to suffer from depression and anxiety. These difficulties often correlate with the severity of the eating disorder symptoms such as lower weight or frequent bingeing and purging and treatments to reduce those are clearly the preferred approach. However patients with SEED have often received one or more courses of psychotherapy and perhaps one or more inpatient or day patient episodes. In anorexia nervosa there is little evidence that any therapy is better than any other although in bulimia nervosa CBT [24] and some other approaches have been found helpful. In a trial in which two therapies were tested in patients with long-standing anorexia nervosa [6] weight gain was modest but significant and there were significant improvements in depression and eating disorder symptoms. The two therapies were SSCM and cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT). SSCM is Specialist Supportive Clinical Management [25] and is a therapy that can be delivered by mental health staff without psychotherapy training. It mostly addresses eating disorder behaviours and has been used as a control therapy in several randomised trials [6, 26, 27] in which the results were surprisingly good, often doing as well as the more complex therapy being studied. Hence it has earned itself a place in the NICE guidelines [28]. Initially it was designed exclusively for anorexia nervosa and a variant (SSCM-ED) has been used in all eating disorders [29]. SSCM and SSCM-ED have no published manual but a manual for the latter can be obtained from the author of this chapter.
This is clearly required in anorexia nervosa of any duration, because without in patients can deteriorate and die from nutritional problems. For bulimia nervosa, the most common serious medical problems are electrolyte disturbances. Who should do the monitoring is a point of debate. When specialist eating disorder services are scarce and expensive, there is an argument for monitoring to be based in primary care. However, the staff in primary care require training in monitoring eating disorders and in what to do when a worrying finding, such as an abnormal ECG, is uncovered. Some general practitioners are reluctant to take on this work, and a possible model in the UK NHS might be to provide funding for primary care staff to provide this service, and a formal link with an eating disorders specialist to provide support and guidance when abnormalities are discovered. Unfortunately, this has not yet been achieved and care is thus often a source of tension between primary and specialist care. Methods for monitoring patients with eating disorders have been documented in MARSIPAN [30] and in Treasure [31]. For monitoring of physical problems which develop over time but do not usually threaten life, such as osteoporosis, the patient and doctor need to decide on whether and how often to monitor the conditions. Some have argued that as the sole effective treatment for osteoporosis due to anorexia nervosa is weight gain, and as we know it will get worse without increase in weight, repeated scans are not required. Others believe that knowing that the condition is deteriorating might provide an incentive to improve weight and secondly alerts patient, physician and family to the increasing possibility of fractures after trivial or no injury.
Many patients with SEED-AN and SEED-BN describe difficulties with their families as already described. The problems from the family members’ point of view are how to respond to a serious eating disorder which does not seem to be getting better, without suffering from depression and other manifestations of stress, and without inadvertently making the eating disorder worse. For these families, collaborative caring [32] has a lot to offer, and has been shown [33] to result in lower distress levels in carers. Single or multiple family therapy might sometimes be indicated to help resolve some difficulties, although naturally the aim of therapy would be improving family functioning and quality of life, rather than curing the eating disorder, as it is in younger, short history patients [34].
As described above, social isolation is commonly described in patients with long term anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Patients are reluctant to eat with others and may turn down invitations to go out, preferring to stay at home and binge-eat. Attending a day service for treatment can be a first step in re-socialising and help to find appropriate voluntary work or educational courses can also be a useful aid to recreating a social network. Some patients, especially with anorexia nervosa, find that meeting other patients with the same condition can be more acceptable, because they do not need to explain their behaviour to others. However, while this may be helpful initially, it can result in further entrenchment of the eating disorder and if possible, wider social networks should be sought. The help of occupational therapy and nursing staff can be invaluable in this process. If a patient already has a career, or is mid way through a training, the staff can help them reintegrate and request observer status before going back to work or study. For certain occupations, such as dance or athletics, the patient needs to decide whether pursuing the former career is possible without the eating disorder becoming more severe.
A substantial proportion of individuals with eating disorder fail to recover either because they have not had early access to treatment, or because they have not responded to such treatment. As time goes on the chances of recovery reduce but they never seem to reach zero, suggesting an asymptotic function underlying the chances of recovery with time. There is some evidence to suggest that over 3 years, anorexia nervosa, but not, apparently bulimia nervosa, may become more entrenched and resistant to treatment. Both conditions, however, profoundly affect quality of life and although the mortality is lower in bulimia nervosa, both conditions are associated with widespread disruption of physical health and psychological, family and social functioning. In long term eating disorders each of these realms require attention from professionals and from other informed individuals in families, who require adequate training and support, and the general public including ex-sufferers and charities such as BEAT. Severe and enduring eating disorders (SEED) should be recognised by the wider psychiatry community as deserving of attention and resources as much as other severe and enduring mental disorders so that the suffering endured by patients and their families as well as the costs incurred by individuals, families and society can be alleviated.
The author would like to thank Ms. Jessica Jackson, Ms. Maxine Hughes, and Ms. Giulia Guidetti for permission to quote qualitative interview subjects. The author also thanks Professor Elena Tomba and Ms. Valentina Gardini, University of Bologna, for permission to quote data in Figure 2 and associated text.
Cities cannot be defined only by their administrative boundaries, and urban policies can no longer target only administrative units at the city level. The importance of multilevel governance has been strongly emphasized by the European Parliament and the Committee of the Regions. This is in full accordance with the conclusions of this report: policies at European, national, regional, and local levels must be correlated with each other [1]. In any urban development and expansion plan, it must be taken into account that natural systems have a limited capacity to respond and adjust to changes produced by man. From the perspective of urban sustainable development, any impact of urban activities on the environment must be minimized. The idea of sustainable urban development was born in the 1970s, as a result of deep concern about a development model that threatened the environment and the vitality of the planet. There is a strong belief that, apart from government programs and the private sector initiative, local communities need to be actively involved in this process. This concept is at the basis of formulating sustainable policies, which try to harmonize the relationship between population, environment, and industrial development. Controlled urban expansion is also known as smart growth. The experience of the states of the European Union shows that metropolitan areas, well managed, reach economic competitiveness quickly (economic policies can effectively attract funds and investors and can energize the construction, services, and tourism sectors), and their future development is sustainable (economic, cultural, social, ecological, and policies are harmonized). Such a project aims at decongesting large cities, establishing unitary architectural development, accessing European funds for regional development, and, thereby, creating civilized living conditions for all inhabitants of metropolitan areas. More than two-thirds of Europe’s population lives in urban areas [2]. Cities are places where problems arise and solutions are found. They represent a fertile ground for science and technology, for culture and innovation, for individual and collective creativity, as well as for mitigating the effects of climate change. However, cities are also places where problems such as unemployment, discrimination, and poverty are concentrated [3].
The objective of the Thematic Strategy for the urban environment, adopted in 2006, at European level, “to contribute to a better quality of life through an integrated approach to urban areas,” in conjunction with the effort to contribute to “a higher level of quality of life and social well-being of citizens, by ensuring an environment in which the level of pollution does not generate harmful effects on human health and the environment and by encouraging the sustainable urban development,” defined, for the next years, the priorities, the direction, and the means by which this strategy to be applied [4]. It follows from this strategy that most cities face a common set of basic problems, such as those related to air quality, heavy traffic, high noise levels, low-quality construction, abandoned land, greenhouse gas emissions, non-systematic areas, generation of waste and wastewater, and providing public services to the population. Among the causes of these problems is the increase in the use of resources per inhabitant, the increase in the number of individual households, the demographic changes, and the increase in the number of personal property machines. The solutions must be forward-looking, taking into account aspects of risk prevention, the anticipation of climate change, or the progressive reduction of dependence on fossil fuels. The activities in the urban environment are sources of pollution for all environmental factors. Therefore, they must be controlled and managed to minimize the impact on the environment.
Urban planning deals with the design of building groups, settlements, neighborhoods, and in particular public spaces. Urban design can be understood as a term for the visible and creative aspects of urban planning. According to a broader understanding, the concept of urban planning encompasses the totality of planning and construction measures for urban and rural spatial planning aimed at creating the prerequisites for the coexistence of people in an environment appropriate to them in the pursuit of sociopolitical goals. In conclusion, urban design is a product of the collaboration on site of elements of the urban framework, determined functionally within the configuration spatial structure. It can be understood as a term for the visible and creative aspects of urban planning. Traditionally it has been referred to a discipline within urban planning, landscape architecture, or more simultaneously linked to emerging disciplines such as landscape urbanism.
