Internal distribution of a standard Lidia farm considering the different types of animals classified by sex and age [11].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
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Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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The fundamental drive behind every thought, feeling and behavior is Sexuality. The way an individual projects himself psychologically and socially is defined by sexuality. Sexuality is the best example of mind body harmony. The world goes around sex. The basis of babies bonding, teens flirting, and adults having babies is sexuality. Our dressing sense, sense of humor and the way we talk is influenced by sexuality; sex defines who we are. Sexuality has been addressed in holy books of great religions.
Karl Pribram, a Neuropsychologist described four drives which motivates us to accomplish our goals. These drives included fighting, feeding, fleeing and sex. These drives are essential for physical and psychological health. The least understood as well as least studied drive is sex [1].
History of human sexuality is as ancient as human history. Some of the artifacts from ancient cultures are thought to be fertility totems. Kama Sutra (400 BC–200 BC), a Hindu epic describes about love, pleasure and desire; in fact about life in general. It is also a manual for sexual intercourse. Quran, Bible, Torah also have rules, advice and stories about sex.
Scientific research on sexuality started only around 150 years ago. Henry Havelock Ellis, an English physician used case study method to scientifically study sexuality. He published a seven volume book titled Psychology of Sex in which he tried to address different topics of sexuality which included arousal and masturbation. He emphasized that the sexuality of transgender is different from homosexuals. He advocated equal sexual rights for women and sex education at public schools [2].
Father of Psychiatry Sigmund Freud linked sex to health development. He recognized sexuality throughout the life span. Freud gave five stages of psychosexual development which includes oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital. According to Freud, each individual should pass all these stages. If the child’s needs are unsatisfied or over-satisfied in these stages, either fixation or regression happens. This means child shows attachment to the previous stage, problems from that stage even persists into the adulthood. By keen observation of the individual behavior, one could recognize the psychosexual stage the adult had fixated or regressed [3, 4].
Alfred Kinsey, commonly referred to as Father of human sexuality research, believed most of the sexuality knowledge is guess work and there is lack of unbiased research. He had set a goal to interview around 100,000 people about sexual histories. Though he fell short of his goal, he could collect 18,000 interviews. Most of the contemporary scientists work on “behind closed door” behaviors were based on Kinsey’s seminal work [5].
Sex describes means of biological reproduction. Sex also describes sexual organs both external as well as internal which defines individual to be male or female. According to the WHO, sexual health must be considered as “a state of physical, emotional, mental, and social well-being related to sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Human sexuality emerges in the body, but, like other human phenomena, it simultaneously unfolds in mental landscapes, social relations, and cultural spheres. Sexuality is closely linked to personal integrity, identity, body image, bonding, and social curiosity. Physiological and psychosocial determinants contribute significantly to sexual health.”
Healthy sexuality is a dynamic equilibrium, whereby adversity is balanced by personal agency and available resources. Sexual health is not mere absence of sexual dysfunction, it is individual’s ability to navigate through problems. Clinical and research experience indicate there is no correlation between subjective well-being and objective strains. Sexual health like any other health is contextual and multifactorial [6].
The term gender represents psychological and sociological representation of biological sex, which includes gender identity as well as gender role. Though Gender and sex are important aspects of person’s identity, it does not tell anything about orientation. Gender orientation refers to persons’ sexual attraction to others. Sexual attraction refers to persons’ capacity to arouse interest in others. One must be comfortable with their chosen gender and sex role and accept themselves without shame, guilt or fear. Be able to maintain good relationships with both sexes, regardless of whether they are platonic or intimate [7].
Associations between general health and sexuality are diverse and intricate, and the two can interact in both positive and negative ways. Culture significantly determines our attitude towards sex. Culture influences our beliefs about what is normal and what is deviant in sexuality. Based on cultural attitude towards sex; Cultures can be broadly classified into sex positive and sex negative cultures. Sex negative cultures which include India and Asian subcontinent believe that sex is for procreation while sex positive cultures which include western cultures consider sex beyond procreation. Sexual knowledge is usually acquired from someone in charge which may include parents, siblings, religious authorities, school, rumors from friends and mass media. One significant experience or stimulus that matches our fantasy would have long lasting impact on our attitude towards sexuality. Upbringing, witnessing parental interaction and intimacy shapes our life and beliefs [8].
About female sexuality
People think sex is dirty.
Sex is sweet only during second decade of women’s life.
Sex during menstruation is harmful
Bigger the breast-better sexuality
Orgasm is a must in all sexual encounters
Only vaginal and clitoral sex leads to orgasm
A women’s “no” convey “yes”
Women never masturbate
Sexual desire decrease dramatically after menopause
About Male Sexuality
Erectile dysfunction is inevitable and incurable
If a man does not get immediate erection he is not aroused
If a man does not get aroused by mere site of partner he is not able to perform
Masturbation leads to impotence
Semen is a special cargo [9]
Sexual response cycle which consists of desire, excitement and orgasm, have been classified by various authors in different ways. One of the simplest classifications is given by Kaplan, which is called DEOR model. D stands for desire, E stands for excitement, O stands for orgasm and R stands for resolution. Desire phase has biological, social and psychological component. Biological component is the drive, sexual motivation is the psychological component and sexual wish is the social component. Excitement phase is characterized by penile tumescence in males and vaginal lubrication in female. Orgasm phase is characterized by heightening of sexual pleasure and resolution phase is characterized by disgorgement of blood from genital organs. Any impairment in any of these stages constitutes dysfunction [10].
A strong emotional response is expected socially, whenever this topic is raised. Discussion on sexual behavior in children is obviously going to raise many eyebrows. Sexuality forms part of the personality and is a normal aspect of growing up. On one hand we resist talking to children regarding sexuality and on the other they get exposed to various sexual behaviors through the media. This makes it difficult for children to make right decisions during their adolescence. It is important to understand that the concept of normal sexual behavior in children is likely to vary with change in society’s attitude. Research in the area of childhood sexual knowledge and behavior is scarce. Methodical issues are important during research as many of these rely on parental interviews leading to inconsistent results [11]. Sexual behavior is related to the age of the child, maternal education, family sexuality, family stress and violence, and hours spent in day care. For the clinician to understand the relationship between sexual abuse and sexual behaviors, it is important to understand normative childhood sexual behavior [12].
Much important psychosexual development occurs during childhood. Sexual development starts from birth and as the child develops the knowledge of gender identity during the first 2 years of life, genital exploration begins. Sexual knowledge is a child’s basic under-standing of sexual acts. It varies with the child’s age and the education level of the parents [13]. A child learns labeling of body parts including genitals and experiences genital pleasure during this time. They may use slang labels and touch other children’s genitals or take off clothes in public. The physiology related to sexual arousal and orgasm is present in children at birth or even before that. Fetuses suck fingers/toes and penile erection or vaginal lubrication is seen in new born males and females. Sexual arousal is associated with REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep in infants and young children similar to adults. However infants and young children lack cognitive capacity to understand this autoerotic behavior which is more of “pleasure seeking” and is a reflex behavior. Sexual development occurs throughout early years but except for during puberty none of these sexual development milestones have been clearly defined [13].
During 3–5 years of sexual development, gender is permanently established and gender differences are clearly understood. The child has only little information regarding pregnancy and delivery. The child may use slangs for sexual parts of the body. During the preschool years (2–6 years) many overt sexual behaviors are seen. The child may masturbate for pleasure and experience orgasm either in public or private. Nudity is enjoyed and removing clothes in public may be noticed. Sex play with peers (mimicking dating behavior, using naughty words even if they do not understand the meaning) self-genital exploration and that of others, attempted intercourse may be noticed. Sitting close to others, touching breasts of mother or other females (in males), trying to view peer or adult nudity may be noticed. Masturbation is likely the most commonly observed sexual behavior in children. It has been noted in infants as young as 7 months, which is initially based on curiosity about one’s body but gradually the pleasure obtained becomes a decisive act. Friedrich et al. [15] has reported that some of the behaviors like inserting objects into vagina/ anus, putting mouth on sex parts and masturbating with objects may rarely be seen in children aged 2–12 years. Many parents may react negatively to this and punish their children for this behavior. Caregiving and nurturing provide the first sensual and erotic encounters to the new born and these experiences of physical affection are critical for healthy development of the child [14, 15].
