Groundwater extraction and natural recharge for the nine townships in the study area.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-760-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-759-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-761-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc49d6034d85f8f2e2890c6acc3cc629",bookSignature:"Dr. Abhijit Biswas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10285.jpg",keywords:"Mott Insulators, Semi Metals, Polycrystals, Single Crystals, Electronic Properties, Magnetic Properties, PLD, MBE, Topological Insulators, Topological Hall Effect, Devices Applications, Catalysis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 9th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 7th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 6th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 25th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in the field of tailoring metal oxide crystal surfaces and growth as well as engineering of thin films for various emergent phenomena and energy applications. Dr. Biswas received his Ph.D. from POSTECH, South Korea.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"194151",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhijit",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"abhijit-biswas",fullName:"Abhijit Biswas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194151/images/system/194151.png",biography:"Dr. Abhijit Biswas is a research associate at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Pune, in India. His research goal is to design and synthesize highest quality epitaxial heterostructures and superlattices, to play with their internal degrees of freedom to exploit the structure–property relationships, in order to find the next-generation multi-functional materials, in view of applications and of fundamental interest. His current research interest ranges from growth of novel perovskite oxides to non-oxides epitaxial films, down to its ultra-thin limit, to observe unforeseeable phenomena. He is also engaged in the growth of high quality epitaxial layered carbides and two-dimensional non-oxide thin films, to exploit the strain, dimension, and quantum confinement effect. His recent work also includes the metal-insulator transitions and magneto-transport phenomena in strong spin-orbit coupled epitaxial perovskite oxide thin films by reducing dimensionality as well as strain engineering. He is also extremely interested in the various energy related environment friendly future technological applications of thin films. In his early research career, he had also extensively worked on the tailoring of metal oxide crystal surfaces to obtain the atomic flatness with single terminating layer. Currently, he is also serving as a reviewer of several reputed peer-review journals.\nDr. Biswas received his B.Sc. in Physics from Kalyani University, followed by M.Sc in Physics (specialization in experimental condensed matter physics) from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay. His Ph.D., also in experimental condensed matter physics, was awarded by POSTECH, South Korea for his work on the transport phenomena in perovskite oxide thin films. Before moving back to India as a national post-doctoral fellow, he was a post-doc at POSTECH working in the field of growth and characterizations of strong spin-orbit coupled metal oxide thin films.",institutionString:"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64061",title:"Flood Damage Reduction in Land Subsidence Areas by Groundwater Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80665",slug:"flood-damage-reduction-in-land-subsidence-areas-by-groundwater-management",body:'\nIn the region with scarce or highly variable surface water resource, groundwater is a vitally important source of water for sustainable development of the region. Groundwater pumping without proper control and management could result in a rapid depletion of valuable groundwater resource, which cannot be replenished in a short period of time. Furthermore, the seriousness of land subsidence can be exacerbated, which is concomitant with increased flood hazard and damage. Phien-wej et al. [1] reported that the estimated flood damage attributed to land subsidence in the 1990s amounted to $12 million annually in Bangkok, Thailand. Nicholls et al. [2], in their assessment of the exposure of population and assets to a 1-in-100 year surge-induced flood event at 136 port cities with more than one million inhabitants, indicated that the climate change and land subsidence contribute about one-third of increased flood exposure for people and assets. The impact of land subsidence induced by excessive groundwater extraction should be carefully examined in deltaic cities, especially in those coastal areas that are under rapid development.
\nBy using inundation models, many studies have shown that flood hazard, after a long period of land subsidence, becomes worsened in cities like Semarang [3] and Jakarta [4] of Indonesia, Shanghai of China [5], and coastal cities around Northern Adriatic Sea [6]. All the above studies showed that land subsidence results in increased flood inundation depth and areal extent, as well as diminishing effectiveness of existing flood protection systems. Even the flood defense system is upgraded to uphold the protection level, and the flood risk will be worsening with continuing land subsidence. Therefore, an engineered flood defense infrastructure system, jointly with a proper groundwater pumping practice with an aim to reduce land subsidence, could offer a sustainable solution to flood management problems in subsidence prone areas.
\nThe goal for land subsidence mitigation can be achieved through effective management of groundwater pumping by constraining the drawdown. A comprehensive review of groundwater management (GWM) can be found elsewhere [7, 8, 9]. The common approach for handling subsidence control in GWM is to set a preconsolidation head as the lower bound of the groundwater level to prevent inelastic soil compaction from happening [10]. However, such an approach considers only the drawdown constraint that does not explicitly relate to the magnitude of land subsidence. To circumvent such deficiency, Chang et al. [11, 12] developed a mixed integer programming model for maximizing total pumpage, subject to drawdown and land subsidence constraints. 1D consolidation equation, which simultaneously considers inelastic and elastic soil compaction, is incorporated explicitly in the subsidence constraints.
\nAs many studies have pointed out that the flood risk in land subsidence prone areas can be reduced through proper GWM (e.g., [1, 5]), and it is rarely found that flooding is explicitly incorporated into the model formulation. Chang et al. [13] developed a groundwater pumping optimization model, in conjunction with land subsidence and inundation models, to mitigate the land subsidence effect on flood hazard in land subsidence areas and satisfy the water demand. The GWM model determines the optimal pumping scheme for (1) minimizing land subsidence, (2) preventing flood hazard from worsening in the future, and (3) satisfying groundwater demand. This chapter, on the basis of the developed optimal groundwater pumping model [13], evaluates flood damage reduction and assesses economic benefit attainable by GWM in land subsidence prone coastal areas.
\nFigure 1 shows the framework of analysis that was applied to a study area in the coastal zone of Taiwan (see Section 3.1 for more detailed descriptions) that is experiencing severe land subsidence problem largely due to groundwater overpumping. It can be seen that the analysis framework contains two major parts in which the first part is on the left branch for predicting the cumulative land subsidence in the study area over a 10-year period (2012–2021) based on the existing groundwater usage without management. Under this scenario, the groundwater pumpage in 2012–2014 in the study area was set to the historical average value as shown in Table 1. In 2015, a newly built Hushan reservoir began its service, and the groundwater pumpage during 2015–2021 was adjusted downward according to the planned water supply amount from the reservoir. The left branch of the analysis estimates the ground surface topography in the study area caused by land subsidence after 10 years of using the existing pumping pattern without optimal GWM. Flood hazard and inundation damage in the study area at the end of 2021 are assessed accordingly.
\nFlow chart showing the methodological framework in the study.
