Mechanical properties for the weakened AGARD 445.6 wing.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9025",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Parasitology and Microbiology Research",title:"Parasitology and Microbiology Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The study of both unicellular and multicellular living beings and the diseases they produce from a biological point of view requires constant review of their relationship with their host and environment, given their indisputable sanitary importance. In this sense, in parasitology and microbiology, updated and concise information on life cycle, taxonomic classification, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiological behavior, and control measures is of vital importance. This is what we pursue with this book. The approach to parasitology and microbiology and the research that is carried out on it is unquestionable because the associations between life forms have been present from the very beginning of life.Research in parasitology and microbiology is necessary and indispensable for controlling diseases that affect much of the world with serious economic and social consequences. The challenge is to promote research to keep these diseases at bay. This book shows what has been done up to now and what can be done in the future to combat infectious diseases.",isbn:"978-1-78985-902-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-901-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-737-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82990",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"parasitology-and-microbiology-research",numberOfPages:374,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d9a211396d44f07d2748e147786a2c8b",bookSignature:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco and Asghar Ali Kamboh",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9025.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14664,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:64,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 20th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 7th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 7th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238219/images/system/238219.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco is a physician with degrees in Pre-hospital Emergency Care, Executive Direction for Senior Management in Health, and Occupational Health and Safety. Along with a Health Management Course equivalent to the Public Health Middle Course, Magister Scientiae in Education Management and also in Protozoology, Prof. Bastidas holds a Ph.D. in Parasitology. He is a full professor at the Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Public Health, University of Carabobo, Valencia, Venezuela. He has authored several articles published in national and international journal, and is also an arbitrator of scientific articles, member of the editorial committees of several journals, and a textbook writer and lecturer.",institutionString:"University of Carabobo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Carabobo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Venezuela"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225390/images/system/225390.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh was born in Mehrabpur, Sindh, Pakistan. He completed his studies in Veterinary Medicine and Masters in Veterinary Microbiology in 2003 and 2007 respectively, with distinguished grades. In 2009, he was awarded an overseas scholarship by the Government of Pakistan and proceeded to China for doctoral studies. Currently, he is working as an Associate Professor in the Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam. He has edited two books and published more than 100 research and review articles in national and international peer-reviewed journals. He has supervised/co-supervised more than 35 M.Phil students. He is also the author of many books and book chapters. In addition, he is an editor/editorial board member of many scholarly journals in the area of animal health and production.",institutionString:"Sindh Agriculture University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Sindh Agriculture University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"909",title:"Parasitology",slug:"parasitology"}],chapters:[{id:"63799",title:"Role of the Cytoskeletal Actomyosin Complex in the Motility of Cyanobacteria and Fungal Spores",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81299",slug:"role-of-the-cytoskeletal-actomyosin-complex-in-the-motility-of-cyanobacteria-and-fungal-spores",totalDownloads:830,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This study demonstrates the involvement of the cytoskeleton in the movement of cyanobacteria and fungal spores to their hosts to establish a state of symbiosis or pathogenicity. The term symbiosis sensu lato is referred not only to commensalism and mutualism but also to the parasitic aberrations. The establishment of association implies that the endohabitant can move on a wet surface until finding an entry point in the exohabitant surface. In aqueous media, the exohabitant secretes glycoproteins that form a chemoattraction gradient for the invading cells. In lichens, the gradient consists of fungal lectins whose function is to recognize a compatible green alga or cyanobacterium. In the case of pathogens, the secreted proteins usually are a mixture that includes false quorum and chemoattractant signals, and cell wall digestive enzymes. The results indicate that fungal lectins and defense proteins bind to specific cell wall receptors for signaling the activation of cytoskeleton, causing successive cycles of cell contraction-relaxation that permits the migration of the endohabitant. In this study, different biochemical and microscopy techniques have been used. The mechanisms through which the cytoskeleton carries out these cycles of cell contractionrelaxation are described, being this a remarkable advance compared to previous results.",signatures:"Elena Sánchez-Elordi, Eva María Díaz, Carlos Vicente and María Estrella Legaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63799",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63799",authors:[{id:"68681",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Vicente",slug:"carlos-vicente",fullName:"Carlos Vicente"},{id:"261033",title:"Prof.",name:"María-Estrella",surname:"Legaz",slug:"maria-estrella-legaz",fullName:"María-Estrella Legaz"},{id:"261034",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Sánchez-Elordi",slug:"elena-sanchez-elordi",fullName:"Elena Sánchez-Elordi"},{id:"261035",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Díaz",slug:"eva-diaz",fullName:"Eva Díaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"71205",title:"Hemorheological Evaluation and Cytokine Production in Dogs Naturally Infected with Anaplasmataceae",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91191",slug:"hemorheological-evaluation-and-cytokine-production-in-dogs-naturally-infected-with-anaplasmataceae",totalDownloads:687,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we describe that naturally infected dogs with Anaplasmataceae show altered rhreological parameters. Also, we have showed that lower viscosity correlated with the lower erythrocyte number and release of IFN-γ. The rheometry of the fresh blood samples was measured by using the Modular Compact Rheometer—MCR 102 (Anton Paar® GmbH, Ostfildern, Germany), and the graphs were obtained using Rheoplus software. Blood count data were obtained by analysis in a private laboratory. Diagnostic confirmation was obtained by molecular PCR technique that was used to determine the groups of not infected and infected by Anaplasmataceae. Serum cytokines were dosed by flow cytometry (FACScalibur BD®) using BD® Biosciences Cytometric Bead Array (CBA) Human Th1/Th2/Th17 Cytokine kits. The results showed a correlation between blood viscosity (p < 0.05, r = 0.73) and shear rate (p < 0.05; r = −0.676) with IFN-γ in the group of infected dogs that presented anemia, as well as correlations of shear rate with erythrocytes (p < 0.05; r = −0.88). Thus, IFN-γ appears to play an important role in the immunomodulation of the rheological behavior of naturally infected dogs to Anaplasmataceae. The alterations in cytokines profile and their relationship with blood viscosity and