During 6–12 years the child understands genital basis of gender. The child is able to label sex parts but uses slang. The child is able to understand sexual aspects of pregnancy; with increasing knowledge of sexual behavior, children may masturbate in private. Sex games with peers (like girlfriend/ boyfriend, truth or dare, playing family) role plays and sexual fantasy may be seen. Developmentally appropriate behavior includes touching their own genitals, trying to view another person’s genitals or breasts and standing too close to other persons. Young children, who are yet to learn culturally appropriate distance, may rub against people, or casually touch their mother’s breasts or father’s genitals [16]. Sexual behaviors become more covert after 5 years of age [18]. Gundersen reported in 1981 that among preschool children aged 3–7 years sexual play was common including body exploration, genital manipulation and attempts at sexual intercourse. Kissing is part of normal sexual development. Exhibitionistic behavior in children, showing body parts to other children or adults, may be part of “playing doctor” [17]. About 85% of college women recalled engaging in sexual games during childhood in a study done by Lamb and Coakley in 1993. Over 40% reported fantasy sexual play including sexual stimulation, intercourse, rape, prostitution and strip shows. Over one third of the games involved genital fondling. These games are due to curiosity, however some children find them a source of sexual excitement. Coercive childhood sexual games are considered to be “normal” especially as boys and girls usually play together. Children may develop anxiety when parents or adults show affection towards each other. The frequency of childhood sexual behaviors when retrospectively recalled by adults may differ from the frequency reported by parents; recollection bias and personal acceptance of sexual behaviors as normal, differs. Educated mothers are likely to report more sexual behaviors in their children [18].
Sexual encounters between siblings are very similar to those seen with friends in terms of the activities occurring, motivations associated, age and perception of them being positive or negative. Finkelhor in 1981 reported that younger children are more likely to exhibit their genitals whereas older children are more likely to engage in attempted or actual intercourse. Younger children show a broad range of sexual behaviors which decrease with the growing age. Sex between siblings occurs much less frequently than between friends. Sexual encounters in siblings range from 9 to 13%. Lower reported rates of sexual encounters between siblings may be either due to age difference or biased retrospective reporting due to incest taboo. However frequency of coercive sexual encounters is almost similar to that with friends and girls are predominantly the victims. Young children are likely to explore their sexuality more at home than in structured and monitored settings among children. The results reported may not represent full range of sexual behaviors seen in children due to ethnic differences in subjects on which research is conducted. Women who have had sibling sexual experiences (positive or negative) are more likely to be sexually active as adults. Sexual sibling experiences before the age of 9 with large difference of age between siblings led to lower sexual self-esteem. Sexual experiences between friends or siblings suggest that normal sexual contact occurs on a continuum and differentiation between sexual play and abuse is not always clear [19].
The child gains knowledge of physical aspects of puberty by age 10. The child shows modesty and embarrassment and tries to hide sex games as well as masturbation from adults. Masturbation most likely increases before puberty especially among boys. There are few physical changes associated with sexual development before the onset of puberty. Just before the teenage years body changes begin, menstruation starts in females and boys may experience wet dreams; fantasizing about sex, interest in media sex, using sexual language with peers is observed [19].
Adolescent sexuality has received much attention in comparison to childhood sexuality. Teens are sexually active but they are hardly prepared for developing responsible sexual behavior. Adolescents reach physical maturity but they are cognitively immature to handle it. A teenager’s primary source of exposure to sexuality related information is his or her peer group. Family dynamics may not be strong enough to guide the teenagers in developing healthy and non-risky sexual behavior [20].
Puberty is the time when sexual development can be much clearly delineated especially the physical changes. There is variation in age at which puberty begins although the onset is typically 18–24 months earlier when compared to boys [21]. The average age of first ejaculation in boys is 14 years (range 14–16 years). However, girls’ breast development begins between 8 and 13 years of age; menarche starts at an average age of 13 years (age range 10–16.5 years). Adolescents acquire knowledge about sexual intercourse, contraception and sexually transmitted diseases. Adolescents get fondness for dating, kissing and petting; sexual fantasies are common. The issue of greatest concern for parents has been the age at which teens engage in sexual intercourse. The average age of first sexual contact has decreased rapidly. They may make sexual contacts including mutual masturbation and first sexual intercourse may occur in 75% by the age of 18 years. However in India as per National Family Health Survey (NFHS), males are mostly likely to have their first sexual intercourse between 20 and 24 years, whereas in females, the peak age at first sex is lower between 15 and 19 years [5].
Early onset of sexual intercourse affects the psychosocial development. Early onset sexual activity has been linked to delinquent behavior. Chances of unintended pregnancy are higher in teens who engage in sexual activity earlier. Teenage parents are at an economic disadvantage and are more likely to drop out of school. Authoritarian parents, poor communication regarding sexuality and having older siblings who are sexually active can facilitate early sexual activity. Rutter and Rutter refer to early sexual activity as a “turning point” which can change the course of a teenager’s life. Understanding early sexual activity can help in planning intervention programs. Other factors which are associated with adolescents who are sexually active include: (1) less educated mother, (2) lower educational expectation, (3) presence of a boyfriend or girlfriend, and (4) higher age. Adolescents are at cross roads as far as sexuality is concerned. A wrong decision can have strong and negative economic and social consequences for the society at large and for the individual in particular. Sex education is an important area which needs to be taken seriously particularly for the adolescent age group [22, 23].
Mediterranean diet which includes fruits, nuts, legumes, monounsaturated fats from olive oils, vegetables and whole grains is gaining popularity in the last few decades. Studies have shown that these groups of foods improve or at least diminish the progression of sexual dysfunctions. Paleolithic diet which is an ancestral diet, before agricultural revolution is gaining more attention in the recent past. Paleo diet which includes lean meat, fruits, legume, plant based foods, restricted consumption of dairy, salt and sugar similar to Mediterranean diet have shown to be beneficial, but well-designed studies are not available. Vegetarian or vegan diet which can be classified as pesco-diet (absence of all animal products except fish), lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet (absence of all animal products except egg and dairy products), ovo-vegetarian diet (absence of all animal products except egg) and vegan-diet (absence of all animal products). Vegetarian diet has shown to reduce morbidity due to vascular causes, which in turn may help in healthy sexual functioning. Vegetarian or vegan diet may cause protein and vitamin B12 deficiency which can be prevented through careful monitoring and supplementation [24].
There is evidence for correlation between intelligence and the age at the first sexual contact. There is inverse correlation between intelligence quotient and the age at first sexual intercourse. Though there is evidence that more intelligent people have more sexual desire, but the frequency of intercourse is less. Emotional intelligence plays a key role in marital relationship. Knowledge, self-competence, secured attachment, emotional processing and self-compassion were few aspects which determined good marital satisfaction [25].
Job stressors have significant impact on sexuality. It majorly depends upon the role the individual is having in the job. It depends on working ability of individual for that job. Work ability includes physiological and psychological ability of the individual to cope with the specific type of the job. The managerial and organizational support also played important role in job stress. Job stress significantly affected desire, arousal and orgasm phases of sexual response cycle [26].