The form of the urban process is a form of evolutionary procedure, which is connected directly to the concept of urban society. It takes dynamic contradictions from the inside to the outside of urban phenomena. The phenomenon takes an evolutionary process which means that the urban form is the concretization in time and space of the urban phenomenon. The definition of urban phenomenon performs clear in support on highlighting of urban functions, urban growth, and urban shape/image. Another area which must be clearly defined is determining the urban phenomenon which starts from the corroboration of internal and external functions of the city [5]. The urban phenomenon is in a continuous transformation process. There are several directions of structural determination:
Morphological-functional structure
Volumetric spatial structure
The urban phenomenon is different from the form it dresses in the city because the shape and structure can be viewed from several points of view (plastic, mathematical-geometric, topological). It is embodied in three typescripts:
Centrality, where it manifests itself through a grouping of objects, actions, and phenomena in a more or less delimited space
Conflictuality, where it associates with consumption and production
Simultaneity, where all these elements associated with the urban phenomenon take place simultaneously
A clear example for this case is a street, which represents the place of manifestation of the urban phenomenon in time and space; it reveals it on a certain plane of its complexity, because 1, 2, and 3 are expressed on several levels of specialty and several directions of interest (economic, social, political, material, spiritual). The urban phenomenon reflects the same signification of global reality. An urban existing is presented by:
Material and spiritual expression of the urban phenomenon.
Resembles: built frame, people there at one point, cars, and plantations.
It is a complex, obvious concretization of a certain urban structure.
In conclusion, the urban phenomenon has a continuous and infinite development through the typological, spatial, and temporal multitude of its phenomenological successions. However, the urban form has moments of stagnation and discontinuity. The urban phenomenon has a double reference:
A reference to the logic of the form, which refers to all quantifiable aspects of the urban phenomenon (population growth, surface area, stretches, openings of space, densities). It is a form of the geometrical logic, which refers to specialist-spatial configuration, topology, the form of the built volumes, and directions of interest.
A reference to the dialectic of content—the so diverse components of the urban phenomenon are the result of a conflict or lead to conflict (e.g., with the neighbors). There is certain independence between form and content.
References of the urban phenomenon to the logic of form and to the dialectic of content justify its understanding as a system. These references impose relationships between the components of the urban phenomenon, so that they are realized in systems and subsystems. The urban phenomenon can be:
Units/less unitary
Dense/less dense
Intense/less intense
The urban phenomenon as a system is defined only through the urban form, the fact that leads us to the idea of knowing and directing the urban phenomenon (of its processes and acts) through careful, corroborated analysis of the manifestations of any kind of urban form [6]. The urban form has a dialectic character, which reflects the evolution of the urban phenomenon, it has:
The ability to express itself very differently either:
In particular: within a certain urban existence, through image, movement, and sound
In abstract: imaginative—within the representation of the pre-existing or post-existing urban existence
Graphically: by mathematical-geometric, technical, and plastic means
Verbally: by the psychosociological or mathematical-statistical concept
The urban form has the capacity to move from a logical, but an abstract manifestation (through a certain language), into a form of effective actions, which results in a certain urban existence. It had an active character which can highlight three sides:
Selectivity with histories and character: any urban form, any urban existence, is the result of historical evolution. The urban form has the capacity to evolve, selecting over time the various values within the respective urban existence.
A capacity of reunification: of old or new contents in a totality.
A possibility to create an urban strategy at the conception and decision levels, which represent a reflection for a certain city existence.
The urban form is not indifferent to space–time, but not taken as such, because they are transformable elements, imprinting on the urban existence a succession of states. The spatiotemporal determination of the urban form lies between innovation and tradition. The urban form does not have to be shaped at any given moment by acquiring space, time, or a conventional model.
The city represents a multifaceted structure of social organization, which involves a number of social institutions and a typical configuration of social relations. A sustainable city is organized so as to enable all its citizens to meet their own needs and to enhance their well-being without damaging the natural world or endangering the living conditions of other people, now or in the future [3, 7]. This makes the users of the city, the social relations they develop in cities, the ways in which they live, the problems they face, and the urban space in general the object of research of modern urban studies. A human being in urban composition means to get yourself on a doctrinal position. The composition in urban scale is based on both the structure and the doctrine (ideology). In urban composition, esthetics remains just one aspect, where the urban form is read as a static instance. It is a concrete land, inscribed in history, having a memory and therefore not completely subordinating to the needs or the will of a class, preserving morphological landmarks that illustrate this resistance. At the same time, the memory of the place, a notion determined historically and socially, plays an important role in the permanence of the significance of some urban spaces; it illustrates: “what one epoch finds worthy of attention in another.” It is considered an artifact because it is the physical result of the aspirations of the urban society, created by its reference elements, the public buildings. Architecture always expresses and illustrates the social and cultural potential of an era. A city includes rights and freedoms for all its inhabitants, promotes social and political participation, informs its citizens, and makes democratic decisions. Economic inclusion refers to public policies to support the poor and to provide equal opportunities in business and equal access to the labor market. Cultural inclusion: an inclusive city promotes social integration and celebrates diversity. It respects the cultural rights of individuals, recognizes human capital in all segments of society and strives to increase it by promoting creative artistic expression and preservation of traditions. The concept of “the city for all” and “the right to the city” refers to the access of social and economic benefits by all the inhabitants, promoting social equality and access to the benefits of urban living, for each inhabitant. A city must dig even on the social, political, economic, and cultural levels, if no efforts are made in this respect, and then continue promoting the exclusive development and sharing of benefits, marginalization, and discrimination. The city administration must be well aware of the sociocultural realities that make up the social life of the respective city; they must strive to build and promote inclusive strategies and policies and then integrate these strategies into the daily lives of the population. The city has been and remains a land of negotiation between various social groups; harmonious cohabitation in cities is a difficult process, which is often punctuated by various urban social movements. In general, these movements challenge the social order and the existing public policies, fighting for visibility on the social scene and for a fair distribution of resources. Cities in their evolution have undergone a permanent territorial extension and intense remodeling. The forms of evolution and urban concentration are different from one area to another and from one region to another. They differ in both genesis and size. Depending on these two elements, several forms of urban concentration can be distinguished. Therefore, the city does not only mean buildings, roads, parks, fences, abandoned corners, water pipes, and cable networks, but especially interactions between citizens, contacts, social relations, and communication situations, direct and indirect [8]. All these make up the complexity of urban social life and give life to cities. In another view of this subject, the urban habitat expresses the synthesis of the conditions of human life, of the social-economic reality existing at one point. At the global scale, the population is divided into two major types of habitat: rural and urban, between which there are similarities, but also fundamental differences. The urban habitat or the city is a form of human settlement superior of the village, which is distinguished by a higher density of population and constructions, superior technical-urban equipment, mainly secondary and tertiary economic activities, a specific way of life, and with a higher demographic potential. Although these criteria are clear enough to distinguish the village from the city, they are not necessarily the same for everyone. Depending on the region and the age, the idea we make about the city changes. Each civilization has a different conception of the city. Certain ancient cities, populated mostly by cultivators, cannot be considered cities in our view. Difficulties in differentiating the village and town arise from the lack of accuracy of the vocabulary. The city is a space that is defined by a series of metric properties, by dimensions, surfaces, and densities. It is an intensely populated space, with a high degree of concentration, production, and social and cultural organization, which develops under certain conditions of space and time, thanks to the convergence of the forces of production and in permanent opposition to the village. Urban social studies analyze urban life in all its complexity. Through explanations and information provided in urban studies, we can better understand the reality and social, cultural, and economic phenomena that are happening in the urban environment around us; we can understand the causes of these phenomena; we can understand the sociocultural diversity; and we can find new opportunities to live together and creatively use urban spaces.