Township | \nArea (km2) | \nExtraction | \nRecharge | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Annual (106 m3) | \nIntensity (mm/day) | \nAnnual (106 m3) | \nIntensity (mm/day) | \n||
Mailiao | \n80.17 | \n107.55 | \n3.68 | \n27.25 | \n0.93 | \n
Lunbei | \n58.48 | \n115.89 | \n5.43 | \n7.46 | \n0.35 | \n
Taisi | \n54.10 | \n34.4 | \n1.74 | \n17.13 | \n0.87 | \n
Dongshih | \n48.36 | \n57.33 | \n3.25 | \n7.54 | \n0.43 | \n
Baojhong | \n37.06 | \n54.05 | \n4.00 | \n8.22 | \n0.61 | \n
Tuku | \n49.02 | \n56.6 | \n3.16 | \n6.39 | \n0.36 | \n
Huwei | \n68.74 | \n85.18 | \n3.39 | \n15.25 | \n0.61 | \n
Sihhu | \n77.12 | \n58.26 | \n2.07 | \n25.42 | \n0.90 | \n
Yuanchang | \n71.59 | \n89.01 | \n3.41 | \n9.93 | \n0.38 | \n
Total | \n464.47 | \n658.27 | \n30.13 | \n124.59 | \n5.44 | \n
Groundwater extraction and natural recharge for the nine townships in the study area.
It should be pointed out here that, because of a relatively short management period of 10 years considered in the study, the rainfall condition was assumed to be stationary in assessing flood hazard and inundation damage. The indicators of flood hazard considered include the levee freeboard along the drainage channel systems and the maximum inundation depth in the study area. The freeboard is a measure of margin of safety, which is the vertical elevation difference from the levee crown to the water surface in the drainage channel. A reduction in the freeboard is an indication of increased overtopping potential of the levee system. The maximum inundation depth can be indicative of flooding severity. From the flood inundation simulation, the effect of subsidence on the flood hazard under the existing groundwater pumping practice can be assessed. With flood damage-inundation depth relationships available, the flood inundation risk cost can be assessed.
\nThe second part of the analysis is shown on the right-hand branch of Figure 1 in which the GWM model is applied to find the optimal pumping scheme by minimizing the land subsidence effect on flood hazard while, at the same time, satisfying the water demand. After obtaining the optimal pumping strategy, the corresponding land subsidence amounts are obtained to define the land topography in Year 2021. Under a different topography, the corresponding flood hazard indicators and inundation damage are obtained for assessing the effect of GWM.
\nThe well-known SOBEK Suite [14], developed by the Deltares Research Institute in the Netherlands, was used in the study to model flood inundation and the associated hazard. Specifically, the hydrodynamic module, which contains 1D-flow and 2D-overland flow submodules, was used to simulate surface water flow in the study area for determining the levee freeboard and inundation depth under the selected design rainfall events.
\nThe major inputs to the SOBEK 1D/2D simulation for this study are as follows:
Rainfall hyetograph: 24-hour design rainfall with six design frequencies (i.e., 2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, and 100-year) was used. Their corresponding rainfall amounts were 158, 227, 275, 337, 384, and 432 mm, respectively. All six design storm events follow the same dimensionless rainfall pattern as shown in Figure 2 [15]. For simplicity, no spatial variation of rainfall in the study area was considered.
Downstream boundary: since major drainage lines in the study area are connected to the Taiwan Strait, the boundary condition at the downstream end sections was assigned with a wave form shown as the dash line in Figure 2.
Channel profile and DEM: the cross-sectional profile along the drainage lines and DEM within the study area were surveyed in 2012. By considering the trade-off between the accuracy and computational efficiency of hydrodynamic simulation, the grid for the 2D overland flow simulation was set to 120 m. To simulate flood hazard with the projected land subsidence in 2021, the ground elevation in 2012 was added by the cumulative land subsidence between 2012 and 2021 obtained by the land subsidence model under the conditions of with and without GWM.
Roughness coefficient: flow boundary roughness is categorized by the channel bed and overland surface. As almost all the drainage channels within the study area are man-made with gravel bottom and concrete siding, the nominal value of 0.02 for the Manning roughness coefficient was used according to Chow [16]. The roughness coefficient of the overland surface was determined by the land use listed in Table 2.
Dimensionless 24-hr design rainfall hyetograph and the downstream tide level for boundary condition [15].
Land use | \nkn | \n
---|---|
Agriculture | \n0.8 | \n
Built-up | \n10 | \n
Water conservation | \n0.2 | \n
Amusement and rest area | \n3 | \n
Transportation | \n1 | \n
Other | \n0.5 | \n
Relationship between the Nikuradse roughness coefficient kn and land use [15].
Month | \nJan | \nFeb | \nMar | \nApr | \nMay | \nJun | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rainfall (mm) | \n19.6 | \n35.2 | \n50.3 | \n78.2 | \n159.3 | \n269.5 | \n
Month | \nJul | \nAug | \nSept | \nOct | \nNov | \nDec | \n
Rainfall (mm) | \n209.5 | \n221.6 | \n100.8 | \n16.7 | \n18.1 | \n14.8 | \n
Annual Avg (mm) | \n1176.8 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Mean monthly rainfall amount in the study area.
In this study, land subsidence is assumed to be caused by groundwater pumping. An uncoupled model consisting of a layered 3D groundwater solver and a 1D consolidation model was used to simulate land subsidence [17]. The layered 3D groundwater solver is first used to simulate depth-averaged groundwater flow and pore pressure head change due to groundwater extraction in every layer at each time step. The vertical soil displacement during each time step is then calculated by the 1D consolidation equation. The simulation model assumes (1) isotropic soil medium, (2) linear elasticity relationship between average effective stress and average displacement following Hooke’s law, and (3) vertical displacements only. These assumptions, however, ignore the presence of the preconsolidation head, which implies that a decrease in pore pressure head due to groundwater extraction will always cause normal consolidation and is unable to consider overconsolidation and rebound (i.e., elastic range). This renders overestimation of land subsidence.
\nTo simultaneously consider the inelastic/elastic behavior of land subsidence, Chang et al. [12] modified the 1D consolidation equation according to Leake [18] as
\nwhere \n
where NL, NT = the numbers of layer and time period, respectively. More detailed descriptions on the land subsidence model can be found in the studies of Chang et al. [11, 12].
\nIn the process of developing the groundwater subsidence model for the study area, monitored data on pore pressure head and land subsidence during 2007–2009 were used to calibrate the model parameters such as hydraulic conductivity and soil compaction coefficients. Then, monitored data made in 2010–2011 were used for validation. The validated model was used to predict the cumulative land subsidence in the study area over a 10-year period during 2012–2021. Calibration and validation of pore pressure head and land subsidence in the study area were found quite satisfactory for pore water pressure and less satisfactory for land subsidence [13]. The reason might be because groundwater extraction alone is not the only cause for land subsidence. In addition, the 1D consolidation equation used in the land subsidence model cannot account for the body force and viscoelastic effects, which might have influences on land subsidence in thick aquitards. However, the validation results indicate that the simulation model can reasonably reproduce the general pattern of land subsidence in both time and space.