hematological parameters was related in this study the first time of dogs naturally infected with Anaplasmataceae.",signatures:"Saulo Pereira Cardoso, Giane Regina Paludo, José Nivaldo da Silva, Adenilda Honório-França and Eduardo Luzia França",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71205",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71205",authors:[{id:"66955",title:"Prof.",name:"Adenilda",surname:"Honorio-Franca",slug:"adenilda-honorio-franca",fullName:"Adenilda Honorio-Franca"}],corrections:null},{id:"68779",title:"Malarial Inflammation-Driven Pathophysiology and Its Attenuation by Triterpene Phytotherapeutics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88731",slug:"malarial-inflammation-driven-pathophysiology-and-its-attenuation-by-triterpene-phytotherapeutics",totalDownloads:995,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Malaria driven pathophysiology inimically conjoined to systemic inflammation response cascade in a vicious feed-forward cycle destined to a terrible debilitation or demise of the host. The Plasmodium parasite initiates physiological changes when it is transmitted into the human host by intermediate host and vector. Sporozoites injection elicits immunological and inflammatory response suppression facilitating movement into the blood stream undetected, destined to hepatocyte. Subsequently, hepatocyte invasion culminates in intracellular growth and conversion of the parasites rapturing hepatocytes releasing merozoites into the extrahepatic circulation. Inflammatory and immunological response initiation results in overt malarial disease symptoms. Initially, inflammatory response alleviates and curtails infection. Activation of leukocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes, and phagocytes secretes inflammatory mediators, chemokines, cytokines cytoadhering molecules which accelerate infection patency. Hormonal processes influence disease tolerance without necessarily interfering with parasitemia. Current treatment is anti-parasitic. Phytotherapeutic intervention in malaria is anti-parasitic and anti-disease effects that terminate the vicious cycle and alleviating disease. The phytochemicals, in malarial experimental and clinical work, include asiatic acid, maslinic acid, oleanolic acid, and inflammatory and immunological aberrations evolving in malaria and the effects of phytochemical therapeutics in the alleviation of the disease to enable leverage of future treatment regimens through harnessing existing plants materials is explored.",signatures:"Greanious Alfred Mavondo, Blessing Nkazimulo Mkhwanazi, Mayibongwe Louis Mzingwane, Rachael Dangarembizi, Blessing Zambuko, Obadiah Moyo, Patience Musiwaro, Francis Farai Chikuse, Colline Rakabopa, Tariroyashe Mpofu and Joy Mavondo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68779",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68779",authors:[{id:"202805",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfred Mavondo-Nyajena Mukuwa",surname:"Greanious",slug:"alfred-mavondo-nyajena-mukuwa-greanious",fullName:"Alfred Mavondo-Nyajena Mukuwa Greanious"},{id:"241675",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayibongwe",surname:"Mzingwane",slug:"mayibongwe-mzingwane",fullName:"Mayibongwe Mzingwane"},{id:"263433",title:"Dr.",name:"Obadiah",surname:"Moyo",slug:"obadiah-moyo",fullName:"Obadiah Moyo"},{id:"303469",title:"Dr.",name:"Blessing Nkazimulo",surname:"Mkhwanazi",slug:"blessing-nkazimulo-mkhwanazi",fullName:"Blessing Nkazimulo Mkhwanazi"},{id:"304350",title:"Mrs.",name:"Joy",surname:"Mavondo",slug:"joy-mavondo",fullName:"Joy Mavondo"},{id:"304869",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis Farai",surname:"Chikuse",slug:"francis-farai-chikuse",fullName:"Francis Farai Chikuse"},{id:"305018",title:"Dr.",name:"Blessing",surname:"Zambuko",slug:"blessing-zambuko",fullName:"Blessing Zambuko"},{id:"305019",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachael",surname:"Dangarembizi",slug:"rachael-dangarembizi",fullName:"Rachael Dangarembizi"},{id:"305309",title:"Ms.",name:"Tariroyashe",surname:"Mpofu",slug:"tariroyashe-mpofu",fullName:"Tariroyashe Mpofu"},{id:"305580",title:"Dr.",name:"Greanious Alfred",surname:"Mavondo",slug:"greanious-alfred-mavondo",fullName:"Greanious Alfred Mavondo"},{id:"308997",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Colleen",surname:"Rakabopa",slug:"colleen-rakabopa",fullName:"Colleen Rakabopa"}],corrections:null},{id:"68751",title:"Clinical and Immuno-Pathology Aspects of Canine Demodicosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88763",slug:"clinical-and-immuno-pathology-aspects-of-canine-demodicosis",totalDownloads:1059,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Canine demodicosis is a common and often severe dermatopathy of dogs. It is caused mainly by Demodex canis, a parasitic mite of the skin of dogs of the genus Demodex, of the order Acarina and family Demodecidae. This study is aimed to review the clinical-pathological presentation of canine demodicosis and the cytokine-mediated immune response to the cutaneous density of the mite. Only dogs with a defective immune response will present the disease, whether localised or generalised. Microscopically, the dermal inflammatory response is similar among dogs. Localised and generalised demodicosis and pyoderma associated with a high cutaneous density of mites are factors associated with aggravation of lesions in both forms of disease presentation. In addition, the participation of cytokines has been investigated in the induction of the immune response in the different forms of the disease. Although different research groups have invested in studies aimed at elucidating the canine demodicosis pathogenesis, there is still insufficient data to understand the important role of the host immune system in triggering clinical signs and the reproductive management is still an effective preventive method for disease perpetuation.",signatures:"Valéria Régia F. Sousa, Naiani D. Gasparetto and Arleana B.P.F. Almeida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68751",authors:[{id:"305312",title:"Prof.",name:"Valeria Regia",surname:"Sousa",slug:"valeria-regia-sousa",fullName:"Valeria Regia Sousa"},{id:"305313",title:"Prof.",name:"Arleana",surname:"Almeida",slug:"arleana-almeida",fullName:"Arleana Almeida"},{id:"305317",title:"Dr.",name:"Naiani",surname:"Gasparetto",slug:"naiani-gasparetto",fullName:"Naiani Gasparetto"}],corrections:null},{id:"69165",title:"Protein-Protein Interactions in Malaria: Emerging Arena for Future Chemotherapeutics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89217",slug:"protein-protein-interactions-in-malaria-emerging-arena-for-future-chemotherapeutics",totalDownloads:769,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Malaria is one of the most deadly diseases infecting humans. Advances in elimination and vector control have reduced the global malaria burden in the past decade; however, the emerging threat of drug resistance and suboptimal vaccine efficacies threaten global eradication efforts. Unlocking novel drug and vaccine targets while simultaneously mitigating spread of resistant strains seems to be the need of the hour. Protein-protein interactions (PPIs), an integral part of host-pathogen cross-talk and parasite survival, have only recently emerged as promising drug targets. Large PPI networks (interactome) are being developed to better our understanding of various parasite biochemical pathways. In this chapter, we throw light on several newly characterized protein-protein interactions between the host (humans) and parasite (plasmodium) in key processes such as hemoglobin degradation, enzyme regulation, protein export, egress, invasion, and drug resistance and further discuss their viability for development as novel chemotherapeutic targets.",signatures:"Rahul Pasupureddy, Sriram Seshadri, Rajnikant Dixit and Kailash C. Pandey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69165",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69165",authors:[{id:"90701",title:"Dr.",name:"Sriram",surname:"Seshadri",slug:"sriram-seshadri",fullName:"Sriram Seshadri"},{id:"303178",title:"Dr.",name:"Kailash",surname:"Pandey",slug:"kailash-pandey",fullName:"Kailash Pandey"},{id:"304022",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Pasupureddy",slug:"rahul-pasupureddy",fullName:"Rahul