A city is not just a place to live, but a complex and dynamic system that unites a certain community of people and is called upon to ultimately improve the quality of life of every person. Urban spaces are formed under the influence of many factors and over long periods. When designing an urban environment, the designer must take into account the compositional. The idea that heterotopia does not inevitably mean a state of urban chaos can be retained here, that distant order can, in many cases, be particularly subtle. One of the most complicated and, at the same time, very topical issues regarding the urban form is that of spatial differentiation as a way of explaining the existence in any urban situation of different spaces between them. First, the aspect of understanding spatial differentiation appears in the sense of a dialectical result in the process of constituting the urban form, namely, in the sense that the urban form is the expression for the purpose of the urban phenomenon. However, this understanding must not be inclined toward the metaphysical, that is, it must not be considered in the sense that a certain expression of the urban form is completely and definitively recognized as a final expression, beyond which nothing can appear. It continues to evolve over a period of time greater or less, in which it remains in the same form (unitary or non-unitary), until, undergoing a new transformation process, it reaches another form, constituting itself as the new existence that can be considered as a new moment of finality [9]. This is why we can say that the urban form as a finality of the urban phenomenon is in the process of continuous perfection. It is noteworthy that precisely this process creates spatial differentiation, this differentiation occurring either within the same urban space (frame, element for an urban existence) from one moment to another of its evolution, or within the city, when an urban space arrives. At a time, a purpose that is different from that of other urban space at the same time. So, within the city, we have to deal with a spatial differentiation to be analyzed either in a horizontal temporal section (without neglecting the constitution overtime of the respective urban spaces) or in a vertical temporal section (insisting on the evolutionary character of the respective urban space). Although, at least in the first situation, the differentiation can be caught only through a structural analysis of urban spaces; it cannot ensure the depth of our conclusions, especially if, at the level of detail or, on the contrary, at the level of the whole, they are necessary for defining aspects which characterize the urban form in a certain area, in a certain time. The urban form concerns the morphological characteristics of the urban framework both in general, at the scale of the entire city (extension, perimeter, street network, watercourses, etc.), and in detail, the relation of a building with the surrounding urban framework, a group of buildings, ensemble, and neighborhood structure of the urban framework [9]. The transformation of the living environment, including the design of the urban environment, is one of the most urgent problems solved by the modern designer—an active participant in creating the environment of the environment, educator, and exponent of the culture and esthetic taste of society. The urban design is oriented to interpret the form and public space with physical-esthetic-functional criteria, seeking to meet the needs of urban communities or societies, within a consideration of collective benefit in an existing or future urban area, until reaching the conclusion of an urban structure to follow. Therefore, the urban design performs physical planning at analysis levels, such as the region, the urban center, the urban area, and even the urban furniture itself.
Utopian space has a special feature. It is defined as combining both the close order and the distant order, at the concept level, between urban isotope and heterotopy. But if these are characteristics that address the material existence, therefore exclusively to what is perceived (in volumetric, color, movement, noise), the space considered as utopian has a deep subjective potential, its appreciation being closely related to the psychic. Heterotopic spaces are spaces that reveal different places, each supported by different functional, spatial, and encompassing characteristics. But also within the same urban space—the more complex it is, the more obvious this observation is—we can also find isotopic states or heterotopic states, which gives the space a homogeneity or heterogeneity. Symbols are commonly applied to formal iconographic representations. Symbolism encompasses complex conceptual codes and pictorial representations of a worldview that operates on multiple levels and scales [10]. Differentiation in the sense of heterotopy isotope, in the context of an urban situation, is not fixed. Urban symbolism is commonly associated with the enhancement of formal urban figures, objects, or pieces of the collection and landmarks [11]. The utopian space is, in general, a symbolic space, and what the architects forget, a space with imaginary availability not for themselves, but for those who cross it as ignorant of a survey methodology of analysis, but directly and perhaps impressively primitive. For example, a utopian space can be, within the city, an organized market, but extremely wide, whose limits come out of the natural perception, the image retaining the volumetric, but also a passage of the outer space. Then our psyche, as well as our imaginary, intervenes in determining a certain environment, a certain impression at that moment and in that place. As a utopian space, any urban space may appear during the night, when a number of aspects of its configuration fade, even though during the day it may be an isotopic or heterotopic space. The significance of urban space, obviously determined by its functionality and geometrical-spatial appreciation, cannot be achieved except for a small but constructive, utopian value. The monumental, like the enchanting, are features that serve the significance of the urban space; however, there are traits that constitute a spatial approach/recognition/perception, at least in part utopian.
An important type of urban space is empty space, which represents a space that attracts and even ends up being filled (both personally and figuratively), in the sense that it attracts people at a certain time in relation to a certain activity located here temporarily, so it attracts certain interests to confront here and, as such, can even find a symbolic “filling,” finds a certain content. It is wrong to argue that such a space should be conceived, in the context of urban modernization, as a neutral space, because, when it is accidentally occupied, it expresses the beginning of a new phase of spatial expansion, and when it is periodically occupied, it expresses a need, of organized space [10]. And in one case, and in the other, the permanence of his occupation as a mono- or polyvalent space imposes a configuration that can no longer be left as an indifferent space in relation to the neighborhood. There is a natural tendency of the urban phenomenon that, gradually, by decommissioning some previously occupied spaces, they will become indifferent spaces in the urban structure, which leads to some unfavorable situations for the city: an increase of the affected territories, thus the deterioration of the qualities of the urban framework, the deterioration the balance of spatial differentiation in the territory, and the loss of features that particularized the respective places. Mastering this process, be easy to talk about the neutralization of some urban existences, thus presents a special significance, making it difficult for a direct intervention on the existing built fund: finding the possible values, monitoring the state, maintaining them, and properly completing them.
The urban form is defined by the physical characteristics of the urban framework, customized by:
The geometry of space and construction template
The relationships between the elements of the urban framework
The urban form represents the morphological component of the urban framework. It is displayed by a great diversity of morphological compositions, capable of individualizing and customizing various areas of the city or the city as a whole, depending on:
Various stages of its development (temporal dimension)
The destination of the buildings and spaces (functional dimension), of the importance of the buildings, and of the material resources of investors/owners (economic-social dimension)
It is required to put more attention to the city as a territorial and social entity, countless works being focused on increasing social polarization, which is increasingly evident in the internal structure of cities. The effects of poverty and marginalization of social groups and ethnicities are more and more manifested in urban spatial structures. Today the application by postmodernism in urban geography remains problematic, and it is necessary to adopt relativism in science. Postmodernism should be the final point in a millennial evolution of art and science. Is it true that science has reached this level above which it is no longer possible to go categorically; therefore, the postmodernist stage in the evolution of thinking in the field of urban geography should be regarded as a temporary one, improperly named, because of the progress made by registered so far; it shows that future changes will be quite astonishing. The contemporary urban evolution leads to an increase in the power of urban control over human activities and, at the same time, an increase of the vulnerability of cities and urban systems. This vulnerability must be treated in light of the sustainable development of the city in general.
Today, when the history of design as an independent field of art history and scientific discipline has acquired quite specific features, it becomes relevant to pay attention to the historical development of individual local areas of design. One of them and the young ones are the design of the urban environment or urban design. The term “urban design,” as noted by a professor of Sydney University, John Lang, appeared in the 1950s. He, as well as his synonym for the “designing city environment,” has firmly entered the professional vocabulary of the designer which is used to designate nominations for competitions and exhibitions of design festivals and to name specializations in design education. A design feature is that each thing is considered not only from the point of view of benefit and beauty but also from the point of view of the functioning process, that is, taking into account how the item will be transported, how to pack, where and what place it will occupy in the apartment, what care should be taken, how to be included, etc. In the design domain, visual design tools are common for plastic arts: point, line, texture, texture, color, shape, volume, proportion, mass, and space. These components are combined based on the principles of composition: symmetry, asymmetry, balance, rhythm, movement, etc. The design has widespread use and such means as the proportion of the golden ratio. Harmony and contrast as a universal means of art are systemically important in design. It is especially important for the art design to take into account the dependence of the shape of the object on the materials used, structures, and production technology. Design plays an important role in human creativity products. Design areas are household appliances, dishes, furniture, machine tools, vehicles, graphics, clothes, and more.
The designer is looking for the optimal shape of each element, taking into account how it depends on the work function (purpose) of the product and its relationships with the person. Design is a special product of specific, abstract, and, at the same time, imaginative thinking. It is also created based on fundamental knowledge: philosophy, esthetics, anthropology, the foundations of visual literacy, and psychology. It involves the study of engineering, technology, ergonomics, ecology and system design, etc. The professional activity of the designer, both developing on social grounds and based on the natural qualities of a person (esthetic, emotional and intellectual), established the role and place of design in public life. The meaning of designing is to become a unique, powerful, and effective means of influencing the esthetic and the ennobled activity of society. Thus, the design is a rather specific and significant sphere of activities of people, which by its nature is as human as, say, education, science, and healthcare. Design functions are not only the creation of appropriate products but also advisory, methodological, and coordinating; the design is a special branch of people’s life. The functions, structure, place, the role of design, as well as its evolution are not sufficiently studied in philosophical and cultural literature, in which the appeal to these topics is only partial. To date, there is not even a generally accepted definition of the phenomenon of “design” [9]. Moreover, meanwhile, this phenomenon causes increased practical and theoretical interest in our society. Today the contemporary cities are marked by invisible borders, which delimit areas and “territories,” separating the inhabitants. This social fragmentation is best reflected in the way resources are distributed, opportunities for a good life and even urban space—often unequal distribution—benefiting certain socioeconomic categories, living in certain “territories,” and disadvantaging others living in separate “territories.” For example, certain areas of a city can be taken care of, with large spaces, well-maintained parks and gardens, and with quality residential areas, while other areas are characterized by poverty, poor housing, poor public services, lack of access to recreational and cultural facilities, decay, reduced investments in public infrastructure, and unequal opportunities and freedoms. Usually, economic and social exclusion leads to cultural and political exclusion. In a divided sense, inequalities are exacerbated, which contributes to stratifying the population into social categories marked by social segregation; the poor, along with immigrants and other individuals lacking social esteem or “undesirables,” are usually part of the same category. The increasing role of modern design is associated with the growth of global problems, and its tasks depend on solving environmental, esthetic, and humanistic problems of culture. In general, the design is not only a graphic and decorative activity; in many areas of management and economy, especially where research is carried out, specialists—engineers, designers, and technologists—are always faced with the need to draw. The ability to draw and the related ability to feel the harmony of the world open up new possibilities. A design product has a positive impact on the general social atmosphere; it forms an esthetic taste, inspires people, raises their working capacity, creates conditions for productive and creative activity, increases respect for the immediate environment of human existence, and makes it more human. By urban design process, human being becomes a part of an innovative study environment with project-oriented teaching in a creative and idea-developing community, and we go the step further in collaboration with different companies. We also go on study trips across the years in the field of study, and you come from an internship abroad, where you are linked to a small company.