\nBefore developing a viable GWM for optimal pumping in the study area, insights were gained by applying the validated simulation model to examine the subsidence behavior under the existing pumping practice. The simulation results indicated that the levee freeboard and maximum inundation depth have a similar tendency in spatial variation affected by land subsidence. Both tend to become worsened in the near-shore low-lying area due to reduced difference between the sea level and levee crown elevation. Thus, continuing land subsidence would worsen the flood hazard in this area, and the results are consistent with those of Ward et al. [4] and Wang et al. [5]. On the other hand, outside the near-shore low-lying area, it was found that the freeboard and maximum inundation depth do not necessarily get worse. This is because the influence of the downstream boundary condition defined by the sea level is minimal. Instead, the relative variation of land subsidence in space becomes the dominant factor affecting the changes in freeboard and maximum inundation depth because it alters the slopes of drainage channels and the land surface.
\nBy incorporating the above insights about land subsidence—flood hazard interrelationship, an effective GWM model can be developed for reducing the undesirable pumping-induced land subsidence and flood hazard in the study area. For the near-shore low-lying area, one could reduce the land subsidence amount because flood hazard is highly related to the magnitude of land subsidence. For the region outside the near-shore low-lying area, one could reduce the relative variation of land subsidence in space to prevent flood hazard from worsening. The optimal groundwater pumping model can be formulated as
\nin which kuc = the kuc-th control point outside the near-shore low-lying area; kc = the kc-th control point within the near-shore low-lying area; NUC and NC = number of control points outside and inside the near-shore low-lying area, respectively; Δs(•), Δs*(•) = cumulated and the maximum allowable land subsidence, respectively, at control points at the end of the management period; NP = number of pumping wells; \n
The objective function Eq. (4) is to minimize the maximum land subsidence among all control points outside the near-shore low-lying area. The consideration of Eq. (4) can optimally reduce the magnitude and spatial variation of land subsidence outside the near-shore low-lying area. On the other hand, for any control point within the near-shore low-lying area, constraint Eq. (5) that directly limits the land subsidence can be imposed to prevent flood hazard from worsening due to the reduced levee freeboard.
\nTo demonstrate the positive contribution of GWM to flood hazard reduction in land subsidence prone areas, the optimal groundwater pumping model developed by Chang et al. [13] is applied here to a selected study area in Taiwan.
\nThe study area chosen has a catchment area of 267 km2 located in the northwest part of Yunlin County, Taiwan (see Figure 3). The northern boundary of the study area is defined by the Zhuoshui River, the longest river in Taiwan, and the western boundary is adjacent to the Taiwan Strait. The study area covers nine townships and has four drainage systems consisting of Shihtsoliao, Yutsailiao, Makungtso, and Chiuhuwei. The mean annual rainfall in the study area is about 1200 mm of which about 80% of rainfall occurs between May and September due to monsoons and typhoons (see Table 3). Despite the fact that the mean annual rainfall in the study area is less than half of the average value in Taiwan (i.e., 2500 mm), the study area is still highly susceptible to flood hazard due to its low lying and flat terrain.
\nGeographical location of the study area.
Figure 4 is the topographic map of the study area, which shows its ground elevation ranging from −1.0 to 28 m with reference to the mean sea level. The east-to-west average land surface gradient is less than 1/1000 indicating that the surface runoff produced by heavy rainfall can be easily trapped in the study area. Furthermore, ground elevation in the downstream part of the study area is lower than the average spring high tide of 2.1 m. This implies that flood water in the drainage channels from a rainstorm event may not be effectively drained into the Taiwan Strait due to the backwater effect.
\nSpatial distribution of ground elevation in the study area.
Yunlin County is an important region for agriculture and freshwater fish farming in Taiwan. The two activities require a tremendous amount of fresh water, especially the latter. Due to the lack of sufficient and stable surface water supply in the area, groundwater pumping is widely used to secure fresh water. According to the record, groundwater constitutes 30% of agricultural water usage and almost 100% of domestic use in Yunlin County. Table 1 lists the average groundwater extraction and recharge for the nine townships in the study area which shows that annual average groundwater extraction significantly exceeds the annual natural groundwater recharge. Since groundwater has been excessively pumped for more than 30 years in the general area of Yunlin County, serious land subsidence problem has been created. Figure 5 shows the cumulative land subsidence during 2002–2011 in Yunlin County with negative values representing the ground elevation being lowered.
\nContour map of cumulative land subsidence in 2002–2011 in the study area.
The study area is highly susceptible to flooding due to low lying and flat terrain. Progressive land subsidence further exacerbates flood hazard. To mitigate flood hazard in the area, the Water Resources Agency (WRA) of Taiwan had spent more than 3 billion $NT (approx. 0.1 billion $US) during 2006–2013 to strengthen and heighten the sea wall and levee of drainage channels, construct the polder protection system, and upgrade the pumping stations and tidal gates. Because groundwater extraction in the area was not effectively controlled and managed, the land subsidence continued to erode away the effectiveness of flood protection infrastructure systems with time.
\nAfter the optimal pumping strategy is obtained, the right-hand branch of the analysis framework (see Figure 1) is implemented to evaluate the effect of GWM. Figure 6 shows the change in the land subsidence amount under the conditions of with and without GWM. A positive-valued change means that the land subsidence is reduced under the optimal pumping scheme. Figure 6 indicates that, while satisfying the groundwater demand of each township, the optimum pumping strategy could greatly reduce the land subsidence in the study area. The most reduction in land subsidence ranging from 40 to 60 cm occurs in Huwei and Tuku townships where the land subsidence was the most serious without GWM.
\nReduction in cumulative land subsidence due to GWM in the study area.
Figure 7 shows the histograms of cumulative land subsidence during 2012–2021 under the conditions of with and without GWM. Without GWM, the histogram on the left shows that the magnitude of land subsidence in the study area varies between −10 and −68 cm with the standard deviation of 13.8 cm. On the other hand, under the optimum pumping strategy, the histogram on the right shows that the range of land subsidence variation is greatly narrowed, and the standard deviation is reduced to 4.1 cm. Both Figures 6 and 7 indicate that the magnitude and the spatial variation of land subsidence in the study area can be significantly reduced through optimum management of groundwater pumping.
\nHistograms of the cumulative land subsidence in 2012–2021 under the conditions of with and without GWM.
Under the optimal GWM, Figure 8 shows the change in the freeboard after a 10-year land subsidence where the study is subject to a 100-year design rainstorm. The solid black line in Figure 8 is the contour of cumulative land subsidence over 2012–2021 with a contour interval of 2 cm. Figure 9 further shows the histogram of the difference in the 2021 freeboard between the conditions of with and without GWM. The change with the positive value represents that the freeboard with GWM is greater than that without GWM when subject to a 100-year design rainfall. An increase in the freeboard indicates overflow potential from drainage channel systems that is reduced through GWM. The most significant difference reaches 8–10 cm which occurs in the near-shore low-lying area (see Figure 8). The results clearly indicate that GWM can prevent the levee freeboard from decreasing and thereby sustain the effectiveness of the existing flood protection system over the management period. Even if it is required to upgrade the protection level in some areas, GWM can render a smaller scale for upgrading work and lower capital cost.