Pasupureddy"},{id:"310111",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajnikant",surname:"Dixit",slug:"rajnikant-dixit",fullName:"Rajnikant Dixit"}],corrections:null},{id:"70551",title:"Relationship of Parasitic Index and Cytokine Profile in Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90573",slug:"relationship-of-parasitic-index-and-cytokine-profile-in-canine-visceral-leishmaniasis",totalDownloads:625,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a zoonotic parasitic disease caused by Leishmania infantum (L. chagasi) that infects cells of the monocyte-phagocyte system. This work aims to describe the bone marrow parasitism in dogs naturally infected by L. chagasi, and to correlate with serum concentrations of cytokines and antibody level. It evaluated 42 dogs, 21 uninfected and 21 infected by L. infantum, of both sexes and of different ages; dogs were classified into three clinical stages: stage I, mild disease; stage II, moderate disease; and stage III, severe disease. Parasitic index was determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and cytokine serum concentration by flow cytometry. The average parasitic index of infected dogs was 4.59 × 1010 copies/μl. IL-4 and TNF-α concentrations were higher in infected dogs than in the control group. Antibody levels were positively correlated with IL-4 expression. There was a significant positive correlation of IL-6 cytokine levels with the evolution of stages I and III. Antibody levels were positively correlated with IL-4 expression. There was a significant positive correlation of IL-6 cytokine levels with the evolution of stages I and III. However, this cytokine can be used as a marker to distinguish between different clinical stages.",signatures:"José Nivaldo da Silva, Valéria Régia Franco Sousa, Arleana do Bom Parto Ferreira de Almeida, Adenilda Cristina Honorio-França and Eduardo Luzía França",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70551",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70551",authors:[{id:"305312",title:"Prof.",name:"Valeria Regia",surname:"Sousa",slug:"valeria-regia-sousa",fullName:"Valeria Regia Sousa"},{id:"305313",title:"Prof.",name:"Arleana",surname:"Almeida",slug:"arleana-almeida",fullName:"Arleana Almeida"},{id:"105780",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"França",slug:"eduardo-franca",fullName:"Eduardo França"},{id:"315522",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Nivaldo",surname:"Da Silva",slug:"jose-nivaldo-da-silva",fullName:"Jose Nivaldo Da Silva"},{id:"315523",title:"Prof.",name:"Adenilda Cristina",surname:"Honorio-França",slug:"adenilda-cristina-honorio-franca",fullName:"Adenilda Cristina Honorio-França"}],corrections:null},{id:"67800",title:"Toxoplasma Immunomodulation Related to Neuropsychiatric Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86695",slug:"-em-toxoplasma-em-immunomodulation-related-to-neuropsychiatric-diseases",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) causes toxoplasmic encephalitis resulting from reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis. It is the most frequent clinical manifestation, characterized by multiple necrotizing brain lesions. Bradyzoite tissue cysts activate an immune response that has a major impact on controlling parasite persistence in the brain. The immune mechanisms stimulated in the brain cause a local inflammatory mediated by Th1 immune reaction cytokines. Several studies have linked this process to that active during different neuropsychiatric disorders, such as Schizophrenia. In addition to the immune reaction activated in the brain, this latter has the capacity to stimulate neurotransmitter production. T. gondii induces high concentrations of dopamine and tyrosine hydroxylase in the central nervous system and has also been shown to increase kynurenine/tryptophan ratio and elevated Kynurenic acid level, mainly in astrocyte cells. This imbalance plays a role in the pathophysiology of Schizophrenia. Results of different studies explain in this chapter support the idea that Toxoplasma is an etiological factor in Schizophrenia.",signatures:"Mammari Nour and Halabi Mohamad Adnan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67800",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67800",authors:[{id:"297033",title:"Dr.",name:"Nour",surname:"Mammari",slug:"nour-mammari",fullName:"Nour Mammari"},{id:"297039",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad Adnan",surname:"Halabi",slug:"mohamad-adnan-halabi",fullName:"Mohamad Adnan Halabi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68651",title:"Sexual Processes in Microbial Eukaryotes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88469",slug:"sexual-processes-in-microbial-eukaryotes",totalDownloads:850,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Two principal ideas have been proposed to explain the primary adaptive function of the sexual process of meiosis: (1) meiosis, and particularly meiotic recombination, is a process for repairing DNA and (2) meiosis, by means of meiotic recombination, is a process for generating beneficial genetic variation among progeny. We review the sexual processes of a number of well-studied microbial eukaryotes: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces paradoxus, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Candida albicans, Ustilago maydis, Paramecium tetraurelia, Volvox carteri, Trypanosoma brucei, Neurospora crassa, and Amoebozoa. We indicate aspects of the sexual processes of these microbial eukaryotes, where they have been established, that support the idea that meiosis is primarily a process for repairing DNA. In addition, we review the likely origin of meiotic sex among the microbial eukaryotes. A prokaryotic archaeon is the likely ancestor of eukaryotes. Extant archaea are capable of a sexual process involving syngamy and recombinational repair of genome damage, suggesting that the precursor of eukaryotic meiotic sex may already have been present in the archaeal ancestor of eukaryotes. We believe that attainment of an understanding of the adaptive function of meiotic sex in microbial eukaryotes is of considerable importance since it will likely apply to meiotic sex in eukaryotes generally.",signatures:"Harris Bernstein and Carol Bernstein",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68651",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68651",authors:[{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein"},{id:"162255",title:"Dr.",name:"Harris",surname:"Bernstein",slug:"harris-bernstein",fullName:"Harris Bernstein"}],corrections:null},{id:"70655",title:"An Insight into the Changing Scenario of Gut Microbiome during Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90697",slug:"an-insight-into-the-changing-scenario-of-gut-microbiome-during-type-2-diabetes",totalDownloads:734,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The gut microbiome consists of bacteria, protozoans, viruses, and archaea collectively called as gut microbiota. Gut microbiome (GM) modulates a variety of physiological responses ranging from immune and inflammatory responses, neuronal signalling, gut barrier integrity and mobility, synthesis of vitamins, steroid hormones, neurotransmitters to metabolism of branched-chain aromatic amino acids, bile salts, and drugs. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a highly prevalent metabolic disorder that is featured by imbalance in blood glucose level, altered lipid profile, and their deleterious consequences. GM dysbiosis a major factor behind the incidence and progression of insulin resistance and is responsible for altering of intestinal barrier functions, host metabolic, and signaling pathways. The GM of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) patients is characterized by reduced levels of Firmicutes and Clostridia and an increased ratio of Bacteroidetes:Firmicutes. Endotoxemia stimulates a low-grade inflammatory response, which is known to trigger T2DM. Xenobiotics including dietary components, antibiotics, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs strongly affect the gut microbial composition and can promote dysbiosis. However, the exact mechanisms behind the dynamics of gut microbes and their impact on host metabolism are yet to be deciphered. Interventions that can restore equilibrium in the GM have beneficial effects and can improve glycemic control.",signatures:"Alpana Mukhuty, Chandrani Fouzder, Snehasis Das and Dipanjan Chattopadhyay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70655",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70655",authors:[{id:"278297",title:"MSc.",name:"Alpana",surname:"Mukhuty",slug:"alpana-mukhuty",fullName:"Alpana Mukhuty"},{id:"286872",title:"Ms.",name:"Chandrani",surname:"Fouzder",slug:"chandrani-fouzder",fullName:"Chandrani Fouzder"},{id:"311848",title:"Mr.",name:"Snehasis",surname:"Das",slug:"snehasis-das",fullName:"Snehasis Das"},{id:"311849",title:"Mr.",name:"Dipanjan",surname:"Chattopadhyay",slug:"dipanjan-chattopadhyay",fullName:"Dipanjan Chattopadhyay"}],corrections:null},{id:"69898",title:"Gut Microbiome: A New Organ System in Body",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89634",slug:"gut-microbiome-a-new-organ-system-in-body",totalDownloads:1114,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The gut microbiome is comprised of various types of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses naturally occurring in humans and animals as normal microflora. Gut microorganisms are typically host specific, and their number and type vary according to different host species and environment. Gut microbes contribute directly and/or indirectly to various physiological processes including immune modulation, regulation of various neurotransmitter, and hormones, as well as production of many antioxidants and metabolites. They also play a role as antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-carcinogenic agents. Moreover, the ability of gut microbes to attenuate various systemic diseases like coronary heart disease, irritable bowel syndrome, metabolic diseases like diabetes mellitus, and infectious diseases like diarrhea has recently been reported. Current research findings have enough evidence to suggest that gut microbiome is a new organ system mainly due to the microorganisms’ specific biochemical interaction with their hosts and their systemic integration into the host biology. Investigations into the potential ability of gut microbiome to influence metabolism inside their host via biochemical interaction with antibiotics and other drugs has recently been initiated. This chapter specifically focuses on the importance of gut microorganisms as a new organ system.",signatures:"Haseeb Anwar, Shahzad Irfan, Ghulam Hussain, Muhammad Naeem Faisal, Humaira Muzaffar, Imtiaz Mustafa, Imran Mukhtar, Saima Malik and Muhammad Irfan Ullah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69898",authors:[{id:"240684",title:"Dr.",name:"Haseeb",surname:"Anwar",slug:"haseeb-anwar",fullName:"Haseeb Anwar"},{id:"244522",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",surname:"Hussain",slug:"ghulam-hussain",fullName:"Ghulam Hussain"},{id:"244524",title:"Mr.",name:"Imtiaz",surname:"Mustafa",slug:"imtiaz-mustafa",fullName:"Imtiaz Mustafa"},{id:"310200",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad",surname:"Irfan",slug:"shahzad-irfan",fullName:"Shahzad Irfan"},{id:"310201",title:"Dr.",name:"Humaira",surname:"Muzaffar",slug:"humaira-muzaffar",fullName:"Humaira Muzaffar"},{id:"310202",title:"Dr.",name:"Imran",surname:"Mukhtar",slug:"imran-mukhtar",fullName:"Imran Mukhtar"},{id:"310203",title:"Ms.",name:"Saima",surname:"Malik",slug:"saima-malik",fullName:"Saima Malik"},{id:"310204",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Irfan Ullah",slug:"muhammad-irfan-ullah",fullName:"Muhammad Irfan Ullah"},{id:"311357",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Naeem",surname:"Faisal",slug:"muhammad-naeem-faisal",fullName:"Muhammad Naeem Faisal"}],corrections:null},{id:"65643",title:"Microscale Mechanics of Plug-and-Play In Vitro Cytoskeleton Networks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84401",slug:"microscale-mechanics-of-plug-and-play-in-vitro-cytoskeleton-networks",totalDownloads:816,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes recent techniques that have been developed to reconstitute and characterize well-controlled, tunable networks of actin and microtubules outside of cells. It describes optical tweezers microrheology techniques to characterize the linear and nonlinear mechanics of these plug-and-play in vitro networks from the molecular-level to mesoscopic scales. It also details fluorescence microscopy and single-molecule tracking methods to determine macromolecular transport properties and stress propagation through cytoskeleton networks. Throughout the chapter the intriguing results that this body of work has revealed are highlighted—including how the macromolecular constituents of cytoskeleton networks map to their signature responses to stress or strain; and the elegant couplings between network structure, macromolecular mobility, and stress response that cytoskeleton networks exhibit.",signatures:"Shea N. Ricketts, Bekele Gurmessa and Rae M. Robertson-Anderson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65643",authors:[{id:"271445",title:"Prof.",name:"Rae",surname:"Robertson-Anderson",slug:"rae-robertson-anderson",fullName:"Rae Robertson-Anderson"},{id:"289983",title:"Ms.",name:"Shea",surname:"Ricketts",slug:"shea-ricketts",fullName:"Shea Ricketts"},{id:"289984",title:"Dr.",name:"Bekele",surname:"Gurmessa",slug:"bekele-gurmessa",fullName:"Bekele Gurmessa"}],corrections:null},{id:"68693",title:"The Mitosis of Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88734",slug:"the-mitosis-of-em-entamoeba-histolytica-em-trophozoites",totalDownloads:834,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The mechanisms of mitosis in higher eukaryotic organisms are very well studied; however, regarding protozoa, there are still many questions in need of an answer. Because of the complexity with which it carries out this process, many forms of mitosis exist, such as open orthomitosis, semi-open orthomitosis, semi-open pleuromitosis, closed intranuclear pleuromitosis, closed intranuclear orthomitosis, and closed extranuclear pleuromitosis. The fascinating aspect about the mitosis of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites is that it falls out of the context of this classification, but not entirely. The Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites first carry out karyokinesis and then cytokinesis. The mitosis of this parasite is comprised of the following phases: prophase, metaphase, early and late anaphase, early and late telophase, and karyokinesis. The difference lies in the mechanism by which it carries out the distribution of the genetic material because it forms three mitotic spindles: two radial spindles that practically surround every group of chromosomes and one that we call inter microtubule-organizing centers (IMTOCs). The latter transports each group of chromosomes at each of the nucleus poles. Based on these observations, we propose that Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites carry out a type of mitosis we have called modified intranuclear pleuromitosis open.",signatures:"Eduardo Gómez-Conde, Miguel Ángel Vargas Mejía, María Alicia Díaz y Orea, Luis David Gómez-Cortes and Tayde Guerrero-González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68693",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68693",authors:[{id:"147294",title:"Dr.",name:"María Alicia",surname:"Díaz-Orea",slug:"maria-alicia-diaz-orea",fullName:"María Alicia Díaz-Orea"},{id:"309230",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Gómez-Conde",slug:"eduardo-gomez-conde",fullName:"Eduardo Gómez-Conde"},{id:"309231",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Ángel",surname:"Vargas Mejía",slug:"miguel-angel-vargas-mejia",fullName:"Miguel Ángel Vargas Mejía"},{id:"309233",title:"Dr.",name:"Tayde",surname:"Guerrero Gonzalez",slug:"tayde-guerrero-gonzalez",fullName:"Tayde Guerrero Gonzalez"},{id:"309236",title:"BSc.",name:"Luis David",surname:"Gómez-Cortes",slug:"luis-david-gomez-cortes",fullName:"Luis David Gómez-Cortes"}],corrections:null},{id:"70407",title:"Challenges for the Control of Poultry Red Mite (Dermanyssus gallinae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90439",slug:"challenges-for-the-control-of-poultry-red-mite-em-dermanyssus-gallinae-em-",totalDownloads:797,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Poultry Red Mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, is an ectoparasite which is considered the major pest for the egg-laying industry. The mite hides in crevices and cracks during daylight and feed on the blood of the hens in the darkness. It can also parasitize