Exercise releases hormones called endorphins, which has a feel good component as well as analgesic effects. Exercise may be acute as well as chronic exercise. Acute exercise increases metabolic rate, causes muscle activation and increases blood flow. Chronic exercise causes long lasting adaptation and improves performance. Acute exercise improves physiological sexual arousal through increasing sympathetic nervous system activity and endocrine factors. Chronic exercise increases sexual satisfaction by maintaining autonomic flexibility. Autonomic flexibility helps in maintaining cardiovascular health as well mood. Chronic exercise also gives positive body image which in turn gives sexual well-being. A couple of small studies have shown the effectiveness of exercise as intervention for dysfunctions [27].
Adequate sleep is essential for normal sexual activity. Quality of sleep has significant impact on various phases of sexual response cycle. Desire is a motivational state which drives the individual to search for sexual activity, while arousal prepares individual physically and psychologically for sexual activity. Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) deprivation increases unstimulated sexual arousal but does not have any effect on desire. Sleep deprivation can also have impact on endocrine factors [28].
Fantasy both during masturbation as well as sexual intercourse enhances sexual responsiveness dramatically. Sometimes it may be perplexing for some individuals while having sex with someone. Sexual fantasies indicate person’s sexual values that may not be overt in their behavior. Source of fantasies is not always obvious, it may be something one has read or seen or may be totally imaginary. Sexual fantasies can arouse sexual excitation and vice versa is also true, sexual excitation arouses sexual fantasy. Women and men who fantasize are more likely to experience orgasm during intercourse. Individuals who report frequent sexual fantasies are less likely to develop sexual dysfunctions. Themes of sexual fantasies are varied, imagining of having sexual intercourse with someone whom you love, having sexual encounters with strangers, having multiple sexual partners simultaneously, forcing someone to have sex or you being forced, being found sexually irresistible by someone, having sex with someone famous and many more. There are gender differences in sexual fantasies, men have more sexual fantasies than women. Even the content also varies, men fantasize an active role in sexual encounter while women more a passive role. Women fantasies’ have more of emotional or romantic theme, revolves around current or previous partner, thoughts and feelings about love and devotion. Men usually fantasize impersonal sexual behavior, implicit visual sexual imagery, specific parts of partner’s body, group sexual activity and focus on specific sexual activity [29].
Masturbation is genital self-stimulation with some anticipation of rewarding erotic feelings, though it is not a necessity that to achieve orgasm genital stimulation is required, some women achieve orgasm even with breast stimulation. Autoeroticism conveys a different meaning, it involves self-stimulation which may or may not involve external physical stimulation. It refers to personal sexual perception and feelings.
There are lots of myths and misconceptions about masturbation. Lot of cultural and religious myths surrounds masturbation. There is a misconception that masturbation is a dismal alternative to sexual intercourse. Professor NN Wig, an Indian psychiatrist described a syndrome called “Dhat Syndrome” which is characterized by “undue concern about debilitating effects of passage of semen”. It has been included in International classification of disease (ICD 10) both under neurotic disorder and culture specific disorder. There is cultural myth that semen is made up of “Dhat” (Elixir), when individual loses semen either through masturbation or wet dreams, they start feeling apprehensive about loss of vitality. Though this syndrome is prevalent worldwide, it is more common in Indian subcontinent.
There are gender differences in masturbation. The frequency of masturbation is more in men when compared to women. Studies show that individuals who report masturbating more frequently, are more open minded about sexuality and have more satisfactory sexual relationship with the partners.
People who believe masturbation as second best mode of sexual expression, get perplexed finding a place for masturbation in relationship. Age, illness, boredom and interpersonal issues influence frequency and intensity of sexual relationship among couples. Masturbation is not always problematic in relationship. Men and women view masturbation differently in a relationship. Men view it as a supplement to pent up sexual energy, while women view masturbation as a substitutive role.
Vibrators and Dildos are not synonyms. Dildos are erect “penis-like” objects which may or may not vibrate. Though vibrators are not substitutes for nurturance, love and sexual attachment, it helps to explore oneself about their sexual response cycle, remove inhibitions and enhance knowledge about themselves [30].
Religious prohibitions prevalent in the society results in restrictive upbringing. Effect of mass media leads to unrealistic sexual expectations. This leads to a conflict, which in turn causes guilt. Lack of communication, exhaustion and unusual expectation can lead to sexual problems during honeymoon. Interaction patterns among couples play an important role in sexual relationship. Hostility, power struggle and conflicts are few of the destructive interaction patterns. Sex at times can be used as a weapon where one partner may forego sexual pleasure rather than give satisfaction to the other. Emotions like anger, anxiety can act as antierotic stimuli [31].
Pregnancy and childbirth are both the part of woman’s sexual life. Positive experiences of female sexual functioning (as measured by dimensions including sexual desire, arousal, and satisfaction) were negatively correlated with the experience of stress, anxiety, and depression, and positively correlated with general quality of life during pregnancy. Moreover, experiencing fulfilling sexual experiences during pregnancy has been shown to promote well-being and maintain partner-intimacy, while low sexual functioning during pregnancy has been linked to poor body image [32].
Changes occurring in every trimester of pregnancy have significant influence on the sexual behaviors. A number of physiological and psychological changes occur in pregnancy with surge of hormones like estrogen, progesterone and prolactin that ultimately affect not only the frequency but also the quality and the outcome of sexual intercourse. Duration of coitus decreases over the length of pregnancy due to unfounded fears that intercourse may hurt the health of mother or baby or cause premature labor [33].
Sexual satisfaction correlates with the feeling of happiness resulting from being pregnant. Pregnant women prefer the following types of sexual activity: non-genital fondling, stimulation of the clitoris, vagina and breasts, oral and anal stimulation and masturbation. However females and their partners are under informed on sexual life in pregnancy [34]. Many authors emphasize, that the pregnancy is a stimulus for partners to search for ways to maintain mutual emotional bond, close physical affinity and satisfy sexual needs not necessarily finished with an intercourse. As the pregnancy progresses patients report frequent dyspareunia, decline in orgasm and poor self-image. Anatomical changes during pregnancy compel couples to attempt abnormal uncomfortable positions. For a number of couples, pregnancy becomes a stimulus to search for new ways of pleasing each other in love play, which does not necessarily culminates with intercourse.
Mode of delivery also impacts sexual functioning. Patients who delivered vaginally even after 6 months postpartum may experience dysfunction in all phases of sexual cycle compared to women who deliver by caesarian section. Women who deliver vaginally have weakened pelvic floor muscles and may also have discomfort due to rectocele and cystocele. Kegel exercises are advised early in postpartum period to strengthen pelvic floor muscles. The eventual benefits of cesarean delivery on sexual function do not last longer than a few months after childbirth.
The research makes it evident, that experiencing sexual satisfaction by pregnant women improves their self-esteem, facilitates mutual relationship between partners and tightens the marital bond. There are various factors that may be influencing the lack of dialog initiated by prenatal health-care providers with their pregnant patients and partners regarding sexual activity during pregnancy. For one, our society at large often deemphasizes the sexuality of pregnant women, finding the discussion of sex during pregnancy to be a taboo. Moreover, Hinchcliff et al. noted that prenatal care providers may avoid discussing sexuality proactively as it is a complex issue and requires sensitivity [35].
After marriage, couple’s start taking one another for granted. At times when marriages happen due to social pressure, couple may start taking one another for granted after marriage. When marriage happens after a period of open relationship due to social pressure, they may feel trapped [36].
The rates of divorce have increased in all age groups in the recent times. Life after divorce requires emotional, social and sexual adjustment. Individuals spending most of their lives in wedlock, finds it difficult to adjust to singlehood. Many people are so adjusted to think their adult life as couple, they take time to get used to singlehood. It is confusing and perplexing for people to learn divorced role. Divorce leads to decline in life style in some people while in others it may lead to sexual liberty. Spiritual values and Literacy levels determines the number and frequency of partners [36].