\nChange in the levee freeboard after a 10-year land subsidence under the 100-year design rainstorm with GWM.
Histogram of the difference of the levee freeboard in Year 2021 between conditions of with and without GWM under the 100-year design storm.
Figure 10 shows the difference in the maximum inundation depth in Year 2021 with and without GWM under the 100-year design rainstorm. The effect of GWM on the inundation depth is observed to be similar to that on the levee freeboard. It was found that the inundation depth in the near-shore low-lying area increases with 2021 land subsidence even with GWM. However, the range of increase is narrowed because the optimum pumping strategy greatly reduces the land subsidence in this area. The most reduction in inundation depth reaches 4–6 cm which occurs in the downstream of Yutsailiao and Chiuhuwei drainage lines (see Figure 10). The inundation depth could further be reduced if the maximum allowable land subsidence in Eq. (5) is set in a more restrictive manner. However, a more restrictive land subsidence control policy would result in a less amount of groundwater pumping which means that the current demand for the near-shore townships may not be satisfied.
\nChange in maximum inundation depth after a 10-year land subsidence with GWM under the 100-year design rainstorm.
Outside the near-shore low-lying area, the optimum pumping strategy can effectively prevent the inundation depth to be changed because of the reduced spatial variation of land subsidence. An exception is found at the farthest upstream from the Chiuhuwei drainage line where the inundated area grows larger with GWM because the land subsidence cone is moved to this area under the optimum pumping strategy. However, the gradient of land subsidence near this area under the condition of GWM is not as large as that of without GWM. Therefore, the increase in the inundated area would not greatly influence the flood hazard and the effectiveness of the existing flood protection system.
\nTo assess land subsidence-induced flood risk cost in the study area, representative relationships between inundation area and flood damage for several economic crops, aquacultural produces, and buildings were established and are shown, respectively, in Figures 11–13 according to past flood events. Then, by applying the flood inundation model on different land surface topographies in the study area under the conditions of with and without GWM and the design rainstorm of different frequencies, areal extent and maximum water depth of inundation can be determined. These hydraulic modeling results, jointly with land use maps and inundation-damage relationships, allow the establishment of damage-frequency relationships as shown in Figure 14(a)–(c). Figure 14(a) is derived according to Year 2011 land topography of the study area which serves as the initial condition for the 10-year GWM period. Figure 14(b) and (c), respectively, is based on Year 2021 land topography as the consequence of with and without implementing GWM. To assess the economic merit of implementing GWM, the benefit due to inundation damage reduction in Year 2021 can be obtained as the difference between inundation damage with and without GWM, that is,
\nin which B(T|2021) = benefit of GWM (in terms of inundation damage reduction) in Year 2021 under a T-year rainstorm; \n
where E(B|2021) = annual expected benefit of GWM for the year at the end of the 10-year management period 2012–2021. Note that land subsidence is a continuous process that progresses over the GWM period. It is anticipated that, from the initiation of GWM in Year 2012, the task will begin to accrue flood damage reduction (FDR) benefit over each individual management year with an increasing rate. The present worth of cumulative expected FDR benefit over the 10-year management period can be obtained as
\nin which \n
Flood damage relationships for different agricultural produces.
Flood damage relationships for different aquacultural products.
Damage-inundation depth relationship for buildings in the study area.
Flood damage-frequency relationships under different scenarios. (a) In Year 2011. (b) In Year 2021 W/o GWM. (c) In Year 2021 W/ GWM. (d) Difference between w/o and w/ GWM.
To simplify the computation for economic merit assessment, it is assumed that the yearly FDR benefit increases linearly from zero in 2011 to \n
where \n
in which n = length of management period, that is, n = 10 in this application.
\nAccording to the total inundation damage-frequency relationships shown in Figure 14(a)–(c) and Eq. (9), the estimated annual expected inundation damages for Year 2011, Year 2021 (w/o GWM), and Year 2021 (w/GWM) are 213.695, 223.527, and 218.406 M$NT(million New Taiwan dollars), respectively. Therefore, the incremental inundation damage in Year 2021 due to pumping-induced land subsidence over a 10-year management period of with and without GWM are, respectively, 9.833 and 4.712 M$NT. The benefit of GWM in Year 2021 associated with the expected FDR in the study area is \n
By comparing the total amount of inundation damage amount in the study area (in the order of 200 M$NT annually), the GWM benefit associated with FDR does not appear to be very impressive. This might be due to a relatively short management period of 10 years. For sustainable GWM, the period of management would generally be longer and it can be easily shown, by a similar analysis described above, that the economic benefit of GWM in terms of flood damage reduction would grow with the management period. Furthermore, Figure 8 clearly shows that implementing GWM in the land subsidence prone area can sustain the design flood protection level of drainage systems by preventing the freeboard from decreasing. This implies that potential huge saving in the capital cost can be realized because the lower levee height in many parts of the study area would be sufficient if an effective GWM policy is in the place. Also, the maintenance cost for levee systems could be reduced as fewer existing levee segments require height upgrading because the mandated freeboard can be upheld or even improved by GWM.
\nGroundwater is an important source of water supply, especially in regions where surface water supply is insufficient or not stable. However, the lack of proper management for groundwater extraction and usage in land subsidence prone areas could create a number of undesirable consequences such as damaging building structures, aggravating flood inundation hazards, and diminishing effectiveness of flood control facilities. This chapter presents a methodological framework demonstrating how a subsidence-focused GWM model can be formulated and applied to obtain an optimal pumping strategy that reduces the negative impact of land subsidence in a coastal region in western Taiwan which is experiencing serious land subsidence and associated flood hazards. Numerical results clearly show that, through the use of an optimal GWM model with an explicit consideration given to subsidence control, one is able to ease off uneven land surfaces and reduce seriousness of land subsidence and flood damage as well as sustain the flood protection level of drainage systems by maintaining a suitable freeboard. All these features provide strong evidence that GWM can play an important role, along with other engineering measures, in providing a sustainable solution to flood inundation problem in land subsidence prone areas.
\nThis study was support by the Water Resources Planning Institute, Water Resources Agency, Ministry of Economic Affairs of Taiwan.
\nNo potential conflict of interest is present in this chapter.