other bird and mammal species, including man that can develop gamasoidosis when bitten at work or private residences. The control of the mite infestations has relied in synthetic acaricides, but the development of resistances and the restricted list of authorized products make fundamental the development of novel control measure. The combination of alternative control measures, such as monitoring of the mite infestation, plant-derived products, inner dusts, biological control and vaccines, poses as the best way for achieving satisfactory results.",signatures:"José Francisco Lima-Barbero, Margarita Villar, Ursula Höfle and José de la Fuente",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70407",authors:[{id:"59778",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"De La Fuente",slug:"jose-de-la-fuente",fullName:"José De La Fuente"},{id:"82738",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Villar",slug:"margarita-villar",fullName:"Margarita Villar"},{id:"312004",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"José Francisco",surname:"Lima Barbero",slug:"jose-francisco-lima-barbero",fullName:"José Francisco Lima Barbero"},{id:"314846",title:"Dr.",name:"Ursula",surname:"Höfle",slug:"ursula-hofle",fullName:"Ursula Höfle"}],corrections:null},{id:"69242",title:"Bronchopulmonary Lophomoniasis, Infection by Endocommensal Protozoa of Intradomiciliary Cockroaches: Presentation of a Case in an Immunocompromised Patient from Querétaro, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89219",slug:"bronchopulmonary-lophomoniasis-infection-by-endocommensal-protozoa-of-intradomiciliary-cockroaches-p",totalDownloads:705,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Infection in humans by the intestinal protozoan of cockroaches and termites called Lophomonas blattarum has been diagnosed in respiratory infections of children aged 2–5 years contaminated orally or by air, with cysts or trophozoites contained in the feces of the cockroach Periplaneta americana. In respiratory infections of adults, it is difficult to diagnose since the cyst or trophozoite is not recognized as a human pathogen and is only related to immunosuppressed patients, transplant patients with severe lung disease and those living in poor and unhealthy sanitary conditions. Normally, its presence is manifested with fevers of 38–39°C, cough with thick expectoration, respiratory insufficiency and pulmonary abscesses. The laboratory diagnosis is mainly based on bronchoscopic cytologies and bronchoalveolar lavage biopsies. The case in question is about a 60-year-old male. Single, he lives alone, with a diagnosis of 9 baths behind non-Hodgkin lymphoma, undergoing treatment with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. For edema after treatment, thoracentesis and pericardiocentesis were performed, as well as gastrostomy, which he maintained for 1 year. He started with throat discomfort, followed by production of productive cough without blood, general weakness, and difficulty breathing, with apparent diagnosis of possible respiratory failure due to mycobacteria. It was possible to visualize the protozoan, in fresh preparations of bronchial aspirate and expectoration in wet assembly with saline solution and stained with Pap smears, Harris Hematoxylin and Eosin (H/E), and Giemsa.",signatures:"Maria Elena Villagrán-Herrera, Ricardo Francisco Mercado-Curiel, José Trinidad López-Vázquez, Maria del Carmen Aburto-Fernández, Nicolás Camacho-Calderón, Javier Ávila-Morales and José Antonio De Diego-Cabrera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69242",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69242",authors:[{id:"210676",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elena",surname:"Villagrán Herrera",slug:"maria-elena-villagran-herrera",fullName:"Maria Elena Villagrán Herrera"}],corrections:null},{id:"71977",title:"House Dust Mites: Ecology, Biology, Prevalence, Epidemiology and Elimination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91891",slug:"house-dust-mites-ecology-biology-prevalence-epidemiology-and-elimination",totalDownloads:837,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"House dust mites burrow cheerfully into our clothing, pillowcases, carpets, mats and furniture, and feed on human dead skin cells by breaking them into small particles for ingestion. Dust mites are most common in asthma allergens, and some people have a simple dust allergy, but others have an additional condition called atopic dermatitis, often stated to as eczema by reacting to mites with hideous itching and redness. The most common type of dust mites are Dermatophagoides farinae Hughes (American house dust mite) and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus Trouessart (European house dust mite) of family Pyroglyphidae (Acari), which have been associated with dermatological and respiratory allergies in humans such as eczema and asthma. A typical house dust mite measures 0.2–0.3 mm and the body of mite has a striated cuticle. A mated female house dust mite can live up to 70 days and lays 60–100 eggs in the last 5 weeks of life, and an average life cycle is 65–100 days. In a 10-week life span, dust mite produces about 2000 fecal particles and an even larger number of partially digested enzyme-covered dust particles. They feed on skin flakes from animals, including humans and on some mold. Notably, mite’s gut contains potent digestive enzymes peptidase 1 that persist in their feces and are major inducers of allergic reactions, but its exoskeleton can also contribute this. Allergy testing by a physician can determine respiratory or dermatological symptoms to undergo allergen immunotherapy, by exposing to dust mite extracts for “training” immune system not to overreact. The epidemiologic data on the occurrence of house dust mites convincingly associates with an increased indoor air humidity by increased occurrence of mites. The most effective way to prevent or minimize exposure to dust mites in our homes is thorough cleaning, use of high-efficiency particulate air filters and pest management. There are a number of things that can be done to get rid of dust mites, for instance, using a dehumidifier and washing bedding in hot water. Additionally, it is a noble practice to encase bedding, mattress and pillows in impermeable covers that prevent dust mites from taking up residence in beds. Owing to their everywhere presence, diversity, and wide distribution, mite species can be used as valid and reliable pieces of evidence for resolving of forensic cases.",signatures:"Muhammad Sarwar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71977",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71977",authors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70698",title:"Leishmaniasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90680",slug:"leishmaniasis",totalDownloads:732,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne tropical/subtropical disease caused by an intracellular parasite transmitted to humans by sand fly bite. It is endemic in Asia, Africa, the Americas, and the Mediterranean region. Worldwide reports include 1.5–2 million new cases each year, more than 300 million at risk of acquiring the disease, and 70,000 deaths per year. Clinical features depend on the Leishmania species and immune response of the host, varying from localized cutaneous disease to visceral form with potentially fatal outcome; however, the common presentation is either cutaneous, mucocutaneous, or visceral leishmaniasis. Many therapeutic agents are being used in Leishmania treatment, but the only effective treatment is achieved with current pentavalent antimonials. WHO considers Leishmaniasis as one of the “Neglected Tropical Diseases” that continues to be prevalent despite international, national, and local efforts towards its control and elimination over the last decade. This chapter reviews the global perspective of Leishmaniasis with increasing recognition of emerging “Atypical forms” and new surge of disease across the world mainly due to increasing conflicts in endemic areas leading to forced migration among other causes. All these challenges related to environment, disease, and vector pose major implications on WHO’s leishmaniasis control and elimination plan.",signatures:"Salwa S. Sheikh, Amaar A. Amir, Baraa A. Amir and Abdulrazack