Multitude of factors influences the likelihood of remarriage. Younger the person, there is more probability of remarriage. About 89% who separate under the age of 25 remarry, it decreases to 31% after 40 years. Shorter the duration of first marriage, there are more chances of remarriage. Other factors are the age at first marriage, younger a person at first marriage, more probability of remarriage [36].
The attitude of parents about sexuality has a significant impact on sexual well-being. Attitude of parents as well as siblings about nudity, masturbation, willingness to discuss about sex and homosexuality all contributes to the development of sexuality of an individual. Relationship of the parents with the individual as well as the partner also influences sexuality. Distorted intrafamilial relationship, lack of discipline, overcrowding, lack of warmth, unusual helplessness and withdrawal from society may lead to certain deviant sexual behavior [36].
Sexuality is an important aspect in Geriatric population. Elderly individuals look sexuality as a means of expression of passion, love, admiration and loyalty. Furthermore sexuality acts as a means of affirming physical functioning, sense of identity and self-confidence. Though desire may remain the same, there may be alterations in other phases of sexual response cycle [9].
The popular belief is that sexuality and spirituality exists in opposition, but in reality spirituality and sexuality go hand in hand. If we look at different geographical areas, there is lot of literature in Chinese Taoist tradition about practices bringing Yin (Feminine) and Yang (Masculine) in harmony. In Indian literature there is mention about energy generated in the pelvic region moving upwards through chakras to the crown, where one enters the cosmic orgasm generated eternally by union of Shakti and Shiva. In psychotherapeutic perspective, people believe that sexuality is something sin and it should be removed or cured. What spirituality should do is to help these people move from the belief that sexuality is sin to enjoying it as an integrated energy for passionate living [37].
Looking at sexuality from the biological perspective, neurological, vascular and endocrine systems contribute significantly for normal sexual functioning. Neurological disorders like stroke, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, traumatic brain injury and spinal cord disorders lead to sexual problems. Endocrine disorders like androgen deficiency, hyperprolactinemia, diabetes mellitus can produce sexual dysfunctions. Vascular disorders like hypertension and atherosclerosis, prostatic illness, carcinomas all can lead to sexual dysfunctions. Prevalence of sexual dysfunctions among these psychosomatic disorders is around 20–70%. Sex and intimacy are likely to be powerful providers of salutogenesis in both the chronically and critically ill patients. Sexual encounters can serve as a refuge in an otherwise chaotic and turbulent situation, and intimate relations might constitute engines of meaningfulness and coherence in a context of meaninglessness and incoherence that so often dominate the everyday life of patients with chronic illnesses [38].
Substance use disorders have varying effects on sexual functions. Alcohol at a smaller quantity may have some stimulatory effect, at higher quantity decreases both desire as well arousal through its effect on testosterone. Cannabis causes detrimental effect on initiation as well as maintenance of erection. Cannabis historically has aphrodisiac effect, but current evidence shows mixed results. Long term use of cannabis has detrimental effect on testosterone. Similarly opioids delay ejaculation in men and improve vaginismus in women, but long term use decreases testosterone as well as lutenising hormone.
The rates of sexual dysfunction in people suffering from schizophrenia, mood disorders, personality disorders, anxiety disorders and eating disorders is very high. In these disorders illness itself can have effect various stages of sexual response cycle, and also medication used can have adverse effects on sexuality. One of the major psychiatric disorder schizophrenia has negative symptoms like blunted affect, anhedonia and avolition itself causes impedance in enjoying sexual life. Loss of libido is one of the symptoms in major depressive disorder. Anxiety disorders are usually associated with premature ejaculation. Mania is associated with increased libido during the episode, at times disinhibited sexual behavior leads to high risk sexual behavior [39].
Sexuality is one of the key factors for wellbeing. There are more myths than adequate knowledge about sexuality. It plays an important role in molding the personality during childhood and adolescence, while it contributes to self-esteem throughout life. Various bio psychosocial factors may influence sexuality. It is one area where research is lacking. In this chapter we have tried to explore some of the key areas influencing sexuality. More research and evidence based data is needed in this area.
Lidia’s cattle breeding has been, and continues to be, one of the most genuine animal production sectors, due to the particular ethological characteristics of this breed and the peculiarities of the production system and the product obtained, in this case suitable animals for the show [1].
\nSpain is the first Lidia cattle breeding country and has the most varied and important genetic heritage of this breed [2] that is also present in Portugal, southern France, and much of South America such as Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Ecuador [3].
\nLidia cattle sector represents in Spain a socioeconomic activity of considerable importance, with a total turnover of approximately 1.5 billion euros per year, which does not only affect entrepreneurs, ranchers, and bullfighters, but also more than 200,000 jobs that depend directly or indirectly on the bullfighting activities [4], which constitute the second mass spectacle of Spain and Portugal [5]. Lidia cattle, the second pure breed in the bovine census in Spain [6], are considered the greatest exponent of an extensive breeding system, due to their ethological characteristics, the need for wide spaces, and the difficulty in handling that it presents [7]. In turn, it is a breed of great rusticity, able to adapt and take advantage of all types of terrain, including those of extreme weather conditions [8]. Many farms are located in territories of high landscape value such as natural parks, playing an important role in maintaining biodiversity and contributing to the conservation of the ecosystem [9].
\nThe characteristics of a Lidia standard farm are an average size of 253 mother cows and a total number of heads of 748 animals, including animals of other breeds or those belonging to other species, necessaries for livestock’s handling, with an annual replacement rate of 12% [10]. However, after the economic crisis of 2008, most livestock farms have decreased the number of heads. Nevertheless, the livestock internal distribution remains stable. For a Lidia cattle farm of 100 mother cows, the ideal average internal scheme, considering the different types of animals classified by sex and age, could be the one presented in Table 1 [11].
\nSires | \n3 | \n
Cows | \n100 | \n
Calf male <1 year | \n40 | \n
Males 1–2 years | \n38 | \n
Males 2–3 years | \n36 | \n
Males 3–4 years | \n35 | \n
Bulls 4–6 years | \n34 | \n
Calf female <1 year | \n40 | \n
Heifers 1–2 years | \n36 | \n
Heifers 2–3 years | \n20 | \n
Halters | \n12 | \n
Internal distribution of a standard Lidia farm considering the different types of animals classified by sex and age [11].
The standard farm has a number of hectares ranging from 586 to 721, of which 92% of the land is used as pastures [12].
\nToday, the farming system of the Lidia breed continues to be, mainly, an extensive management system that has gradually adapted to new grazing techniques and food supplementation in times of natural grass decline, such as winter and summer, in dry climates [13]. The extension of the farms is still remarkable, but of much less spacious than that of several decades ago and in terms of quality, the brave cattle have been relegated to less productive and more stepped mountain farms in favor of agriculture or other more profitable species, such as the Iberian pig in Spain and Portugal [7]. In Mexico, most farms are located in the central part of the country, with a dry climate similar to Spain, carrying out similar feeding management. On the other hand, Lidia cattle in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru are in territories with a tropical climate, whose diet is based on natural grass with a concentrated supplementation during the last stage of preparing the males for the show [14].
\nLidia bull growth estimation [9].
The Lidia cow is a very rustic animal, of few requirements, since its small size also dictated its nutritional needs. Even so, adequate feeding is essential to obtain a good fertility rate, avoiding abortions and perinatal mortality, and, after a good lactation, wean the calf in an optimal state [7, 15]. Currently, the use of natural resources is maximized, preferably by grazing and the supplementation of hay or silage, and if necessary, concentrated food is used at a rate of 2–4 kg/day, depending on the richness of the grass and forage [16, 17].
\nDuring the first 3–4 months, calves are fed exclusively with cow’s milk and develop optimal growth, as long as it comes from a well-fed cow that produces milk of adequate quality and quantity.