In narrow scope: urban design represents the form of human settlements, physical features at scales larger than a single building. It can be done through the manipulation of the concrete elements of distance, material, scale, view, vegetation, land area, water features, road alignment, building style, and numerous other items that create the natural landscape and the built environment [12]. Urban design seems to be the profession that determines the spatial shape or physical environment. Different approaches for urban design are as follows:
Good form: To define an axis of movement, the designer may strategically place small and large buildings to create scale linkages receding in space or insert in the landscape an arch or a gate.
Legibility: A legible city is one whose constituent parts “are easily identifiable and are easily grouped into an overall pattern.”
Vitality: A bustling street life is essential to a good city, and main streets need “a most intricate and close-grained density of uses that give each other mutual support.”
Meaning: In reaction to modernism that focused on building forms, a new generation of thinkers has stressed [the city’s] capacity to exhibit history, tradition, nature, nationality, or other themes that heighten the meaning and solidify the identity.
In broad scope: urban design is the field that engages the human experience of the built environment—the sense of understandability, congeniality, playfulness, security, mystery, or respect that lands and built form evoke [11].
An urban designer mission has all the analytical approach as an engineer and, therefore, always does much in-depth analysis before drafting a solution to the problem. He also has the creative approach as the architect and can sometimes have multiple walls pasted with sketches that are subsequently sent through the “control” that the analysis has contributed to. Urban design deals with the spatial configuration, appearance, and functionality of the elements of cities or other settlements. Urban planning is a discipline at the junction, synthesizing the approaches of urban planning, landscape design, and architecture. Urban planning requires an understanding of political, social, and economic factors. The term urban design was proposed in 1956 at an international conference at the Harvard Graduate School of Design (GSD). In another view the urban social studies are not only useful in the academic environment: they provide important data and materials to those who decide on the urban level and conceive the strategies for the development of cities [13]. Apart from these aspects, urban studies are useful to all of us, in the sense that it helps us to understand each other better and to improve our daily lives. Urban social researchers closely analyze the impact of contemporary political and economic systems on people’s lives in the urban environment. Their studies highlight the problematic issues arising from this impact but also possible solutions.
In an urban city, it is required to focus on two factors in the creation process, those are Legibility and readability, where are different. Readability is the ease with which a reader can recognize words, sentences, and paragraphs. Legibility (clearness) is a component of readability. Other typographic factors that affect readability include font choice, point size, kerning, tracking, line length, and justification. Legibility is “the degree of individuality that enables the viewer to understand or categorize the contents of a scene the greater the legibility the greater the preference” [14]. According to Lynch’s definition, legibility can enhance the identity, structure, and the meaning of environmental surroundings. The city may have a strong identity and character but still be confusing and unclear because of confusion of its path system. The quality of an object depends upon its shape, color, and arrangement. This quality determines the degree of legibility. Imageability has physical and cultural components; the first one defines two attributes: location (a real location, spatial relationship, prominence, and scope) and appearance (shape, color, age, size, construction material, etc.). The second component has two sides also: meaning (economical, political, social, historical, religious, functional, etc.) and association (familiarity, atmosphere, and affinity) [15]. Particular attention is paid to the development of the configuration of common areas in which the daily activities of citizens are carried out (streets, squares, parks, public infrastructure).
A city supports its inhabitants to stay with other people, to realize social behaviors through partnership in urban life. People are attracted to cities by an attractive offer of urban buildings, public spaces, and characteristic landscapes. The urban composition is a human product in an urban area which resulted in effective collaboration between different elements of the urban framework, which have to be determined functionally within the configuration spatial structure. The urban composition represents a work of art, where the content is an essential topic that reflects the city functionality translated into activities. In this area a proposition is precisely the totality of the coherent means of expression. At the level of the form;
The speech is constituted as a state of composition.
The statement is constituted as spatial compositional values.
Surrounding is an act with three-polar meaning (Figure 1).
City design and the three-polar meaning.
In order to survive, plants need air and water, as well as heat and light. Can they meet their own needs? People’s needs are endless. Fortunately, from all our essential needs, from the beginning of our life from the womb to death, someone is able to fulfill them and who chooses to do so. When human beings come to this world, we find everything prepared to satisfy all the needs of the senses, mental and spiritual. Everything is contingent, because it is as possible that they exist or do not exist. Anything can exist anytime, anywhere, in any form, and with any character. Nothing and no one has a role in determining the manner, time, and place in which it occurs, its character and characteristics. Therefore, there must be a power to choose between the existence of a thing and its nonexistence, which confers unique characteristics on it.
Building a relationship with a city is like when you are in a relationship with someone—just as cities can be generous or inspirational, so can they be dangerous and impenetrable. The city is a moral universe in which helpfulness is extended beyond kinsfolk to strangers. In a modern city, public institutions aspire to provide solace or uplift to all, often with a cool efficiency that is rewarding in its way as is the warmth usually credited to small communities. A close reading of the city scene reveals inconspicuous artifacts of consideration such as telephone booths and wheelchair ramps on sidewalks that symbolize the principles of communication and access [16]. It is required to feel the city in order to understand it. He does not tell us how to do this, but he shows us how to walk the streets with eyes wide open so we can explore everything the city has to offer.
As Lynch says: “the city is in itself the powerful symbol of a complex society” [17]. To understand the different actions of people in the city, the changes that occur in the city, the gratifications and dissatisfactions of the inhabitants, and the diversity of ways of life in the city requires a wealth of information and data. Urban researchers are trying to obtain such data through various methods. These methods of obtaining data fall into two categories:
Quantitative—methods for obtaining information focused on a particular topic, from a large number of people (e.g., population census, opinion barometers, electoral surveys, etc.)
Qualitative—methods for obtaining rich information from a small number of people
The social order is one of the most difficult concepts to explain, related to social life: how it is formed, how it is preserved, how it is challenged, and how it is violated—all these are questions on which thousands have written, in books and studies. Of course, there are exceptions and special occasions; there are times when the social order is challenged or violated, such as during a street carnival or during street riots. Social researchers have always been interested in the ways in which people come to accept or challenge or violate this order. In addition, they were interested in the ways and conditions in which this order is changed or negotiated, between groups located in opposite positions. It is important to remember that social researchers are trying to understand the views, motives, and visions of all people, without judging them and dividing them into “bad people” and “good people.” It is the role of the legal system to decide whether certain facts that violate the social order are to be condemned and which is the proper conviction. On the other hand, the legal system adapts to the social changes produced over time, precisely because of the individuals who challenge the social order. For example, the slave trade was legal in the nineteenth century, while it is now illegal; women’s voting was illegal in Switzerland until the 1970s and is now legal. The social order is strong but flexible over time. The social order is not an immutable concept, the meanings of which never change; on the contrary, it is a concept in permanent transformation or negotiation. Therefore, social researchers look at respecting, challenging, or violating the urban social order first and foremost as a proof of the diversity of urban ways of life.