A. Amir",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70698",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70698",authors:[{id:"309118",title:"Dr.",name:"Salwa",surname:"Sheikh",slug:"salwa-sheikh",fullName:"Salwa Sheikh"},{id:"309119",title:"Mr.",name:"Amaar",surname:"Amir",slug:"amaar-amir",fullName:"Amaar Amir"},{id:"309120",title:"Mr.",name:"Baraa",surname:"Amir",slug:"baraa-amir",fullName:"Baraa Amir"},{id:"310569",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulrazack",surname:"Amir",slug:"abdulrazack-amir",fullName:"Abdulrazack Amir"}],corrections:null},{id:"72005",title:"A New Outlook in Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92454",slug:"a-new-outlook-in-lymphatic-filariasis-elimination-in-india",totalDownloads:746,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In India, human lymphatic filariasis (LF) is the most common vector-borne disease after malaria. It is a roundworm nematode parasitic helminthiases group of diseases under Filarioidea type of infection. The parasites are found in the lymphatic system, damage the system leading to deformities of body organs. Of the eight human filarial parasites, Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi and B. timori are involved with the lymphatic system. Globally W. bancrofti is the most predominant species sharing 90% of the burden. In India, W. bancrofti and B. malayi are present. The revised control strategy was aimed at a single-dose mass drug administration (MDA) and home-based morbidity management. The Elimination of LF (ELF) was initiated in 2004 in 202 districts which were expanded later in 256 districts after a pilot study in LF endemic districts initiated in 1997. The initial start of ELF campaign was with a single drug, i.e. diethylcarbamazine (DEC), but later in 2007, a combination of two drugs DEC and albendazole (ALB) were given through MDA. Now a third drug ivermectin (IVM) has been added to accelerate the elimination process by 2020 which is the global goal of elimination under Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF).",signatures:"Susanta Kumar Ghosh and Pradeep Kumar Srivastava",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72005",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72005",authors:[{id:"301164",title:"Prof.",name:"Susanta",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"susanta-ghosh",fullName:"Susanta Ghosh"},{id:"320470",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradeep",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"pradeep-srivastava",fullName:"Pradeep Srivastava"}],corrections:null},{id:"68463",title:"State of the Art and Future Directions of Cryptosporidium spp.",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88387",slug:"state-of-the-art-and-future-directions-of-em-cryptosporidium-em-spp-",totalDownloads:770,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cryptosporidium species are protozoan parasites that infect epithelium surfaces in gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts of humans and a range of animals worldwide. Cryptosporidiosis has been associated with considerable morbidity and, under certain circumstances, mortality. Humans can acquire it by consuming food and drink containing oocysts, which have been recognised as a major cause for diarrhoeal disease. The ubiquitousness of the infective oocyst, its resilience to environmental pressures, and the low dose of oocyst exposure needed for infection amplify to outbreaks of Cryptosporidium traced to drinking and recreational water. Unlike in developing countries where lack of sustained access to safe water creates tremendous burdens of Cryptosporidium diarrhoea, this scenario is aggravated due to limited diagnosis and therapeutics. However, over the past few decades, growing information on Cryptosporidium genomes have allowed novel insight into the host-parasite relationship. Future field research on potential tools will focus on biology-derived parasite products applicable to drugs and diagnosis. This chapter reviews available data on biology, transmission, life cycle, diagnosis, genome, and a few but important progresses in the field of cryptosporidiosis.",signatures:"Helena Lúcia Carneiro Santos, Karina Mastropasqua Rebello and Teresa Cristina Bergamo Bomfim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68463",authors:[{id:"300603",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",surname:"Santos",slug:"helena-santos",fullName:"Helena Santos"},{id:"309101",title:"Dr.",name:"Karina",surname:"Mastropasqua Rebello",slug:"karina-mastropasqua-rebello",fullName:"Karina Mastropasqua Rebello"},{id:"309102",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa Cristina",surname:"Bergamo Bomfim",slug:"teresa-cristina-bergamo-bomfim",fullName:"Teresa Cristina Bergamo Bomfim"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6979",title:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f55304c8bd1d92268e33689c368f9e33",slug:"parasites-and-parasitic-diseases",bookSignature:"Gilberto Bastidas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6979.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1692",title:"Parasitology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2110e81c765897e4ffdfbd340495e25",slug:"parasitology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5527",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d705be119e74a50305952521b2b5ece0",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",bookSignature:"Hanem Khater, M. 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Neimyer, Kailey Roberts,\nWendy Lichtenthal, Jun Hu and Matthias Rauterberg",dateSubmitted:"September 5th 2017",dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 18th 2017",book:{id:"6456",title:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement",subtitle:"Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement - Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",slug:"proceedings-of-the-conference-on-design-and-semantics-of-form-and-movement-sense-and-sensitivity-desform-2017",publishedDate:"October 18th 2017",bookSignature:"Miguel Bruns Alonso and Elif Ozcan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6456.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156855",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"elif-ozcan",fullName:"Elif Ozcan"}],productType:{id:"2",title:"Proceeding",chapterContentType:"conference paper",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"221149",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Jou",middleName:null,surname:"She",fullName:"Wan Jou She",slug:"wan-jou-she",email:"lave@lavendershe.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"57127",slug:"toward-the-development-of-a-monitoring-and-feedback-system-for-predicting-poor-adjustment-to-grief",signatures:"Wan Jou She, Laurie Burke, Robert A. 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When considering the ethical and legal constraints, the need to use animal models maintains its importance from past to present. The success of the research depends on the suitability of the chosen model. For example, while single-celled organisms such as yeast are a convenient model for the study of basic eukaryotic cell functions such as cell cycle regulation, vesicular transport, protein folding, and DNA repair, simple invertebrates such as Caenorhabditis elegans or Drosophila are regarded as good models in studies examining the coordinated functions of genes related to signal transmission or protein-protein interactions. Simple vertebrates (zebrafish, frogs, etc.) or mammals (rat, mouse, rabbit, guinea pig, etc.) are used to establish human disease models or to explain their effects at the organism level. In addition, the use of experimental animals is quite common in experimental medicine research, especially in pharmaceutical developments and molecular pathway studies.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to discuss current developments such as the definition of model animals, the purposes of using model animals and the diseases in which they are used, the selection of appropriate models and subjects, and the technological methods used in the experimental model.