\nAfter weaning, and when the animals are between 9 and 10 months old, they are usually supplemented in times of shortage of grass with rations whose fundamental components are fibrous products (beet and citrus pulps, dehydrated or henified alfalfa, and cereal straw), industrial by-products (gluten-feed, wheat bran, soy cake, and beet molasses), and common products in the composition of concentrates of other types of farm animals (corn, barley, wheat, and sunflower meal).
\nGalvanized iron feeders are frequently used, 5 m long by 40 cm wide approximately, which allow to guarantee half a meter of free space per animal, avoiding hierarchy problems, present in any group of this breed, which could result in some type of undernourishment particularly important in this stage of development. Likewise, several water points distributed along the fenced space must be installed, arranged around the feeder area, to favor the movement of animals across different areas and to avoid their concentration in one point.
\nWhen the animals are around 23 months of age, they are slowly provided, during 4 weeks of adaptation, an increasing proportion of the ration designed for adult animals of 3 and 4 years, in order to adapt them to the finishing feeding diet composition.
\nLivestock facilities used for these animals have similar characteristics to the ones described for young animals, although in case of using individual feeders, the number of feeders is usually 10% greater than the number of animals to be fed [18]. Also, the different water points are often installed at a greater separation distance from the feeders (at least 500 m), to facilitate a better distribution throughout the land surface. As in previous phases, a supplementation is necessary, which as an example could be based on the addition of 0.5 kg of alfalfa hay to the total supplementation established in the previous phase, thus leaving 2.5 kg of alfalfa hay added to 0.5 kg of concentrate per animal per day [15].
\nThe feeding systems described during the 1980s based on a final bait are still in force today. Although each farmer has its own feeding methodology, depending on the availability of grass and other types of food on the farm, the possibility of growing the forage or concentrate on the farm itself or the use of agricultural by-products such as citrus pulp or some derived from the olive oil industry.
\nThis final bait is carried out in fenced areas of small size, frequently without grass, with a daily supply of rations of high energy concentration and high digestibility [19]. This last feeding stage is called “pre-lidia bait” or “finishing,” and it can vary between 5 and 12 months and usually begins during the winter [20], adapting the amount of ration supplied to the bulls at the date on which they have to fight.
\nThe average fenced area used for these bulls is usually around 60 hectares per farm, and the average number of animals per enclosure is 20 (which is equivalent to a density of 3 hectares per bull), although each farm distributes its animals in a way different. The average daily gain (GMD) is approximately 450 g/day (Figure 1), which means that in this period, the bulls gain about 150 kg of weight, 30% of their final body weight, considering a standard bull of 500 kg of weight at 4 years of age [7].
\nThe use of long feeders is common, especially in southern Spain, compared to the classic individual and small feeder used in farms located on the center of Spain (Figure 2). The distribution of food is done during the morning and the afternoon in most of the farms [21].
\nLong feeder and single feeders.
There is a critical point in the strategy of feeding management, due to the overfeeding carried out during the last year, prior to the fight, which causes an overload of weight in the bone structure, added to the state of obesity that causes a lack of strength and mobility of the animal that limits its behavior in the arena and, therefore, the show itself.
\nThe problem lies in the overfeeding to which it is subjected in the final phase of its growth during variable periods of time (from 8 to 12 months) that generates a series of pathologies and inconveniences that negatively influence its productive aptitude: the behavior in the ring.
\nSeveral studies have been carried out on the effect of intensive bait on rumen physiology of Lidia cattle [16, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31], and all of them point to ruminal acidosis, a primary pathology that predisposes the appearance of secondary lesions such as liver abscesses, gastrointestinal ulcers, ruminal parakeratosis, laminitis, anthill, and so on. Later we will address this pathology more widely.
\nLidia females reach puberty at approximately 12 months of age but must reach the two-third of adult body weight before becoming pregnant [7] at approximately 2 years of age, and the productive lifespan time lasts for 8–10 years with a calving-gestation interval of 2–4 months [32].
\nLidia bulls begin to show sexual activity from 6 months of age reaching puberty at 10–12 months, having been necessary to separate them from females before 1-year olds [7]. At 2 or 3 years, the selected sires are tested with a small group of females, but they are not profusely used until their female offspring are tested, and the quality of their genetic is proved, once this happens, they could be 15 years contributing its genetic flow in natural mating to the cattle ranch [32].
\nAt present, in the majority of Lidia farms, the reproductive handling is very traditional with natural mating of one sire and 30–40 cows during several months. The outstanding difference with the past management is that now the fertility is greater due to a better cow’s body condition that allows them to perform a successful gestation and lactation every year [33] (Figures 3 and 4).
\nLive weight variation of a Lidia cow [23].
Calving and natural mating management based on grazing availability in seasonal countries.
In Europe, the duration of the mating period in Lidia cattle is similar to that of other extensive bovine breeds, being able to reach up to 8 months (autumn–spring) in livestock farms with longer periods, but its duration is often shorter, from the end of winter to the beginning of summer (March–July), since at this time, the best results are obtained in heat of the cows and fertility, due to both photoperiod and feeding reasons. In countries as Colombia without reproductive stations, the cycle is continuous.
\nThere are relevant anatomical differences in the reproductive system of the female of the Lidia cattle: the cervix is longer in length than other bovine breeds; they present a uterine body very short, and it seems as nonexistent during transrectal palpation [34]. It is similar to the bipartite uterus in rodents, and the ovary has a very small size compared to other breeds of similar size presenting at the oviduct level the largest infundibulum that surrounds much of the ovary [35].
\nAt the same time, there are hormonal differences because the Lidia cow reaches puberty earlier and has a shorter gestation period than other breeds: 286 days [36]. The natural mating should last long enough to guarantee a good fertility rate, with a minimum recommended period of 3–4 months (each cow has at least three opportunities to get pregnant), but there are farmers who extend it more, and there are even systems with continuous natural mating, more common in tropical countries like Colombia. Short mating periods have the advantage of being able to concentrate the calving with better control of herd management and feeding. It is done more in larger herds, in large areas, where lactation is adapted to times of pasture abundance.
\nThe utilization of techniques for semen collection and conservation for artificial insemination (AI) began to be used three decades ago in Lidia bulls. Later, embryo-transfer from high genetic merit Lidia cows to dairy cattle and cloning of one sire to preserve the excellent genetic quality was achieved. These reproductive methods, used to improve the productive characteristic of dairy and beef cattle, could be useful future tools to increase the genetic progress in Lidia cattle behavior selection [37].
\nThere are immense advantages in using cryopreservation, due to semen dilution and conservation during medium and large periods, increasing the possibilities to use it for decades through AI when the behavioral results of their offspring are well known. There is also the possibility to extract post-mortem semen from the epididymis after the fight in the bulls of extraordinary behavior [38]. In this way, each farmer begins to have his own semen bank of his own sires and bulls. In turn, this would allow the exchange of semen between breeders, to refresh the blood of their livestock, being easy to transport to farms located in the countries of America. Among the advantages of this technique are avoid risks of contagions of potential pathologies, allowing the reproduction of animals of different sizes because natural mating is not necessary, and also is not necessary to move the male, allows the collection of semen in extreme situations, and, above all, enables the possibility to use some improving individuals of a contrasted character in a large number of females [39].
\nThe biggest problems are due to the handling difficulties of these animals due to the untidy nature of this breed. Insemination implies added high-risk management both for animals and for people that seriously conditions, from a technical and economic point of view, its generalization in the Lidia cattle [37]. The introduction of other reproductive techniques such as early pregnancy diagnosis allows to discover and treat uterine pathologies, helping to detect nonpregnant cows that could be resynchronized or intended for natural mating and reducing calving pregnancy intervals. Reproduction control does not necessarily imply the hormonal treatment of all animals nor their subsequent insemination because it is possible to use mixed models in which the natural mating and AI are used in a complementary way [40].