\n layer thickness expected FDR benefit by GWM in Year-t gravitation acceleration interest rate inundation damage in the study area with GWM while subject to the T-year rainstorm inundation damage without GWM while subject to the T-year rainstorm the kuc-th control point outside the near-shore low-lying area the kc-th control point within the near-shore low-lying area number of control points inside near-shore low-lying area number of layers in groundwater aquifer number of pumping wells number of groundwater management period number of control points outside near-shore low-lying area pumping rate at the j-th well during the t-th time period groundwater demand during the t-th time period minimum pumping rates at the j-th well during the t-th time period maximum allowable pumping rates at the j-th well during the t-th time period uniform gradient present worth factor the ratio of elastic to inelastic compaction per unit increase in drawdown land subsidence within layer-l at point-k during the t-th time period drawdowns of layer-l, point-k at the end of the t-th time period density of water difference between initial head and preconsolidation head at the end of the t-th time period cumulated land subsidence at control points at the end of the management period maximum allowable land subsidence at control points at the end of the management period Lame constants
The secondary metabolism is a biosynthetic source of several interesting compounds useful to chemical, food, agronomic, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. The secondary pathways are not necessary for the survival of individual cells but benefit the plant as a whole [1]. Another general characteristic of secondary metabolism is that found in a specific organism, or groups of organisms, and is an expression of the individuality of species [2]. The secondary metabolism provides chemical diversity to organic molecules with low molecular weight that are related by the respective pathways; such organic molecules are called secondary metabolites. The secondary metabolites are often less than 1% of the total carbon in plant molecules [3]. These organic molecules isolated from terrestrial plants are the most studied, and their syntheses have an important role in the protection against pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation [3]. Secondary metabolism reflects plant environments more closely than primary metabolism [4]. There are three principal kinds of secondary metabolites biosynthesized by plants: phenolic compounds, terpenoids/isoprenoids, and alkaloids and glucosinolates (nitrogen- or sulfur-containing molecules, respectively) [5]. Phenolic compounds are biosynthesized by the shikimate pathway and are abundant in plants. The shikimate pathway, in plants, is localized in the chloroplast. These aromatic molecules have important roles, as pigments, antioxidants, signaling agents, electron transport, communication, the structural element lignan, and as a defense mechanism [6], Figure 1. The seven steps of the shikimate pathway and the metabolites for branch point are described in this chapter, as factors that induce the synthesis of phenolic compounds in plants. Some representative examples that show the effect of biotic and abiotic stress on the production of phenolic compounds in plants are discussed.
\nPhenolic compound biosynthesis promoted by biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivores, pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, CO2, O3, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation).
The shikimate biosynthesis pathway provides precursors for aromatic molecules in bacteria, fungi, apicomplexan, and plants, but not in animals [2, 7]. Shikimic acid is named after the highly toxic Japanese shikimi (Illicium anisatum) flower from which it was first isolated [8]. This biochemical pathway is a major link between primary and secondary metabolism in higher plants [6]. In microorganisms, the shikimate pathway produces aromatic amino acids L-phenylalanine (L-Phe), L-tyrosine (L-Tyr), and L-tryptophan (L-Trp), molecular building blocks for protein biosynthesis [9]. But in plants, these aromatic amino acids are not only crucial components of protein biosynthesis; they also serve as precursors for diverse secondary metabolites that are important for plant growth [10]. These secondary metabolites are called phenolic compounds and are synthesized when needed by the plant [11]. These molecules play an important role in the adaptation of plants to their ecosystem, and their study advances biochemical techniques and molecular biology [3, Bourgaud]. The principal aromatic phenolic compounds synthesized from L-Phe and L-Tyr are cinnamic acids and esters, coumarins, phenylpropenes, chromones (C6-C3), stilbenes, anthraquinones (C6-C2-C6), chalcones, flavonoids, isoflavonoids, neoflavonoids (C6-C3-C6), and their dimers and trimers, respectively (C6-C3-C6)2,3, lignans, neolignans (C6-C3)2, lignans (C6-C3)n, aromatic polyketides, or diphenylheptanoids (C6-C7-C6) [12]. L-Trp is a precursor of alkaloids in the secondary metabolism [2]. Additionally, diverse hydroxybenzoic acids and aromatic aldehydes (C6-C1) are biosynthesized via branch points in the shikimate pathway, Figure 2. Phenolic compounds biosynthesized from the shikimate pathway have structural versatility.
\nThe shikimic and chorismic acids are the common precursors for the synthesis of L-Phe, L-Tyr, and L-Trp and diverse phenolic compounds.
The shikimate pathway consists of seven sequential enzymatic steps and begins with an aldol-type condensation of two phosphorylated active compounds, the phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP), from the glycolytic pathway, and the carbohydrate D-erythrose-4-phosphate, from the pentose phosphate cycle, to give 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP), Figure 3. The seven enzymes that catalyze the pathway are known: 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase (DAHPS; EC 4.1.2.15, now EC 2.5.1.54), 3-dehydroquinate synthase (DHQS; EC 4.2.3.4), 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase (DHQ/SDH; EC 4.2.1.10/EC 1.1.1.25), shikimate kinase (SK; EC 2.7.1.71), 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS; EC 2.5.1.19), and chorismate synthase (CS; EC 4.2.3.5) [13], Table 1.
\nShikimate pathway.
Reaction step | \nSubstrate | \nEnzyme/cofactor | \nProduct | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPhosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), erythrose-4-phosphate | \n3-Deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase (DAHPS; EC 4.1.2.15, now EC 2.5.1.54)/Co2+, Mg2+ or Mn2+ [15] | \n3-Deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP), Pi | \n
2 | \n3-Deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP) | \n3-Dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4)/Co2+, NAD+ [15, 16] | \n3-Dehydroquinic acid (DHQ), Pi | \n
3 | \n3-Dehydroquinic acid (DHQ) | \n3-Dehydroquinate dehydratase (DHQ dehydratase EC 4.2.1.10) [15] | \n3-Dehydroshikimic acid (DHS), H2O | \n
4 | \n3-Dehydroshikimic acid (DHS), NADPH + H+ | \nShikimate dehydrogenase (SDH; EC 1.1.1.25) [18, 19, 20, 21] | \nShikimic acid, NADP+ | \n
5 | \nShikimic acid, ATP | \nShikimate kinase enzyme (SK; EC 2.7.1.71) | \nShikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P), ADP | \n
6 | \nShikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P), PEP | \n5-Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase, also called aroA enzyme (EPSPS; EC 2.5.1.19) [25] | \n5-Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate (EPSP), Pi | \n
7 | \n5-Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate (EPSP) | \nChorismate synthase (CS; EC 4.2.3.5)/FMNH2 [2, 19, 30, 31] | \nChorismic acid, Pi | \n
Substrates, enzymes, and products of the shikimate pathway.
Pi, phosphate; NAD+, oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NADPH, reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; FMNH2, reduced flavin mononucleotide.
The shikimate pathway has special characteristics that are present only in bacteria, fungi, and plants. The absence of the pathway in all other organisms provides the enzymes catalyzing these reactions with potentially useful targets for the development of antibacterial agents and herbicides. For example, 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase (EPSP-synthase) catalyzes the transfer of the enolpyruvyl (carboxyvinyl) moiety from PEP to shikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P) [6].