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-654-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-653-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-655-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"13081c55758b6bbcd126c71df34bd4a2",bookSignature:"Dr. Mahmut Karapehlivan, Associate Prof. Volkan Gelen and Dr. Abdulsamed Kükürt",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11711.jpg",keywords:"Animal Care and Feeding, Breeding, Environment, Physiological Parameters, Biochemical Parameter, Genetic and Transgenic Animals, Neuronal Activity, Brain IRI, Renal IRI, Therapeutic Agents, Hepatotoxicity, Immunity",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Karapehlivan is part of the university senate of Kafkas University. So far, he has authored 65 journal papers, 5 book chapters, and 75 other publications. He worked as an assistant professor in the Department of Biochemistry from 2004 to 2009. He earned the title of Associate Professor of Biochemistry in the field of Health Sciences in 2009. Dr. Karapehlivan was appointed Professor in 2014.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Kükürt has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"458012",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Karapehlivan",slug:"mahmut-karapehlivan",fullName:"Mahmut Karapehlivan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/458012/images/system/458012.jpg",biography:"Dr. Karapehlivan was born in 1969, in Saruhanlı county of Manisa-Türkiye. He completed his primary and secondary school in Forchheim, Germany, and his high school education at Semikler High School in İzmir. He graduated from Kafkas University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in 1995. In 2003, he completed his Ph.D. in Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He worked as an assistant professor in the Department of Biochemistry from 2004 to 2009. He earned the title of Associate Professor of Biochemistry in the field of Health Sciences in 2009. He was appointed Professor in 2014. He is currently working as a Professor in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University Faculty of Medicine.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. 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He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64725",title:"De Quervain’s Tenosynovitis: Effective Diagnosis and Evidence-Based Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82029",slug:"de-quervain-s-tenosynovitis-effective-diagnosis-and-evidence-based-treatment",body:'\nIn 1893, Paul Jules Tillaux described a painful crepitus sign (Aïe crépitant de Tillaux)—tenosynovitis of the adductor and the short extensor of the thumb. In 1894, Fritz de Quervain, a Swiss surgeon, first described tenosynovitis on December 18, 1894, in Mrs. D., a 35-year-old woman who had severe pain in the extensor muscle region of the thumb, excluding tuberculosis.
“It is a condition affecting the tendon sheaths of the abductor pollicis longus, and the extensor pollicis brevis. It has definite symptoms and signs. The condition may affect other extensor tendons at the wrist” [1].
\nPatients with DQT have difficulty gripping objects and performing their daily activities. De Quervain’s tendinopathy affects the abductor pollicis longus (APL) and extensor pollicis brevis (EPB) tendons in the first extensor compartment at the styloid process of the radius. It is characterized by pain or tenderness at the radial side of the wrist. Although de Quervain’s tendinopathy is often attributed to overuse or repetitive movements of the wrist or thumb, the cause is generally unknown.
\nDe Quervain’s tenosynovitis (DQT) is a common cause of wrist pain in adults and is the second most common entrapment tendinopathy in the hand following trigger finger. It usually occurs in middle-aged individuals and is around 3× more common in women (~80% of cases). It is most common among women between the ages of 30 and 50 years of age, including a small subset of women in the postpartum period [2]. These women tend to develop symptoms about 4–6 weeks after delivery. In a large analysis of a young active population of military personnel, women again had a significantly higher rate of de Quervain’s tenosynovitis at 2.8 cases per 1000 person-years, compared to men at 0.6 per 1000 person-years (almost 5×). Age greater than 40 was also a significant risk factor, with this age category showing a rate of 2.0 per 1000 person-years compared to 0.6 per 1000 in personnel under 20 years. There was also a racial difference, with blacks affected at 1.3 per 1000 person-years compared to whites at 0.8, in this population [3].
\nWith regard to work, Stahl found that in 189 patients surgically treated for DQT vs. 198 patients with wrist ganglia (WG) (controls), there was no significant difference between DQT vs. WG found after subgrouping professional activities (manual labor: 18 vs. 26%, respectively, p = 0.23). In addition, there was no asymmetric distribution of comorbidities, wrist trauma, forceful or repetitive manual work, or medication observed, and it was concluded that neither heavy manual labor nor trauma could be shown to be predisposing risk factors for DQT (Figure 1). Most cases of DQT, however, are associated with overuse, and, local trauma can also precipitate the condition [4].
\nDe Quervain’s tenosynovitis (DQT) is one of the most common work-related upper limb musculoskeletal disorders especially in the age of smartphones, tablets and laptop devices.
The etiology of de Quervain’s tenosynovitis (DQT) is not well understood. In the past, it was frequently attributed to occupational or repetitive activities involving postures that maintain the thumb in extension and abduction. As an example, it has been thought that new mothers are at risk postpartum due to repetitive motion of hands required to lift and hold newborns. Hormonal causes and fluid retention are another plausible explanation. The evidence to support etiologic hypotheses is limited and is largely based on observational data. The histopathology does not demonstrate inflammation but rather myxoid degeneration (disorganized collagen and increased cellular matrix) in patients referred for surgery [5].
\nDQT affects both the abductor pollicis longus (APL) and the extensor pollicis brevis (EPB) at the point where they pass through a fibro-osseous tunnel (the first dorsal compartment) from the forearm into the hand. These tendons are responsible for bringing the thumb away from the hand as it lies flat in the plane of the palm (i.e., radial abduction). Similar to trigger finger (or stenosing flexor tenosynovitis), this disease involves a noninflammatory thickening of both the tendons and the tunnel (or sheath) through which they pass. The APL and EPB tendons are tightly secured against the radial styloid by the overlying extensor retinaculum which creates a fibro-osseous tunnel. Thickening of the retinaculum and tendons from acute or repetitive trauma restrains normal gliding within the sheath. This causes inflammation and further edematous thickening of the tendon exacerbating the local stenosing effect. Microscopically, there are inflammatory cells found within the tendon sheath.
In ~10% of patients, there is an intertendinous septum between APL and EPB. The absence of a septum is associated with very high rates (almost 100%) of complete symptom resolution with conservative management. Presence of an intertendinous septum increases the likelihood that surgical management will be required.
\nStahl et al. [6] reviewed in a meta-analysis of 80 articles of an association between DQT and (1) repetitive, (2) forceful, or (3) ergonomically stressful manual work suggesting an odds ratio of 2.89 (95% CI, 1.4–5.97; p = 0.004). The analysis, however, found no evidence to support the Bradford Hill criteria for a causal relationship between de Quervain’s tenosynovitis and occupational risk factors.
\nWhile there have been several multidisciplinary treatment guidelines published [7], they are consensus-based rather than evidence-based. This review seeks to address this issue and identify any gaps in research for the investigation and treatment of DQT.
\nSystematic search of MEDLINE, CINAHL and EMBASE for articles published from September 2014 to August 2018, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (most recent issue searched—Issue 2, 2018). Randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, and reviews of all aspects of diagnoses and treatment for DQT among participants were limited to those aged 18 years.
\nAll studies were reviewed independently by the author, who recorded individual study results, and an assessment of study quality and treatment conclusions was made according to evidence-based protocols.