\nOnce the AI technique will be established, the next step will be to adapt an embryo transfer program to this type of cattle. Currently, it is used to preserve the valuable genetic material of small farms and to increase the reproductive efficiency of some females. In recent years, this technique has contributed to the formation of germplasm banks as genetic reserve in cases of farms with severe health problems or encastes\n1 in danger of extinction [35].
\nAt the same time, the use sexed semen to obtain a greater number of males than females could create an opportunity, considering the superior economic value of those. However, its use could jeopardize the process of selection and breeding of the farms due to the fact that reducing the numbers of females could be a risk if the proper and strict selection pressure is not applied.
\nRegarding cloning, there are many questions about its efficacy in general and in Lidia cattle in particular. It is not known, for example, if a cloned animal can develop and interact normally with its peers in a highly hierarchical and of great rivalry environment. A cloned individual may have a poor development of the immune or cardiovascular system, and it is not known whether the libido and fertility of a future cloned breeder will be normal. At the moment, it is known that it ages quicker and has a shorter productive lifespan [41]. A cloned bull must also be tested, and in the event that his quality would be acceptable, it will be also necessary to test its offspring to see if it is able to convey his characters.
\nThe cloning of a sire, with the aim of collect semen, may be important in the case of some farms with few breeding males or if it is an individual of outstanding genetic merit and advanced age [42]. In any case, a clone might not have the same ethological characteristics as the animal from which it proceeds, since the behavior is the consequence of its genetic background, the environment in which it develops [33] its ontogenesis or sequential development.
\nTraditionally, three types of selection are made: genealogical, morphological, and functional [32]. In relation to the first, the farmer systematically records information, in his own books, the lines, or families that form the basis of the genetic heritage of his livestock, as well as the results of the offspring of each generation.
\nThis information is used to choose future breeding animals. In addition, each farm defines its morphological preferences, depending on the type it belongs to or the priorities of the owner. The selection criteria are usually higher for males than those used for females. They focus, fundamentally, on aspects related to external appearance, neck musculature conformation, bone structure and development, and so on [43]. And finally, the functional selection consists in measuring the brave character of each animal, although each farmer understands the meaning of this term in a very subjective way. A series of tests are carried out on both females and males to assess their bravery [32].
\nIn the case of females, animals of 1, 2, or 3 years are evaluated. The test is practiced in the tienta,2 under the direction of the farmer and with the participation of professional bullfighters, trying to discover the functional performance of each animal. The behavior of each individual in each phase of the test is assessed using the horse and with the muleta. There are different parameters (prompt response, attack, fixity, mobility, nobility, fierceness, aggressiveness, repetition, and so on) that are evaluated by the farmer, to achieve a final note for each animal and, subsequently, keep the best females as breeders [44].
\nIn the test of males, animals of 2–4 years of age are chosen, initially selecting the specimens that have obtained the best results in the genealogical and morphological tests. They are tested in a small bullring, and if the animal does not respond properly, the test is interrupted, and the bull is withdrawn and will be destined for normal fighting. Those animals initially selected, after testing the behavior of their offspring, will become part of the livestock as a sire or will be discarded, losing their value for a standard fight since they have developed sense during the test fight [32].
\nThere is another circumstantial and sporadic form of sire selection, performed by fans and not by the farmer, which is the case of indulto.3 It occurs in the context of a bullfight where many influential factors could alter the true criteria by which a bull must be selected. Therefore, it is the breeder who will decide, later, if the animal should be used for reproductive purpose or not.
\nCurrently, another type of selection, genetics, has been introduced by livestock associations, which has become increasingly important [9]. It consists of identifying the individuals carrying the most beneficial genes for the interest characters and using them as breeding animals to transmit them to their descendants. The way to evaluate whether or not the phenotype of an animal is a good reflection of the genes of which it is a carrier (genetic value or merit) is based on calculating the heritability of that character [45].
\nThe capacity to transfer behavioral characters is very slow because it is limited by the production of a calf per year, at the most, as well as the complexity to accurately and quickly assess the ethological response of its products in the show [46].
\nAccording to Cañón et al. [2], many of the behavioral characters manifested by the Lidia bull, such as mobility, repetition, nobility, rhythm, and fierceness, despite its complexity and subjective assessments, if scored with enough rigor, can manifest high heritability (>0.35) that makes them susceptible to be selected in one way or another, at the choice of the farm’s owner.
\nA very precise selection of the best individuals entails the maintenance of a population with high consanguinity; therefore, controlling it is an always necessary activity in a Lidia cattle ranch, preserving the necessary genetic variability within it. In general, in Lidia farms, the level of consanguinity does not seem to be very high: 0.12 and 0.13 [47]. Even so, it is possible to find bulls with a consanguinity coefficient of 0.25 [48]. However, regulated mating strategies should be followed, to avoid mating animals with common ancestors, establishing a short- or medium-term conservation program. However, we must be aware of the difficulties involved in the conservation of some minority genetic lines, cattle ranches, or “encastes” [48], because the smaller a population is and the greater the imbalance between the sexes the more difficult it is to preserve their genetic characteristics, complicating the task of avoiding mating between related animals.
\nFinally, the incorporation of the computer methods to control the productive data of the animals allows organization and best valuation of each reproductive potential. With the information reduced to informative schemes, the results can be checked immediately, which make it possible to know, through the corresponding analysis of the offspring, the racing power of the father or mother [45, 49, 50, 51].
\nThe most frequent diseases of Lidia cattle, which also affect extensive cattle, are parasitic processes (coccidiosis, ostertagiosis, dictyocaulosis, and sarcosporidiosis), infectious processes (clostridiosis, anthrax, paratuberculosis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, actinobacillosis, and pyobacillosis), poisonings (aflatoxicosis, ochratoxicosis, aluminum phosphide, and lead poisoning), and deficiency processes as poliencefalomalacia [52].
\nIn addition, the extensive nature of this animal production system predisposes him to suffer from eye problems such as infectious keratoconjunctivitis and horn wounds due to fights between animals [53]. The latter represents a very important chapter in the economies of Lidia farming assuming losses of traumatic etiology ranging from 3 to 15% of male adult individual. Most of them require surgical treatment; some of the interventions are simple, and others are more complicated, but all have in common the septic character of the traumatic focus [54].
\nThe gorings have an etiology closely related to the age of the bulls, strength, and encaste, with an increase in frequency of incidence in 4-year-old bulls with a weight of 500 kg, and the wounds occur with a greater probability in the head and extremity regions. They are caused by external violence in which the surface of the traumatic agent is wide. We can find open or closed wounds. The closed wounds, even when not seen to affect external skin tissues, can cause internal muscular or vascular lesions. Hematomas or serous effusions (blood and lymphatic exudates) of difficult reabsorption due to their large size appear, and they require intervention. They evolve to contamination and abscess formation [55].
\nThe treatment of all types of wounds should be focused on controlling, primarily, the bleeding, either by suturing damaged vessels or by hemostatic parenteral treatments, then preventing or controlling the infection, disinfecting and cleaning the affected area, and finally achieving the rapid healing, usually by second attempt, and is always suggested to leave a drain at the trauma point even if it is small [56].
\nAnother pathology that has been observed with a high incidence in the Lidia breed is osteochondrosis [57]. It is a degenerative process of the joint surfaces, widely described in horses and in bait cattle of other breeds, with few studies in fighting bulls to know if it could influence the mobility of the animal during the show [27].