\nIn the second reaction step, DAHP loses phosphate (Pi); the enolic-type product is cyclized through a second aldol-type reaction to produce 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ). The 3-dehydroquinate synthase (DHQS) catalyzes this cyclization in the shikimate pathway. The DHQ dehydrates to produce 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) (3-dehydroquinate dehydratase); this compound has a conjugated double carbon-carbon, Figure 3. The protocatechuic and the gallic acids (C6-C1) are produced by branch-point reactions from DHS [2]. The fourth step in the pathway is a reduction reaction of DHS with reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), Figure 3. The fifth section of the pathway is the activation of shikimic acid with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (shikimate kinase, SK) to make shikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P). The sixth chemical reaction is the addition of PEP to S3P to generate 5-enolpyruvylshikimic acid 3-phosphate; the enzyme that catalyzes this reaction step, 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), has been extensively studied. The reason for this interest is because glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] is a powerful inhibitor of EPSPS [2], so glyphosate has been used as a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide. It is an organophosphorus molecule, phosphonic acid, and glycine derivative that has a similar molecular structure to PEP, Figure 4.
\nPEP and glyphosate (powerful inhibitor of the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase, EPSPS).
The last reaction step of the shikimate pathway is the production of chorismic acid from catalytic action on the chorismate synthase (CS). This reaction is a 1,4-trans elimination of Pi, to yield the conjugated molecule, chorismic acid, Figure 3.
\nThe first reaction of the shikimate pathway is an aldol-type condensation of PEP and carbohydrate erythrose-4-P, to give 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP), Figures 3 and 5. A new stereogenic center is generated in the condensation product DAHP catalyzed by the 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate-7-phosphate synthase enzyme (DAHPS; EC 4.1.2.15, now EC 2.5.1.54). Results of enzymatic kinetic and labeled PEP with tritium (Z)-[3-3H] PEP suggest that the nucleophilic attack of PEP is from the Si face of PEP to the Re face of the carbonyl group of D-erythrose-4-P, Figure 5 [14]. Two isoenzymes of DAHPS have been found for the catalysis of this first reaction step. One isozyme needs only Mn2+, and the other, either Co2+, Mg2+, or Mn2+ for the catalysis [15].
\nStereochemistry of the condensation reaction of (Z)-[3-3H]PEP and D-erythrose-4-phosphate by DAHP synthase [14].
The second reaction of the shikimate pathway is an intramolecular aldol-type reaction cyclization, where the enol (C6-C7) of DAHP nucleophilically attacks the carbonyl group (C2), to produce a six-member cycle, the 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ), Figures 3 and 6. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction, 3-dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4), is a carbon-oxygen lyase enzyme that requires Co2+ and bound oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) as cofactors [15, 16]. The Co2+ is essential for the catalytic activity of DHQS. Bender et al. [16] found that DHQS, from Escherichia coli, is a monomeric metalloenzyme that contains tightly bound Co2+, and DHQS is deactivated with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). The presence of the substrate (DAHP) blocks the inactivation by EDTA. The NAD+ cofactor dissociates form the DHQS enzyme rapidly in the presence of DAHP [16]. The reaction mechanism of the enzyme-catalyzed conversion of DAHP to DHQ involves five transformations from the DAHP hemiketal form, a pyranose: (1) oxidation of the hydroxyl at C5 adjacent to the lost proton that requires NAD+ (NAD+ need never dissociate from the active site), (2) the elimination of Pi of C7 to make the α,β-unsaturated ketone, (3) the reduction of C5 with NADH + H+, (4) the ring opening of the enol to yield an enolate, and (5) the intramolecular aldol-like reaction to produce DHQ. All five-reaction steps occur through the function of DHQS, Figure 6.
\nReaction mechanism of DAHP (hemiketal form) to 3-dehydroquinic acid (DHQ) by 3-dehydroquinate synthase DHQS (EC. 4.2.3.4) [16].
The reduction reaction of DHQ leads to quinic acid at this branch point in the shikimate pathway. Quinic acid is a secondary metabolite that is free, forming esters or as part of alkaloids such as quinine. Quinic acid is found in high quantities in mature kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis and other species of Actinidia) and is a distinguishing characteristic of fresh kiwi fruit [7]. Also, the quinic acid is abundant in roasted coffee [17].
\nThe third and fourth reaction steps of the shikimate pathway are catalyzed by a bifunctional enzyme: 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase (DHQ dehydratase/SDH; EC 4.2.1.10/EC 1.1.1.25). The DHQ dehydratase enzyme is a hydro-lyase kind, and the SDH is an oxidoreductase enzyme. The DHQ dehydratase, in the third reaction step, converts DHQ into 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) by eliminating water, and this reaction is reversible, Figure 7. The DHS is converted to shikimic acid in the fourth reaction step, by the reduction of the carbonyl group at C-5 by the catalytic action of SDH with NADPH, Figure 3. The biosynthesis of DHS is a branch point to shikimic acid and to the catabolic quinate pathway. If the DHS dehydrates, it produces protocatechuic acid (C6-C1) or gallic acid, Figure 3. Gallic acid (C6-C1) is a hydroxybenzoic acid that is a component of tannins [2].
\nReaction mechanism to produce 3-dehydroshikimic acid (DHS) by type I DHQ dehydratase enzyme [21].
Two structurally different kinds of 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase are known: type I (not heat-stable) and type II (heat-stable). Type I enzyme is present in bacteria and higher plants, and type II is found in fungi, which have both types of enzymes [18, 19]. The catalytic mechanism of the type I DHQ dehydratase has been detected by electrospray MS [20]. This catalytic mechanism involves the amino acid residue Lys-241 that forms a Schiff base with the substrate and product, Figure 7 [21]. The fourth step is the reduction of DHS with NADPH that enantioselectively reduces the carbonyl of the ketone group of DHS to produce shikimic acid (shikimate dehydrogenase, SDH), Figure 3.
\nSigh and Christendat [22] reported the crystal structure of DHQ dehydratase/SDH from the plant genus Arabidopsis. The crystal structure has the shikimate bound at the SDH and the tartrate molecule at the DHQ dehydratase. The studies show that Asp 423 and Lys 385 are key catalytic amino acids and Ser 336 is a key-binding group.
\nThe shikimate kinase enzyme (SK; EC 2.7.1.71) catalyzes the phosphorylation of the shikimic acid, the fifth chemical reaction of the shikimate pathway, and the products are shikimic acid 3-phosphate (S3P) and ADP, Figures 3 and 8. Shikimic acid is phosphorylated with ATP in the 5-hydroxyl group of shikimic acid. SK is an essential enzyme in several bacterial pathogens and is not present in the human cell; therefore the SK enzyme has been classified as a protein target for drug design, especially for chemotherapeutic development of antitubercular drugs [23, 24].
\nPhosphorylation of shikimic acid with ATP.