Public place represents, by its nature and destination, an area accessible to the public even if no person is present; any place accessible to the public, the main features chosen by the public spaces consist in the fact that they are public (not private), they have free access and are used by several people in a common area. Public spaces have played an important role throughout history. From the time that humans first defined private spaces, public spaces have served as places where people have come together to exchange ideas, becoming centers for free speech and public discourse. Defined as an environment of simple reciprocal observability, a practical intersubjectivity among people in order to make possible their ability of communication and socialization, or an ensemble of scenes where a group of organized and politically oriented actions is exposed, the public space defines the place where all the constituent activities of the political fact take place [18]. The form of contemporary public space is the reflection of the evolution of the political aspects, because it is based on the opposition between the private spaces, which belongs to families and the public space, which do not belong to practically anyone, but which, on the contrary, is available to all and in which social actors interact. In this public space, therefore, practices, discourses, and activities are constituting the political fact taking place. However, is this idea of public space open to everyone? Is there any reality? Isn’t there any potential for domination of certain groups? Nowadays, the public space is regarded as a conflict and contested battleground for power too. Accessible, but filtered, public markets are essential. Physically, they are easily accessible, at the intersection of the streets and the “hubs” of the transport flows, of people, of goods, and of the lights of the streets. However, they are filtered and bounded in an invisible, but rigorous way. The market is not accessible to everyone: camcorders, police, and security are watching and selecting who “deserves” to have access to these spaces. Moreover, yet, it is threatened by privatization, but by individualism. In the interest of someone, the public interests are for private interests; for example, business, another tendency is the lack of interests of the divisions vis-à-vis public employment. “The individual is the most diligent citizen of the citizen.” That required for securing clarity with reference to the lifestyle of moderating the market relations and marketing which is reflected in the total moving of social-consequences on the esthetics and visual appearance of the public-sector premises. The markets, as the decency of the public space, have undergone significant transformations and have become the subject of “passive waiting”—the subject of looking, not living, which is called as “Allocation space.” In passage space, in any case, there is a resistance to total marketing. For example, some public spaces remain dedicated to cultural and identity expression, while others are taken over by youth and subcultures. The markets still have some space for leisurely walks, not related to consumption.
Dialectically justified, it is difficult to specify a clear limit of separation between character and specific, with a permanent overlap area. We cannot speak of their total overlap, because, in relation to the motivations stated above, the distinction between character and specificity is evident not only conceptually but also practically. The possibility, however, of the reciprocal crossing of the general and the singular (in the sphere of character and specific features) from one to the other, during the evolution of the urban phenomenon, should not be neglected. Through the process of topic selection, the general features have been polished, gradually becoming character traits that, retained over time, are today constituted as elements of specificity. There are also numerous examples of cases in which traits initially giving specificity to an urban space, considered valid and taken over as a model, later became character traits, tending even to a broader generality—an aspect involving today, in a way. In particular case, it is a requisite to discuss the topic of industrialized urban construction. But not only temporally but also spatially, an interference between character and specificity is possible, meaning that what is characteristic of a confined space may be a specific element for a larger territory—for the city. In general, however, the singular elements conferring specificity to an urban space are revealed as elements of specificity and for all other possible territorial framings—remaining within the respective framing of a specific singular presence (Campanile from San Marco Square in Venice) or registering in an also generalizer with specific value. It is shown from the above that, in order to detach the character and specificity of an urban space, it is necessary to pay attention to the space and time and regarding the mastering of the modernization process in relation to understanding the particular value of the urban space (of the city as a whole), it is necessary to recognize the valid behaviors of that generalizer with a specific value. Thus the risk of losing the specific is higher. However, we do not have to imagine the specificity of an exclusive space as a postcard image. As a surprise of the urban form, it refers not to a metaphysically understood form, but a totality of manifestations wearing a multitude of static and dynamic expressions. The behaviour of using the space which has to answer to the following questions (how it responds to the requirements how it adapts), as well as the behavior in that space, intervene in defining the specificity, but, at the same time, also being positioned as an object of its influence. Acquired in human consciousness through perception and sensation, the particularity of urban space also encapsulates a series of values of chance, because as Kevin Lynch notes: “always in a city at any moment you can see or hear something new, unmarked until that time, and these things often depend also on the environment, and on the continuation of the events that led us here, and on the memory of past experiences. It can also be thinking of a random determination of the specificity, a possible determination considering that it supports the spatial differentiation—results to some extent and from what happens within the respective spaces, so by chance.
Urban space represents the spatial concentration of the economic, social, cultural, and political activities, different from the nonurban/rural spaces by the population density or the characteristics of the way of life. Urban spaces embody a general reading of many factors; it presents the social life of the city is closely linked to the urban space. The relations between social life and urban space are the object of study of the urban disciplines. In the urban space, people interact and develop their social relations, enjoy or be scared, have or take possession of certain urban spaces, develop feelings of affection for some, or have memories related to others. Urban space is a term characterized by polysemy, flexibility, but also ambiguity. Therefore, it is difficult to reach a unique definition of urban space, generally accepted in all socio-human sciences. However, we will try to provide some main coordinates. It is important to understand the urban space take importance from public space, where the public space includes all the spaces freely used in the day to day by the general public, such as streets, squares, parks, and public infrastructure. Some aspects of privately possessed spaces, such as the facades of buildings or domestic gardens, also contribute to public space and are therefore considered by urban design theory. Some of the writers on this discipline are Gordon Cullen, Jane Jacobs, Christopher Alexander, William H. Whyte, Kevin Lynch, Aldo Rossi, Robert Venturi, Colin Rowe, Peter Calthorpe, and Jan Gehl. Public spaces are frequently subject to the overlapping responsibilities of multiple agencies or authorities and interests of nearby owners, as well as the requirements of multiple and sometimes competent users [19]. The public space is associated with “sociability,” with the potential of meeting and communication between strangers. This implies that people come to the public space and remain there for the meeting with others; they use the space for meetings as a stage for specific social interactions. However, today, the “space of the move” is being replaced more and more with the “space of passage.” Public spaces became places full of people from elsewhere, who go elsewhere. Meetings, in contemporary cities, are temporary and replaced by events. The markets become spaces of the grocery store; the culprits are not to be together; they can wait for their friends to hang out at the mall or a public space.
Why should public spaces be considered permanent, in the context of housing and stability?
Could it become temporary, flexible, mobile, remaining public?
Can we link to these new concepts of space and living with the original notion of public space?
Some of the writers whose lawyer and a treatise on this discipline are Gordon Cullen, Jane Jacobs, Christopher Alexander, William H. Whyte, Kevin Lynch, Aldo Rossi, Robert Venturi, Colin Rowe, Peter Calthorpe and Jan Gehl. Public spaces are frequently subject to the overlapping responsibilities of multiple agencies or authorities and interests of nearby owners, as well as the requirements of multiple and sometimes competent users [20].
The imageability and urban readability (Kevin Lynch) are concepts proposed by Kevin Lynch, which refers to the degree of decipherability of the urban landscape at the level of each individual. Every city has an urban image; like any image, as presented in Lynch’s sense, it must be readable, decipherable. A well-thought out and the well-planned city is easy to read, meaning it is legible. Readability is a result of urban design and urban space organization. A readable city provides us with emotional security, while an unreadable city awakens feelings of fear and insecurity. The imageability would be the quality of a city to stimulate the perception of a viewer and to cause strong mental images; more precisely, it refers to the feeling that a city manages to generate (e.g., good places/bad places). Images can generate different perceptions, which means that each of us relates differently to space. A good urban space is a space where people find it meaningful to spend time and experience something. Related to the urban image mechanism [18], there are three connection systems (see Figure 2).
The physical space system (reality)
The reference space system
The reflected space system
Image of urban space in the connection system.
Formal integration as a cohesive element in spatial differentiation proves to be a certainty in that, in such situations, the space formalized during a long topical selection is nothing more than the sum of the qualities of the component elements taken apart and, at the same time, that it always carries a meaning (civic, esthetic, ethical, etc.), and so it is itself functional. Considered thus, within the limits of its possibilities of affirmation, the association between new and old can no longer start from the (pseudo) idea of principle comparability, in fact envisaging a state without comparability relations (because they cannot exist when everything is “at kind”), but from the idea of the natural coexistence of different elements in a state that, without being tired, requires us intensely in defining comparability relationships. By increasing combinatorial solutions, so does the diversity of urban spaces; the spatial differentiation evolves unitary, discovering, restoring, or completing the particular features of the different urban spaces and, at the same time, confirming or perfecting each time their unitary character. The particular value of urban space thus constitutes its qualitative determination, its individuality, incorporating the general—a reflection of the essence—into its own form that can be expressed and can be appreciated by character and specificity.