\nRA is a metabolic disease that settles in the rumen and is produced by the ruminal fermentation of large amounts of nonfibrous carbohydrates, such as starch and sugars, which lead to the production of high amounts of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and lactate, which accumulate in the rumen and cause an abnormal reduction in rumen pH [58]. Ruminal epithelial cells, not protected by mucus, are vulnerable to chemical acid damage [59], and this decrease in ruminal pH together with high concentrations of VFAs causes ruminitis, erosions, and ulcerations of the ruminal epithelium. In turn, abnormal thickening of the stratum corneum of the mucosa occurs due to accumulation of corneal cells with perturbations in their keratinization resulting in hyper and parakeratosis, observing partially pigmented ruminal mucous membranes [60, 61].
\nAmong the works carried out on the feeding management of the Lidia bull, the one carried out by Bartolomé [26] stands out because he observes 66.2% of the animals studied with ruminal pH values compatible with RA, of which 41.5% chronically (pH = 6.2–5.6) according to the classification of González et al. [62]. In addition, 70.7% of animals presented parakeratosis in the mucosa, and in 26.9% of bulls sampled, liver lesions were detected. In the same line, Lomillos et al. [27] reported a 43% reduction in the length of the ruminal papilla of bulls subjected to the finishing bait, added to an increase in the thickness of their mucosa, which approximately doubled the value obtained in the group of animals considered control, and maintained in pure extensive regime (Figures 5 and 6).
\nNormal papilla of extensive animal.
Thickened and shortened papilla of finished bulls [27].
In this context, the decrease in rumen pH predisposes the epithelium to become fragile and loses its ability to act as a barrier between the ruminal environment and the blood, which predisposes the appearance of continuity solutions, which allow the passage of microorganisms toward the bloodstream and the consequent risk of suffering sepsis for the animal [60]. Among others, Fusobacterium necrophorum and Corynebacterium pyogenes, are bacteria often carried to the liver through the portal vein, and there they begin infection and abscess formation, which compromise their metabolic capacity [5]. From the liver, they can go to the peritoneum, generating peritonitis, and sometimes they can go to the lung, heart valves, kidneys, joints, and so on [63]. In this sense, García et al. [12] recorded abscesses at the liver level in 4% of the studied bulls and hepatic-diaphragmatic adhesions in 21% of cases that extended to the pulmonary pleura, confirming, after culture, Fusobacterium necrophorum as the main causative agent of lesions.
\nAt the same time, the intense finishing feeding management based on the use of high amounts of carbohydrates is a predisposing cause of hoof lesions such as the lameness by diffuse aseptic pododermatitis observed in the animals as an excessive growth of the hoof [60] widely described in Lidia cattle [25, 29] and detected with a prevalence of 28% in the fought animals [12].
\nAccording to Nocek [64], the relationship between RA and laminitis seems to be associated with hemodynamic alterations of peripheral microcirculation. During acidosis, as a consequence of the decrease in ruminal pH, a process of bacteriolysis takes place in the rumen, releasing vasoactive substances (histamine and endotoxins), which are absorbed through the damaged rumen wall and cause vasoconstriction and dilation, which destroy microcirculation at the level of synovial joints and chorionic tissue of the hoof [65, 66]. The combination of high concentrations of histamine in areas of terminal circulation [67], the increase in digital blood flow and high blood osmolarity induce an increase in blood pressure inside the animal’s hoof, producing a serum exudate, which results in edema, internal hemorrhages from thrombosis, and finally, the expansion of the chorion, causes intense pain [60, 64]. The disease presents with signs of lameness, excessive growth of the hooves, and the appearance of dark lines or bands on the surface of the hooves, a consequence of the ischemia generated by vascular damage and edema [68]. At present, lameness is treated with anti-inflammatories, and the hoof overgrowth is usually remedied in livestock by a functional cut of the hoof, using the cattle crush facilities to immobilize the animal.
\nIt seems clear that the RA generated after the intensive bait and the pathological processes to which it predisposes or directly causes, affects the performance of the bull in the arena in the form of physical decline of the animal that hinders its ethological and physical performance [12, 20, 26, 69]. Therefore, it is of great importance to explore possible solutions or prevention strategies by designing a new food management.
\nTo control the process, in principle, it would be enough to reduce the amount of nonfibrous carbohydrates provided with the diet, but this measure would lead to a decrease in the rations’ energy level, with the consequent delay in the fattening of the bull and the consequent economic losses.
\nIn the case of the final bull bait, improved rationing and feeding management could have a considerable impact on rumen pH stability. Adapting the ruminal environment by slowly and gradually changing from one forage feed ration to another concentrate would stimulate the development of the rumen papillae and the growth of the lactic acid transforming flora [5], in such a way so that a greater amount is metabolized and the mucosa of the rumen can absorb a greater amount of generated VFAs. This adaptation of the mucosa to concentrated rations takes approximately 4–6 weeks [64] and changes in microflora about 3 weeks [70].
\nThe adoption of the mixed total ration type feeding system, better known as “unifeed” carriage (Figure 7), widely used in dairy cattle, ensures a balanced consumption of concentrate and forage, which is a very important advantage. In this way, it is possible to increase the energy density of the rations by reducing the risk of digestive problems [71]. In fact, in recent years, this type of food management has begun to be incorporated into the Lidia farms, mainly in farms located in the south of the peninsula, later extending through Madrid and Salamanca [72].
\nSmall format “unifeed” mixer truck, adapted to Lidia cattle (BIGA).
In this sense, the contribution of compensated and high fiber rations through the use of “unifeed” mixer cart during the bull bait does not generate a pH decrease below the physiological limits, as shown in Graph 1 that describes the pH ruminal of bulls fed following this pattern of food management for a month [31]. However, it is not clear that this handling is the solution to the RA of the bull since the use of these mixing machines during the entire bait period, which usually lasts between 3 and 9 months, can generate lesions in the morphology of the papilla ruminal (decrease in length and thickening of the mucosa) similar to those found in animals fed through traditional feeding management. In addition, the feeding time generates a negative effect on the severity of the lesions, with the animals fed for more than 6 months being the ones with the greatest lesions at the level of the rumen mucosa [27].
\nAnother strategy to prevent RA is the use of additives both chemical and microbial. Among the first are buffer substances such as bicarbonate, alkalizing agents such as magnesium oxide, or adjuvants such as bentonite, which can help fight RA because it absorbs part of the volatile fatty acids at the ruminal level [5, 65, 73, 74]. The most commonly used microbial additives to combat RA are yeast extracts and live yeasts. These microorganisms help maintain ruminal pH by stimulating the growth of cellulolytic bacteria and lactic acid users, preventing their accumulation in the rumen [75].
\nMuscle weakness syndrome, which involves motor incoordination and transient loss of standing and balance, all encompassed under the common term of “falling syndrome,” has been worrying different authors for almost a century [76]. The frequency with which this problem occurs in the arena had not become worrisome until the beginning of the last century, from the being of 1930 when the manifestation of the problem became general and the falls were more frequent and alarming [77], reaching incidence percentages in the most critical decades close to 99% [78] or 98% [26] of the sampled animals. It affects both males and females and specimens of all ages: bulls, calves, and cows [79, 80]. It is observed in individuals of different livestock farms, regardless of their weight, the category of the arena where they fought, the distance from its farm of origin [77], and, additionally, within the same livestock, the incidence of this problem can be very diverse.
\nDespite recent research work done in this regard, the falling syndrome of the brave bull is an issue in which consensus is not yet perceived. The theories that have come to light in order to explain the etiology of the syndrome have been very numerous and varied, without any of them providing definitive conclusions to date. The simplest attributes the problem to physical reasons such as transport trauma and intentional fraud, while others, more complex, consider that the origin of the syndrome is genetic, due to the inheritance of a gene that determines the fall [81]. However, given the appearance of the problem in cattle ranches whose original genetic distance is very wide, it is logical to assume that the appearance of this syndrome must be influenced by the action of the environment, within which food management, in addition to other factors, such as the health status of the livestock itself would play a very important role.