The 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase, also called aroA enzyme (EPSPS; EC 2.5.1.19), catalyzes the condensation of PEP to the 5-hydroxyl group of S3P in the sixth reaction of the shikimate pathway to form 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate (EPSP). The reaction mechanism involves the protonation of PEP to subsequent nucleophilic attack of the hydroxyl at C-5 of S3P to form an intermediate that loses Pi to form EPSP, Figure 9 [25].
\nReaction mechanism of the condensation of S3P with PEP by EPSPS (EC 2.5.1.19) to form EPSP [25].
EPSPS is the most studied enzyme of the shikimate pathway because it plays a crucial role in the penultimate step. If this enzyme is inhibited, there is an accumulation of shikimic acid [26], and the synthesis of aromatic amino acid is disabled, leading to the death of the plant [27]. Therefore, EPSPS is used as a target for pesticides, like glyphosate, Figure 4, the active ingredient in the herbicides RoundUp™, Monsanto Chemical Co., and Touchdown™, Syngenta. Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) inhibits EPSPS and is a potent nonselective herbicide that mimics the carbocation of PEP and binds EPEPS competitively [28]. Because the glyphosate is nonselective and kills food crops, there is interest in finding glyphosate-tolerant genes for genetically modified crops [29]. Two types of EPSPS enzymes have been identified: type I EPSPS (sensitive to glyphosate) identified mostly in plants and bacteria and type II EPSPS (nonsensitive to glyphosate and has a high affinity for PEP), found in some bacteria [27].
\nThe seventh and last reaction step of the shikimate pathway is the 1,4-trans elimination of the Pi group at C-3 from EPSPS to synthetize chorismic acid. This last step is catalyzed by chorismate synthase (CS; EC 4.2.3.5) that needs reduced flavin mononucleotide (FMNH2) as a cofactor that is not consumed [2, 19]. The FMNH2 transfers an electron to the substrate reversibly [30]. Spectroscopic techniques and kinetic isotope effect studies suggest that a radical intermediate in a non-concerted mechanism is developed [30, 31], Figure 10. Chorismic acid, the final molecule of the shikimate pathway, is a key branch point to post-chorismic acid pathways, to obtain L-Phe, L-Tyr, and L-Trp, Figure 2. L-Phe is the substrate to phenylpropanoid and flavonoid pathways [13].
\nReaction of mechanism to yield chorismic acid by chorismate synthase [30].
The expression of phenolic compounds is promoted by biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivores, pathogens, unfavorable temperature and pH, saline stress, heavy metal stress, and UVB and UVA radiation). UV radiation is divided into UVC (≤280 nm), UVB (280–320 nm), and UVA (300–400 nm). UVA and UVB radiation are transmitted through the atmosphere; all UVC and some UVB radiation (highly energetic) are absorbed by the Earth’s ozone layer. This accumulation is explained by the increase in enzymatic activity of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and chalcone synthase enzymes, among others [12]. Studies have been done about the increase of phenolic compounds, such as anthocyanins, in plants when they are exposed to UVB radiation [13]. Another study demonstrates that UVB exposure enhances anthocyanin biosynthesis in “Cripps pink” apples (Malus x domestica Borkh.) but not in “Forelle” pears (Pyrus communis L.) [32]. This effect may be due to UV radiation exposure and the cultivar of the plants studied. It is known that if plants are under stress, they accumulate phenolic compounds.
\nThe increase in phenolic compounds in blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) plantlets cultivated in vitro exposed to aluminum (Al) and cadmium (Cd) has also been studied. These heavy metals cause high toxicity in plants, because they increase the oxidative stress by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The authors of the study suggest that the phenolic compounds, specifically chlorogenic and ellagic acids, Figure 11, reduce the ROS in blueberry plants [33].
\nChemical structure of chlorogenic (C6-C3) and ellagic (C6-C1) acids.
An interesting study was carried out in 2011 by Mody et al., where they studied the effect of the resistance response of apple tree seedlings (Malus x domestica) to a leaf-chewing insect (Spodoptera littoralis) [34]. The authors found a significant herbivore preference for undamaged plants (induced resistance) was first observed 3 days after herbivore damage in the most apical leaf. Also, the results showed higher concentrations of the flavonoid phlorizin, Figure 12, in damaged plants than undamaged plants. This indicates that insect preference for undamaged apple plants may be linked to phlorizin, which is the main secondary metabolite of the phenolic type in apple leaves.
\nChemical structure of phlorizin (C6-C3).
Knowledge of the biosynthetic pathway of shikimic acid leads to understanding the reaction mechanisms of enzymes and thus discovering antimicrobials, pesticides, and antifungals. Studies with isotopic labeling of substrates, the use of X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), mass spectrometry (ES), biotechnology, as well as organic synthesis have contributed to explaining the shikimate pathway. Although the seven steps of the biosynthetic pathway are elucidated, these metabolites are the precursors of phenolic compounds, more complex molecules that are necessary for the adaptation of plants to the environment. So, the shikimate pathway is the basis for the subsequent biosynthesis of phenolic compounds. There is scientific interest in continuing to investigate the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds from several points of view: pharmaceuticals, agronomy, chemical and food industries, genetics, and health.
\nThe authors thank Carol Ann Hayenga for her English assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. The Technological University of the Mixteca provided support.
\nThe authors have no conflict of interest to declare and are responsible for the content and writing of the manuscript.
This chapter does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
\nBook - collection of Works distributed in a book format, whose selection, coordination, preparation, and arrangement has been performed and published by IntechOpen, and in which the Work is included in its entirety in an unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent sections, but together assembled into a collective whole.