It is necessary to recognize the differentiation, because, diverse art, in general, is linked to the quality of the urban space; besides the effect, it is particularly interested in the cause, the means of realization—on which we act, not to forget, a directly objective determination through functionality and possibilities of realization, adaptation to an existing material that causes both the inventiveness, as well as the capacity to assimilate the previous experience and the time as a wrapper and space as a place of the limited selection that tends toward an increasingly complex urban space formation. It should be added here that, in defining the urban space, we do not always have to deal with a single (in the sense of capacity) creative personality, which intervenes more than in art—taken in general—tradition and behavioral habit as a reflection of the requirements of the major. In these conditions, the particular value of the urban space is a result of the interference in the context of the functional generality and the significant forms of some participations of the nature of a restricted generality, conferring character, and of participations of the singular nature, conferring specificity. For the San Marco ensemble and the whole of Venice, the Campanile is an element that gives the ensemble and the urban body, respectively specificity. However, it is unique, and it is precisely through this unique presence that he completes a summit of specificity in a framework that otherwise cannot be accused of being non-specific, and yet, when collapsed, it was restored by the commune’s effort, not the functional considerations dictated in this operation, but the subjective significant ones, to which the specificity is in principle related. The central area of Bologna, on the other hand, is specific through the succession of porches along the streets, from the ground floor of the buildings. This is a common element of a multitude of constructions, and it confers specificity precisely through this repetition. Moreover, in one case, and in the other, the specificity elements, unique or common and repeatable, prove for the respective assemblies an efficient common factor (Figure 3).
San Marco ensemble.
The urban image makes architectural objects to take high values by reading of the urban composition by the harmony between Human being, all site elements, site functions and urban or site framework, which determines urban spaces, configuration, and structure. One of the major problems facing us is how to establish and maintain environments that support human health and at the same time are ecologically sustainable. Green areas seem too important to people. Most people today believe that the green world is beautiful [21]. Green areas are essential for people, where most people believe that it represents a high value in the city configuration (Figure 4) [22].
Urban image and site components.
Urban design search for the human experience which contributes to building environment within private properties or public areas (Figure 5).
Urban image and site components in a special case.
Between the elements of the site and the image reader position a relationship that takes time to be significant and increase the quality of the image which is seen at a given time-space—isotopic—unitary, continuous and—heterotopic diversified space, differentiated but not necessarily discontinuous or lack of unity. A utopian image can be isotopic or heterotopic when something “fabulous, fantastic” is created (e.g., night lighting accentuates or deletes specific characteristics).
The urban image represents an essential element in the organization of the space and triggers in new, unexpected resorts regarding the appreciation of the urban reality. It represents also a vital element in the conformation of the public space process within the theoretical and practical analysis (therefore, also fundamental and applied research) of the concept of urban image and its role in the organization of the urban space. The theoretical dimension of the concept consists in its analysis, both in individual (interpretive) value and in the context of the current principles of thinking that have marked the dynamics of urban geography as a science, realizing an entire framework and conceptual context for deepening the urban image [23]. By identifying the typical typologies of the urban image, it can determine their viability and also possibilities of individualizing and customizing them, in order to define strategies to be followed and to establish the specific priorities and attitudes to find the appropriate ways to ensure the natural development, without constraints and contradictions, of the city. The characteristics determined by the precise relations between buildings or plots, courtyards, gardens, streets, and markets define urban pieces’ type: grouping of series of buildings and the relationship between buildings and the private or public un-built space. The specific perspectives, their depth, are also characteristic elements that generated the urban space at a given time and which write it down as a consecrated type, with permanence urban value and it represents a good premise for its personalization, for the creation of a new urban identity, either in conformity with the existing one or by replacing it according to the functional approach. Homogeneous parts of urban tissue form a morphological point of view; the sectors have specific compositions of parcels or buildings in identifiable relationships with each other or with the land on which they arise. The analysis of the urban sectors facilitates the appreciation of the elements of physical-spatial identification characteristic of a city, coherent from the urban and architectural point of view, which can become a reference and highlighting elements. This procedure allows the detection of attitudes necessary and possible to be taken means the organization of urban development, the elements of continuity as well as the polarizing ones of the urban image are determined, the coherence of the city structure is ensured (Figure 6).
The persistence of the structural element in the urban image “Ulm Minster, Germany.”
The city is a relatively numerous, dense, and permanent settlement of heterogeneous individuals from a social point of view. It differs from the rural world by:
The positive aspects that they generate—economic activities (commercial, industrial), transport and telecommunications infrastructure (increasingly developed), and good quality of urban services. All this has the effect, ultimately, of creating new jobs and determines an increased quality of life of the citizens.
The negative effects it implies for the environment (increasing air pollution, but also noise pollution—mainly due to heavy traffic, diminishing green spaces in favor of the construction, or implantation of new businesses) and for a large part of the urban population (IE about social inequities) [21, 24].
The objectives on the site—the comment is carried out on the characteristics of the objective but also of the environment of the site such as:
Characteristics regarding volume, color, silhouette, size, etc.
The building form which in a certain picture constitutes an image—an object with an important character in the image—of average performance—frame which it is interested in:
The dimensions and characteristics
The linearity of the myth (exists or not)
The characteristic of the environment processing (the volume accents in the image)
The color
The role of architectural composition, through its complex activities, is to create the framework material, of the organized space, with a view to satisfy the material and spiritual needs of the person and society [25]. Tall buildings are neither an object of love nor an object of hatred; they are necessary objects in the urban composition, and thus they are subject to a court of architectural value and a court of urban value. In the drawings of Ulm Minster, Ulm, Germany (161.5 m), the tallest cathedral in the world, for example, churches are presented to us with a silhouette in which the churches, unique in size, were still “tall buildings,” having a meaning, although not one could speak of an urban composition. In the modern city, the tall building must be considered, on the one hand, in the immediate context (adjacent neighborhood), when its own architecture is important and, on the other, in the remote context, when the silhouette is important, the architectural-urbanistic “cut.” Already there is a disjunction, in the judgment it was referring to, which imposes the option for a priority in evaluating such a presence in the urban space. The transformation of the static approach form of the dynamic approach is not arbitrated by elevation, especially when it comes to an important building. The elevation is real in its volume and presence, but it is unreal in its image. According to Kevin Lynch, in urban imaging mechanism, it is required to include the building in context, which is represented by:
Visible points
The places where the building can be viewed
Space perception is the procedure through which humans and other creatures become alert of the relative locations of their individual bodies and objects around them. It offers indications, such as depth and distance, which are important for movement and orientation to the environment (Figures 7, 8).
The connection between observation position and image impression.
Relationship system that physically defines the urban relationship.
In this domain it is required to take in evidence:
Observation position: in this situation, it is necessary to take in as evidence distance, height (terrain configuration), and opening (in space).
Observing conditions: in this situation, it is necessary to take in as evidence conjuncture and weather conditions (night-day, winter-summer, cloudy-sunny).
The observatory is characterized by:
Visual acuity of perception—all senses are required, not just the visual but also the complexity of perception which varies from one individual to another (e.g. in Austria—clean, fresh air—you feel purity; in Paris the street is fragrant. The smell participates in the image that remains afterwards; Germany—the smell of perfumed gasoline, the special smell. It is of superior quality olfactory perception).
The movement of the space that can be perceived static or dynamic.
Movement—work in perception.
Every city has a form, called an urban form (plan metric image or top view), expressing in a geometric configuration of urban distribution, social relations, and ideological hierarchies [26]. The urban form is physically expressed through the urban structure, both are historically determined, and they are formed by a succession of reactions and evolutions starting from a previous state.
Viewing—designates the physical process through which the visual contact between the observer and the observed object is realized.
The view from that is performed under particular conditions (e.g. the terraces at the last levels of the skyscraper—Sears Tower, Chicago—above the city—fabulous)—from the level of the bird’s flight—it is a perception that has a philosophical meaning, demiurgic, “divine look.”
Bottom view is typical
Look—a process actually determined physically. It is not reduced to front registration.
Vision is beyond the physical process of gazing. It also associates the mental processing of the physically determined ones; it is completed by understanding, reporting, learning, and rejection (when you like a certain thing, architectural object, etc. or on the contrary) [27].
A structural element represents the factor motor to creating a consistent city image, which creates an equilibrate urban image by relationships and proportions.
The structural element can be as follows:
It dominates the city silhouette, with convenient effective distances required for acting positively in a city configuration.
During the preparation of the plans, regardless of what power or even the landmark will reflect, it must be understood that it is an element and a device that will orientate the development [27] (Figure 9).
Urban image with one structural element.
There appear two dominant elements in city image. The effectiveness of viewer distance that can labour harmoniously with the city silhouette. The structural field of the building systems which can be positive or negative. The structural elements (1, 2) working, harmonious, see Figure 10.
Urban image with two structural elements.
The distance between two different architectural dominant elements.
The city can contain many structural elements that collaborate together to create the city image (Figure 11).
Urban image with many structural elements.
Several structural fields create unity throughout an integrated urban image.
This image is used in descriptions. It refers to the movement, creating at the same time different emotions and moods for the reader. The integrate image configuration is dominant and has to work as an organic unit. The city silhouette has to be presented creatively and unitary [28]. The urban design takes into consideration the following aspects:
Urban structure: How places are positioned together and how the parts interrelate with each other.
Types of spaces and morphologies related to the intensity of use, resource consumption, production, and maintenance of viable communities.