\nNowadays, in view of the different studies carried out, it is possible to think that the falling syndrome is a multicausal problem, where we can observe some predisposing causes, such as the genetic endowment, the characteristics of the transport, the physical demands of the fight, the effect of the puya and the banderillas, the lack of functional gymnastics, nutritional deficiencies, and other more determinants, such as the possible pathological, circulatory, nervous, metabolic, endocrine, genetic, or ethological causes [76].
\nOn the other hand, the bull is by nature a sedentary animal. In the last year of life, he is transferred to small enclosures where his chances of exercising naturally are limited and the energetic components in his diet are increased. Although cattle are not considered an athletic species, the bull is subjected to tremendous exercise in the arena, lasting approximately 20 min, maintaining a physical and metabolic effort of great intensity to which it is not accustomed [82]. These circumstances mean a lack of physical condition for the show.
\nThis muscle weakness, manifested in the falling syndrome, is projected in various acute muscle injuries associated with intense physical exercise and in chronic muscle injuries that may result from nutrient deficiencies of selenium and vitamin E [83]. On the other hand, Aceña et al. [84] demostrated the existence of a reduction in glycogen stored and very high concentrations of lactic acid in the muscles at the end of the fight, results that indicate the existence of muscle fatigue due to physical exercise in an anaerobic situationss. Similarly, a high correlation has been observed between the main parameters indicative of metabolic acidosis (HCO3−, lactate, and low blood pH) and respiratory acidosis (PCO2) with the falling syndrome [69].
\nTherefore, it is essential to subject the animals to a physical preparation and adaptation to the fight. In fact, in recent years, the number of farmers who seek to achieve adequate physical condition in their animals has increased, through an empirical training program along a running track or by moving them in the same enclosure where they normally live.
\nThere are few studies on the effect of training on the physiology of the bull [85, 86, 87]; however, we can state that training potentially increases athletic performance, as can be deduced from muscular and blood metabolic adaptations [88, 89]. It has been observed that training favors the β-oxidative metabolic pathway of fatty acids (oxidative metabolism) prevailing over the glycolytic pathway, requiring a protocol of at least 6 months to increase its antioxidant capacity [89, 90].
\nIn addition, this training would increase the muscle mass of the animal favoring physical performance [91]. To train, and for the result to be effective, great care of the diet should be taken into account since, in the finishing phase of the bulls, it is intended that the animal’s body weight increases and that the training will serve to increase muscles and adapt the cardiovascular system to an aerobic exercise. With this training management, it is being pursued that the bull endures the fight better, increasing its mobility while achieving greater lung capacity and, therefore, a greater chance of recovery, after efforts made in the first moments of fight.
\nWith training, physical capacity is enhanced, stimulating the body’s level of work above normal. These animals have a great capacity for adaptation and although at the beginning of the training they show signs of fatigue and body loss, this is followed by a phase of recovery/adaptation and maintenance of body weight.
\nA basic training program would consist of three sessions per week, within a total period of 5–6 months, depending on the date scheduled for the fight. A group of animals, with a variable number of bulls, around 12, are forced to move for approximately 3 km, accompanied by horsemen.
\nIt usually begins with a weekly session, increasing the pace until reaching 3 sessions/week in the second month. The intensity is progressive, each session begins with the first minute to the step, to warm the animals, increasing the pace until they are trotted or lightly galloped, to return to the initial point in a progressive cooling. The orography of the land is usually flat, but there are farmers who prefer to exercise the cattle on sloping terrain to increase the intensity of the session. This training is interrupted approximately 15 days before the fight [92].
\nEach breeder has been carrying out a particular training protocol, adapted to their availability of time and cowboys, the number of animals they intend to prepare, and the date of their fight. Generally, a more intense preparation is usually carried out with bulls whose destiny is first or second category arena. In turn, the orographic characteristics of the farm, its distribution of fenced areas, and its extension will have an important influence on the programmed exercise.
\nConsidering the high economic value of the Lidia breed animals, the number of farmers who establish a health management program in their livestock as a control system against infectious or parasitic diseases, and to increase fertility and pregnancy rates as well as to decrease mortality rates in new-born calves, is rising in recent years.
\nProblems related to infectious and contagious diseases represent the main source of economic losses. The pathogens that have tropism for the reproductive, respiratory, or digestive system stand out. Therefore, reproductive and respiratory alterations and neonatal diarrhea are the main problems we find in these cattle [93].
\nCurrently, there are several emerging diseases that could affect these animals during the last decade such as blue tongue, foot and mouth disease, or bovine spongiform encephalopathy, which have joined those that already have an eradication program in our country (brucellosis and tuberculosis), which require periodic official livestock checking on farms (Order DES/6/2011). On many occasions, the health problem itself is linked to a cumbersome legislation that hinders the transit of animals through the various communities of the national territory and between intracommunity countries such as Spain, France, and Portugal (Royal Decree 186/2011).
\nThe official campaigns of eradication of brucellosis and tuberculosis are based on hard controls of the herds and on the application of a legal regulation on these aspects that makes, in certain cases, the movement of animals from the infected cattle ranches, including sales for bullfighting, impossible [94]. It is essential to consider the peculiar factors of this cattle production system. One of them is the level of consanguinity within some farms with a very small number of individuals, which works against disease resistance. It is also necessary to consider the complexity of handling these animals, which coexist in extensive systems with species of different sanitary categories (hunting and/or wild) that could be reservoir for numerous diseases.
\nIn addition, cross-reactions with paratuberculosis (a widespread disease in the Spanish countryside) compromise the reliability of diagnostic analytical tests, posing serious problems when addressing eradication plans [95]. The fight against diseases, both endemic (tuberculosis and brucellosis) and emerging (bluetongue), to achieve eradication and control, will be one of the workhorses for the Lidia sector. This should not entail, in any case, any risk to the maintenance of the diversity of encastes and genetic lines that characterize this breed. Important and unique farms for their genealogy are being decimated by this cause, to the point of endangering the survival of certain encastes.
\nOne of the most valued and delicate body parts of the bull is its horns. They suffer a risk of deterioration, mainly in the last year of life, as a result of potential fights, friction, contacts, or blows with the ground, with trees, fencing, feeders, or the walls of the handling facilities [96]. Therefore, to protect the horns during the last year of animal live, a fiberglass bandage is placed on the horns, easy to handle, porous and that hardens quickly by polymerization with water, providing good consistency (Figure 8). The technique consists of immobilizing the animal in the restraining facilities and wrapping the horn with this bandage to protect it from any aggression or friction. The distal part of the horn is reinforced in many cases with metal tubes or similar hard materials, in order to reduce the wear of the apical zone [97, 98].
\nLidia bull with protected horns.
The horn is increased in thickness by the sheath, and the end of the horn is blunt, which decreases the effect of the lesions of horns between animals by 90% and, in addition, improves their handling for vaccinations, deworming, and other treatments, due to the risks of deterioration of the defenses when the animals pass through the handling facilities minimized [99]. In spite of the obvious advantages of the sheathing mentioned above, and the answer to many questions about the influence of this management practice on the structure and corneal anatomy and the ethological performance of the animal in the arena provided by Alonso et al. [100], there is still some controversy about its usefulness.
\nLidia cattle production presents unique characteristic that requires farmer and veterinary knowledge about the particularities of these animals and its management. The Lidia production sector, from its origins, has been adapting to the new times making use of the most current technological advances. In this way, the feeding system, selection criteria, and reproductive techniques have been modified, driving the need for a modernization of the medical and management practices. However, there are difficulties associated with the breeding, either because of the temperament of animals that increase the difficulty in handling, as well as to the predisposition to present diseases that greatly affect the animal, such as the ruminal acidosis, the falling syndrome, and some health problems that it shares with other extensive bovine cattle.
\nWe would like to thank Mr. Logan Scott for his revision and edit of the English translation.
\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
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