",metaTitle:"Attribution Policy",metaDescription:"DEFINITION OF TERMS",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/attribution-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nAttribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\\n\\nCreative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\nIn case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\\n\\nA Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\\n\\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIndividual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\\n\\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nIn the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\\n\\nIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\\n\\nAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\\n\\nParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\\n\\nAll the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nAttribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\n\nCreative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\n\nWith the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\nIn case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
\n\nAll rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\nA Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIn instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIndividual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\n\nEvery single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nIn the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\n\nIntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\n\nAll these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\n\nParts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
\n\nAll the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15790}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118189},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10684",title:"Biorefineries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"23962c6b77348bcbf247c673d34562f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10684.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:86},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9043",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d21066c7438e459e4c6fb13217a5c8c",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",bookSignature:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5229},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"98",title:"Astronomy and Astrophysics",slug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",parent:{title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:89,numberOfWosCitations:91,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitations:74,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7338",title:"Planetology",subtitle:"Future Explorations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d52566a2f61bb3d7021ed630a149e1e6",slug:"planetology-future-explorations",bookSignature:"Bryan Palaszewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7338.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8444",title:"Lunar Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1dcf511a174e8ec89d97ca8c0c6146a",slug:"lunar-science",bookSignature:"Yann H. Chemin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8444.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:"H.",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1629",title:"Astrophysics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"95209a68cff9bc045b51611c513b63bd",slug:"astrophysics",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Kucuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102957",title:"Prof.",name:"İbrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Küçük",slug:"ibrahim-kucuk",fullName:"İbrahim Küçük"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1617",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7695d3592f3bb8f5c0a52de901949a74",slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",bookSignature:"Marian Lazar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1617.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32544",doi:"10.5772/37359",title:"The Polar Cap PC Indices: Relations to Solar Wind and Global Disturbances",slug:"the-polar-cap-pc-indices-relations-to-solar-wind-and-global-disturbances",totalDownloads:2700,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Peter Stauning",authors:[{id:"112396",title:"MSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Stauning",slug:"peter-stauning",fullName:"Peter Stauning"}]},{id:"32539",doi:"10.5772/39281",title:"Suprathermal Particle Populations in the Solar Wind and Corona",slug:"suprathermal-particle-populations-in-the-solar-wind-and-corona",totalDownloads:2801,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"M. Lazar, R. Schlickeiser and S. Poedts",authors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}]},{id:"32533",doi:"10.5772/37908",title:"Measuring the Isotopic Composition of Solar Wind Noble Gases",slug:"measuring-the-isotopic-composition-of-solar-wind-noble-gases",totalDownloads:2266,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Alex Meshik, Charles Hohenberg, Olga Pravdivtseva and Donald Burnett",authors:[{id:"114740",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Meshik",slug:"alexander-meshik",fullName:"Alexander Meshik"},{id:"115300",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Burnett",slug:"donald-burnett",fullName:"Donald Burnett"},{id:"115301",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Hohenberg",slug:"charles-hohenberg",fullName:"Charles Hohenberg"},{id:"115302",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Pravdivtseva",slug:"olga-pravdivtseva",fullName:"Olga Pravdivtseva"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32544",title:"The Polar Cap PC Indices: Relations to Solar Wind and Global Disturbances",slug:"the-polar-cap-pc-indices-relations-to-solar-wind-and-global-disturbances",totalDownloads:2702,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Peter Stauning",authors:[{id:"112396",title:"MSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Stauning",slug:"peter-stauning",fullName:"Peter Stauning"}]},{id:"32539",title:"Suprathermal Particle Populations in the Solar Wind and Corona",slug:"suprathermal-particle-populations-in-the-solar-wind-and-corona",totalDownloads:2803,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"M. Lazar, R. Schlickeiser and S. Poedts",authors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}]},{id:"70129",title:"Introductory Chapter: Planetology",slug:"introductory-chapter-planetology",totalDownloads:208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"planetology-future-explorations",title:"Planetology",fullTitle:"Planetology - Future Explorations"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"34268",title:"Visualization Methods for Numerical Astrophysics",slug:"visualization-methods-for-numerical-astrophysics",totalDownloads:1946,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"astrophysics",title:"Astrophysics",fullTitle:"Astrophysics"},signatures:"Werner Benger, Markus Haider, Harald Höller, Dominik Steinhauser, Josef Stöckl, Biagio Cosenza and Marcel Ritter",authors:[{id:"90557",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Benger",slug:"werner-benger",fullName:"Werner Benger"},{id:"112252",title:"MSc.",name:"Markus",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"markus-haider",fullName:"Markus Haider"},{id:"112253",title:"Dr.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Stoeckl",slug:"josef-stoeckl",fullName:"Josef Stoeckl"},{id:"112254",title:"Dr.",name:"Biagio",middleName:null,surname:"Cosenza",slug:"biagio-cosenza",fullName:"Biagio Cosenza"},{id:"112257",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Ritter",slug:"marcel-ritter",fullName:"Marcel Ritter"},{id:"112258",title:"MSc.",name:"Dominik",middleName:null,surname:"Steinhauser",slug:"dominik-steinhauser",fullName:"Dominik Steinhauser"},{id:"128849",title:"MSc.",name:"Harald",middleName:null,surname:"Hoeller",slug:"harald-hoeller",fullName:"Harald Hoeller"}]},{id:"32543",title:"Ground-Based Monitoring of the Solar Wind Geoefficiency",slug:"ground-based-monitoring-of-the-solar-wind-geoefficiency",totalDownloads:2019,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Oleg Troshichev",authors:[{id:"116123",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Troshichev",slug:"oleg-troshichev",fullName:"Oleg Troshichev"}]},{id:"34257",title:"Nuclear Excitation Processes in Astrophysical Plasmas",slug:"nuclear-excitation-processes-in-astrophysical-plasmas",totalDownloads:2016,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"astrophysics",title:"Astrophysics",fullTitle:"Astrophysics"},signatures:"G. Gosselin, P. Mohr, V. Méot and P. Morel",authors:[{id:"109302",title:"Mr.",name:"Gilbert",middleName:null,surname:"Gosselin",slug:"gilbert-gosselin",fullName:"Gilbert Gosselin"},{id:"109409",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Meot",slug:"vincent-meot",fullName:"Vincent Meot"},{id:"109410",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Morel",slug:"pascal-morel",fullName:"Pascal Morel"},{id:"112136",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Mohr",slug:"peter-mohr",fullName:"Peter Mohr"}]},{id:"32535",title:"Multifractal Turbulence in the Heliosphere",slug:"multifractal-turbulence-in-the-heliosphere",totalDownloads:2032,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Wiesław M. Macek",authors:[{id:"111245",title:"Prof.",name:"Wieslaw",middleName:null,surname:"Macek",slug:"wieslaw-macek",fullName:"Wieslaw Macek"}]},{id:"32546",title:"Turbulence in the Magnetosheath and the Problem of Plasma Penetration Inside the Magnetosphere",slug:"turbulence-in-the-magnetosheath-and-the-problem-of-plasma-penetration-inside-the-magnetosphere",totalDownloads:1921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Elizaveta E. Antonova, Maria S. Pulinets, Maria O. Riazantseva, Svetlana S. Znatkova, Igor P. Kirpichev and Marina V. Stepanova",authors:[{id:"108722",title:"Prof.",name:"Elizaveta",middleName:null,surname:"Antonova",slug:"elizaveta-antonova",fullName:"Elizaveta Antonova"},{id:"108731",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Riazantseva",slug:"maria-riazantseva",fullName:"Maria Riazantseva"}]},{id:"34263",title:"The Lane-Emden-Fowler Equation and Its Generalizations - Lie Symmetry Analysis",slug:"the-lane-emden-equation-and-its-generalizations",totalDownloads:3486,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"astrophysics",title:"Astrophysics",fullTitle:"Astrophysics"},signatures:"Chaudry Masood Khalique",authors:[{id:"94177",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaudry",middleName:"Masood",surname:"Khalique",slug:"chaudry-khalique",fullName:"Chaudry Khalique"}]},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:494,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/128853/chihiro-watanabe",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"128853",slug:"chihiro-watanabe"},fullPath:"/profiles/128853/chihiro-watanabe",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()