Accessibility: Provide an easy and safe option to move between spaces.
Readability and guidance: Help people find their way and understand how space works.
Animation: Design spaces to simulate a public activity.
The mix of complementary uses: Location of activities that allow constructive interaction between them.
Characterization and significance: Recognize and assess the differences between one space and another.
Civil society: Make spaces where people are free to meet each other as civic equals, an important component in the construction of social capital [13, 18] (Figure 12).
Urban image with dynamic form.
Architecture in urban composition can take many functions:
Architecture elements have many readings form regarding the art of building, painting, sculpturing and technique using which called the beautiful illustrations from the ancient times. The architecture works in shape and mass like sculpture art, and it works with color like paint art. However:
It is a functional art.
It solves realistic tasks.
It creates tools for a human being.
To commodify an object is to make it tradable and consumable on markets:
Ordinary goods and services are commodities and traded on markets.
Nature or natural and built environment is resistant to commodification, yet it happens:
The environment turns into the land.
Human being turns into the labor commodity.
The consequences are environmental degradation and human suffering.
A right architecture can be described as that where thinking and human feelings come into play and create an entire harmonic, which ensembles structure and possesses significance.
In urban space analysis, the strategy of marketing and the policy of research become essential for combining the relation between architectural creation and potential user positively. That required to understand the meaning of profitable building design, which is influenced by a series of more general economic aspects such as people’s living standards. The architectural product is characterized by a life cycle similar to traditional products (Figure 13).
The life cycle of an architectural product.
Urban design is a creative and technological field of study that works with a long-life human product that is oriented nationally and internationally. Urban space has signified elements like a landmark. Landmarks as reference signs orient the people. Landmarks are defined as an external point of reference that helps to orient in a familiar or an unfamiliar environment [29]. Landmarks are a kind of signals of urban space [10]. The question is how people orient themselves in urban space considering reference points. People choose the points in the city for their orientation. In the city, same natural or man-made elements are seen as signs giving the sense of wayfinding [27].
The problem of organizing the urban space has aroused great interest due to its practical importance. There are several models and theories that try to clarify these issues and cover the whole variety of existing situations, thus having a high degree of applicability. The main objective of the study of the urban structure is the formation of an own system of coherent urbanistic thinking in the sense of developing the capacity of interdisciplinary approaches in the field and of the understanding of the city as a complex urban body, functional-configurative, clarifying both problems of terminology and problems of method, developing the readiness to form logical analytical or synthetic conclusions regarding specific states, phenomena, or working methods. Their complexity is determined by three main elements: land, population, and urban activities, which by their configuration, dimensions, and profile, respectively, generate specific forms of territorial organization. The urban spaces of some small countries are simply structured, while in the big countries, they present structures of great complexity, as a result of the stepped development and the permanent intensification of the internal relations. Within the transformations that characterize the evolution of human societies, one of the means by which this process manifests itself is the qualitative and quantitative change of the living environment, and the city belongs to both fields of manifestation. Urban agglomerations such as metropolises or conurbations were born through the continuous development of relative cities close to each other in space, between which there was sufficient buildable or usable land to allow new connections and housing. The evolution of the society, the demographic growth, and the economic developer determined the creation of dynamic urban space, in continuous expansion and growth. The arrangement of the territory changes from year to year due to the accelerated development of the society and its requirements, and the population generates the value of territory but also its deterioration over time. In the context of the current urban development, the field of urbanism is confronted with phenomena described by the dynamics of complex systems, which are becoming increasingly difficult to predict, but not impossible to manage. The sense of strategic planning is changing; the methods of forecasting and adapting to the urban phenomenon must be understood in the sense of such complexity. Urban configuration takes in evidence developing the capacity for functional-configuration analysis and definition of a possible urban image as a support for the process of architectural-urban creation in the urban space, development of the formulation capacity, and development of a value judgment on the configuration of the space organization.
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\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
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\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
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Sivashanmugam",authors:[{id:"145330",title:"Dr.",name:"Palani",middleName:null,surname:"Sivashanmugam",slug:"palani-sivashanmugam",fullName:"Palani Sivashanmugam"}]},{id:"30778",doi:"10.5772/32990",title:"Fouling and Fouling Mitigation on Heat Exchanger Surfaces",slug:"heat-exchanger-fouling-and-its-mitigation",totalDownloads:8345,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"1530",slug:"heat-exchangers-basics-design-applications",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Basics Design Applications"},signatures:"S. N. Kazi",authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Prof.",name:"Md Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",slug:"md-salim-newaz-kazi",fullName:"Md Salim Newaz Kazi"}]},{id:"19429",doi:"10.5772/21594",title:"Fundamentals of Paper Drying – Theory and Application from Industrial Perspective",slug:"fundamentals-of-paper-drying-theory-and-application-from-industrial-perspective",totalDownloads:46960,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"531",slug:"evaporation-condensation-and-heat-transfer",title:"Evaporation, Condensation and Heat transfer",fullTitle:"Evaporation, Condensation and Heat transfer"},signatures:"Ajit K Ghosh",authors:[{id:"43882",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajit K",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"ajit-k-ghosh",fullName:"Ajit K Ghosh"}]},{id:"24523",doi:"10.5772/27970",title:"Heat Conduction Problems of Thermosensitive Solids under Complex Heat Exchange",slug:"heat-conduction-problems-of-thermosensitive-solids-under-complex-heat-exchange",totalDownloads:2899,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"625",slug:"heat-conduction-basic-research",title:"Heat Conduction",fullTitle:"Heat Conduction - Basic Research"},signatures:"Roman M. Kushnir and Vasyl S. Popovych",authors:[{id:"72236",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:"Mykhajlovych",surname:"Kushnir",slug:"roman-kushnir",fullName:"Roman Kushnir"},{id:"75920",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasyl'",middleName:null,surname:"Popovych",slug:"vasyl'-popovych",fullName:"Vasyl' Popovych"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12438,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"54521",title:"Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchanger",slug:"basic-design-methods-of-heat-exchanger",totalDownloads:7213,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Heat exchangers are devices that transfer energy between fluids at different temperatures by heat transfer. These devices can be used widely both in daily life and industrial applications such as steam generators in thermal power plants, distillers in chemical industry, evaporators and condensers in HVAC applications and refrigeration process, heat sinks, automobile radiators and regenerators in gas turbine engines. This chapter discusses the basic design methods for two fluid heat exchangers.",book:{id:"5395",slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Design, Experiment and Simulation"},signatures:"Cüneyt Ezgi",authors:[{id:"187086",title:"Prof.",name:"Cüneyt",middleName:null,surname:"Ezgi",slug:"cuneyt-ezgi",fullName:"Cüneyt Ezgi"}]},{id:"48647",title:"Modeling and Design of Plate Heat Exchanger",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-plate-heat-exchanger",totalDownloads:9652,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"4563",slug:"heat-transfer-studies-and-applications",title:"Heat Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat Transfer Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Fábio A.S. Mota, E.P. Carvalho and Mauro A.S.S. Ravagnani",authors:[{id:"35110",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Ravagnani",slug:"mauro-ravagnani",fullName:"Mauro Ravagnani"}]},{id:"53559",title:"Design of Heat Transfer Surfaces in Agitated Vessels",slug:"design-of-heat-transfer-surfaces-in-agitated-vessels",totalDownloads:4510,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The project on heat transfer surfaces in agitated vessels is based on the determination of the heat exchange area, which is necessary to abide by the process conditions as mixing quality and efficiency of heat transfer. The heat transfer area is determined from the overall heat transfer coefficient (U). The coefficient (U) represents the operation quality in heat transfers being a function of conduction and convection mechanisms. The determination of U is held from the Nusselt’s number, which is related to the dimensionless Reynolds and Prandtl’s, and from the fluid’s viscosity relation that is being agitated in the bulk temperature and the viscosity in the wall’s temperature of heat exchange. The aim of this chapter is to present a summary for the literature concerning heat transfer in agitated vessels (equipped with jackets, helical coils, spiral coils, and vertical tube baffles) and also the many parameters of Nusselt’s equation for these surfaces. It will present a numerical example for a project in an agitated vessel using vertical tube baffles and a 45° pitched blade turbine. Subsequently, the same procedure is held with a turbine radial impeller, in order to compare the heat transfer efficiencies.",book:{id:"5395",slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Design, Experiment and Simulation"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]},{id:"40354",title:"Calculation Methods for Heating and Ventilation System of Electrical Machines",slug:"calculation-methods-for-heating-and-ventilation-system-of-electrical-machines",totalDownloads:5436,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3091",slug:"heat-transfer-phenomena-and-applications",title:"Heat Transfer Phenomena and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Transfer Phenomena and Applications"},signatures:"Otilia Nedelcu and Corneliu Ioan Sălişteanu",authors:[{id:"142213",title:"Dr.",name:"Otilia",middleName:null,surname:"Nedelcu",slug:"otilia-nedelcu",fullName:"Otilia Nedelcu"},{id:"154781",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan Corneliu",middleName:null,surname:"Salisteanu",slug:"ioan-corneliu-salisteanu",fullName:"Ioan Corneliu Salisteanu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"826",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80334",title:"Zero Emission Hydrogen Fuelled Fuel Cell Vehicle and Advanced Strategy on Internal Combustion Engine: A Review",slug:"zero-emission-hydrogen-fuelled-fuel-cell-vehicle-and-advanced-strategy-on-internal-combustion-engine",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102057",abstract:"Global energy consumption has gradually increased as a result of population growth, industrialization, economic development, and rising living standards. Furthermore, as global warming and pollution worsen, the development of renewable energy sources is becoming more essential. Hydrogen is one of the most promising clean and sustainable energy carriers because it emits only water as a byproduct without carbon emission and has the highest energy efficiency. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of raw resources, including water and biomass. Water electrolysis is one of many hydrogen production technologies that is highly recommended due to its eco-friendliness, high hydrogen generation rate, and high purity. However, in terms of long-term viability and environmental effect, Polymer Electrolyte Membrane water electrolysis has been identified as a potential approach for producing high-purity, high-efficiency hydrogen from renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) produced are directly employed in fuel cells and other industrial uses. As a result, an attempt has been made in this work to investigate hydrogen synthesis and utilization in fuel cell vehicles. Low-temperature combustion technology has recently been applied in engine technology to reduce smoke and NOx emissions at the same time. The advantages and limitations of homogeneous charge compression ignition, partially premixed charge compression ignition, premixed charge compression ignition, and reactivity regulated compression ignition are described separately in low-temperature combustion strategy.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Babu Dharmalingam, Ramakrishna Reddy Ramireddy, Santhoshkumar Annamalai, Malinee Sriariyanun, Deepakkumar Rajagopal and Venkata Ramana Katla"},{id:"82176",title:"Replacement of Diesel Fuel by DME in Compression Ignition Engines: Case for India",slug:"replacement-of-diesel-fuel-by-dme-in-compression-ignition-engines-case-for-india",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104969",abstract:"Decarbonising of transport, industrial and all sectors of economy is a necessity to stop or reverse global warming. Use of batteries, fuel-cells, hybrid topographies with smaller IC engines and use of alternative fuels like methanol, ethanol, DME in the IC engines are some of the ways through which emission of green-house gases can reduced/eliminated. Diesel engines are highly efficient due to higher compression ratios and are used in the heavy-duty transportation vehicles. DME is a single molecule fuel having high cetane number and which can be used as a drop-in fuel on the diesel engines albeit with retro-fitment of these engines with a new pressurized fuel system. DME with a chemical formula CH3-O-CH3 can be produced by different feedstocks such as coal, natural gas, biomass and bio-waste and municipal solid waste. India has a large reserve of high ash coal and generates high quantities of biomass and MSW, all of which can be converted to DME by use of clean production technologies. India’s transport and industrial sectors consume about 100 billion liters of diesel fuel per year produced entirely from imported petroleum. This amount of diesel can be replaced by indigenously produced DME from locally available coal, biomass and MSW.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Anirudh Gautam and Ankita Singh"},{id:"81979",title:"The Influence of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oil Blends and Conventional Diesel",slug:"the-influence-of-exhaust-gas-recirculation-on-performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-a-diesel-e",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105011",abstract:"Through an experimental study, this work focused on finding the influence of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on waste plastic pyrolysis oils (WPPOs) with diesel as a base comparison fuel. The results show the amount of carbon monoxide emissions seemed to decrease at low engine loads up to intermediate loads of (50%), thereafter continued to increase significantly but marginally. Among fuels tested, blend WPPOB100 reported the highest BSFC, at 0% EGR flow rate. The value was 0.4751g/kW.hr. compared with 0.7235 g/kW.hr. at 30% EGR flow rate. Increased blend ratio had a direct decrease in brake power linearly. At 30% engine load, CD, WPPOB10, WPPOB20, WPPOB30 and WPPOB40 recorded values of 2.125 kW, 2.15 kW, 2.05 kW, 1.98 kW, 1.86 kW and 1.75 kW, respectively. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) at 30% EGR flow rate, blend WPPOB10 had the highest reduction in temperature compared with the any other WPPO blends at 320°C. Increased blend ratio and EGR percentage flow rate increased smoke emissions within the test fuels blends. At 15% EGR flow rate, the following data were recorded: 7.53%, 7.1%, 6.72%, 6.25%, 6.0% and 5.4% for CD, WWPO10, WPPO20, WPPO30, WPPO40 and WPPO100, respectively.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Semakula Maroa and Freddie L. Inambao"},{id:"81895",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel as Diesel Engine Fuel",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-hydrogenation-derived-renewable-diesel-as-diesel-engine-",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104820",abstract:"Growing anxieties about the continued depletion of fossil fuel reserves, improving the performance of diesel engines, and mandates to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have made the search for alternative fuels for diesel engines more imperative. Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel (HDRD) is recognized as a sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective alternative to petroleum-based diesel (PBD) fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines. This may be because the physicochemical properties of HDRD are similar to that of PBD fuel. The current effort examines the performance and emission characteristics of HDRD in unmodified CI engines. Performance emissions characteristics such as power, torque, brake specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, particulate matter, and exhaust gas temperature were interrogated and compared with that of PBD fuel in a CI engine. The outcome of the study shows that HDRD is better than biodiesel and a sustainable replacement for PDB fuel to achieve improved performance and reduced emissions of CI engines. Going forward, more investigations are needed to further simplify the preparation and democratize the utilization of HDRD as CI fuels for various applications.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Omojola Awogbemi, Daramy Vandi Von Kallon and Josiah Pelemo"},{id:"81114",title:"Research and Innovation to Improve the Efficiency of Modern Diesel Engines",slug:"research-and-innovation-to-improve-the-efficiency-of-modern-diesel-engines",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102759",abstract:"Modern diesel engines are one of the main mobile energy sources and are characterized by a high degree of workflow completeness, design, and manufacturing technology. The chapter summarizes the authors’ experience in improving diesel engines, increasing specific volume power, and reliability, ensuring a low level of environmental pollution emissions. The results of research using industry 4.0 technologies for systematization, choice of directions, and the search for rational ways to improve the efficiency of diesel engines are presented. The application of anergo-exergy method for analyzing the efficiency of the working process of the engine and its systems is considered. Taking into consideration the operating conditions, technical solutions are proposed to improve the reliability of the most heat-stressed parts of high-powered engines. The possibilities for a comprehensive assessment of the fuel efficiency and environmental qualities of diesel engines have been expanded taking into account CO2 emissions when using traditional, alternative, and hybrid diesel fuel.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Andriy Marchenko, Igor Parsadanov, Volodymyr Pylyov, Oleksandr Osetrov, Linkov Oleh, Serhii Kravchenko, Oleksandr Trynov, Denys Meshkov, Serhii Bilyk, Anatolii Savchenko, Inna Rykova and Rasoul Aryan"},{id:"81849",title:"A Comparative Evaluation of Biodiesel and Used Cooking Oil as Feedstock for HDRD Application: A Review",slug:"a-comparative-evaluation-of-biodiesel-and-used-cooking-oil-as-feedstock-for-hdrd-application-a-revie",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104393",abstract:"The search for clean energy for transportation fuel across the globe has grown in intensity. The use of biodiesel as a fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines has shown some deficiencies, e.g., poor storage, and poor pour point. The carbon chain of biodiesel is one of the factors to be considered; the longer carbon chain length leads to decreased ignition delay, which leads to the formation of OH during the premixed combustion phase. The major challenges that render biodiesel inefficient are discussed, like higher viscosity, lower energy content, higher nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions, lower engine speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high cost, and higher engine wear. The novelty of this work is that it shows that biodiesel conversion to green diesel is possible using a biowaste heterogeneous catalyst to obtain quality and high yield of HDRD with lower cost. This renewable energy (HDRD) possesses properties that are directly compatible with CI engines and transportation engines. This research reviewed biodiesel and UCO as feedstocks for the production of HDRD, including the cost–benefit of these feedstocks. Hydrogenation of biodiesel has the potential to overcome the drawbacks of conventional chemically catalyzed processes.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Josiah Pelemo, Kayode Timothy Akindeji, Freddie L. Inambao, Omojola Awogbemi and Emmanuel Idoko Onuh"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 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Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biomedical Engineering",id:"7"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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