\nOut of a total of 72 articles from PUBMED for DQT diagnosis, we found 10 articles satisfying the research criteria. There were no suitable Cochrane review articles.
\nOut of a total of 95 articles from PUBMED for DQT treatment, we found 20 articles satisfying the criteria. There were no suitable Cochrane review articles.
\nThe Finkelstein test (Figure 2) is named after Harry Finkelstein (1865–1939), an American surgeon who first described it in 1930. It is a clinical test used to assess the presence of DQT in people with wrist pain. It is performed by grasping the patients thumb and deviating the hand in the ulnar direction. If a sharp pain occurs along the distal radius, this is considered to make DQT likely.
\nFinkelstein’s maneuver as described in 1930: the examiner pulls the thumb in ulnar deviation and longitudinal traction to exacerbate the symptoms of de Quervain’s disease.
Eichhoff’s test (Figure 3) is often wrongly named as Finkelstein’s test. Eichhoff’s test consists of grasping the thumb in the palm of the hand while the wrist is ulnar deviated, and the test is positive in the presence of pain over the radial styloid process during lunar deviation of the wrist.
\nEichhoff’s maneuver described in 1927, commonly confused with Finkelstein’s test described in 1930.
The wrist hyperflexion and abduction of the thumb (WHAT) test (Figure 4) revealed greater sensitivity (0.99) and an improved specificity (0.29) together with a slightly better positive predictive value (0.95) and an improved negative predictive value (0.67) compared with Eichhoff’s test in one study [8]. Moreover, the study showed that the wrist hyperflexion and abduction of the thumb test was very valuable in diagnosing dynamic instability after successful decompression of the first extensor compartment.
\nWHAT test: active testing by shearing the tendons of the first extensor compartment against the palmar distal edge of the pulley.
Plain radiographs are nondiagnostic of the condition but may show nonspecific signs and can help exclude other causes of pain such as fracture, carpometacarpal arthritis, and osteomyelitis. Signs include [9]:
Soft-tissue swelling over the radial styloid
Focal abnormalities of the radial styloid including cortical erosion, sclerosis, or periosteal reaction
Ultrasound is very often diagnostic. Findings include:
Edematous tendon thickening of APL and EPB at the level of the radial styloid (compare with the contralateral side)
Increased fluid within the first extensor tendon compartment tendon sheath
Thickening of overlying retinaculum and the synovial sheath
Peritendinous subcutaneous edema resulting in a hypoechoic halo sign
Peritendinous subcutaneous hyperemia on Doppler imaging
It is important to assess for an intertendinous septum which can usually be identified if present. Ultrasound is often used to guide corticosteroid injections into the tendon compartment to treat the condition [10].
Using B-mode ultrasound as standard, shear wave elastography (SWE) as diagnosis of de Quervain’s tenosynovitis has 95% specificity and 85% sensitivity in diagnosing DQT.
In addition, ultrasonic characteristics including a cutoff value of the extensor retinaculum for diagnosing DQT was 0.45 mm (sensitivity 96.3%, specificity 93.3%). Bony crests on the radial styloid were found in all cases of the presence of the intracompartmental septum [11].
MRI is very sensitive and specific and useful for detecting mild disease where ultrasound may be equivocal. The presence or absence of intertendinous septum can be assessed. Findings include:
Tenosynovitis
Increased fluid within tendon sheath (high T2, low-intermediate T1)
Debris within sheath (intermediate T1 signal)
Thickened edematous retinaculum
Peritendinous subcutaneous edema
Peritendinous subcutaneous contrast enhancement
Tendinosis
Tendon enlargement maximal at radial styloid and often greater at the medial aspect of the tendon
Slightly increased intratendinous T1 and T2 signal compared to other tendons
Striated appearance of tendons due to multiple enlarged slips
Longitudinal tendon tear
Linear high T2 signal due to fluid within the split
More common in APL
When comparing ultrasound and clinical characteristics of the operated and nonoperated wrists, it was found that patients with a high baseline visual analogue scale, with all positive clinical tests and with a persistent intracompartmental septum, had a significantly higher risk of failure following conservative treatment [12].
\nA recent review article by Huisstede et al. [13] found (1) moderate evidence for the effect of corticosteroid injection on the very short term for DQT and (2) moderate evidence that a thumb splint as additive to a corticosteroid injection seems to be effective in the short term and midterm.
\nOne prospective study of 35 patients found that ultrasound-guided partial release and simultaneous corticosteroid injection using a 21-gauge needle was feasible in current practice, with minimal complications [14].
\nProspectively randomized patients treated with either corticosteroid injection (CSI) alone were compared with CSI with immobilization [15]. Radial-sided wrist pain, first dorsal compartment tenderness, and positive Finkelstein test were used to define DQT. Pain score of 4 or higher on a visual analogue scale (VAS) was utilized for inclusion. Followed at 3 weeks and 6 months for further evaluation, resolution of symptoms and improvements in VAS and Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH) scores were assessed to evaluate treatment success. This small prospective controlled study (on 20 patients) found that immobilization of 3 weeks following injection increased costs, may hinder activities of daily living, and did not contribute to improved patient outcomes in this study.
\nContrasting this, Awan et al. [16] found in a randomized controlled trial of 30 patients with established DQT that the use of therapeutic ultrasound and spica splint together is more effective than using therapeutic ultrasound alone in the conservative management over 6 months.
\nHowever, Cavaleri et al. [17] in an earlier review of six studies confirmed combined orthosis/corticosteroid injection approaches are more effective than either intervention alone. It was found that significantly more participants were treated successfully when combined orthosis/corticosteroid injection approaches were compared to (i) orthoses (RR 0.53, 95% CI 0.35–0.80) and (ii) injections alone (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.64–0.89).
A follow up of 89 patients who underwent surgical treatment with the Le Viet technique with a follow-up of 9.5 years, were favorable, with total regression of functional impairment in 85% of cases and a satisfaction rate of 97.5%, with no cases of tendon dislocation, neuroma, or recurrence [18].
\nDe Quervain’s tenosynovitis (DQT) is one of the most common forms of stenosing tenosynovitis and is a common workplace injury. Diagnosis is usually clinical using either the Finkelstein’s test, Eichhoff’s test, and/or the wrist hyperflexion and abduction of the thumb (WHAT) test. If required, the single most useful and accurate investigation is a high-resolution ultrasound scan. This evidence-based review identified a clear approach to treatment of DQT including nonsurgical (therapeutic ultrasound with or without orthoses) and surgical approaches. However, we found that more high-quality RCTs are still needed to further stimulate evidence-based practice, especially related to work-related disorders.
Flutter is defined as the dynamic instability of aeroelasticity. Flutter is one of the most dangerous aeroelasticity phenomena as it could lead to a destroyed structure. The reason is the unsteady aerodynamic forces generated from elastic deformations of the structure that are usually involved with complicated phenomena such as the shock wave/boundary layer interaction, flow separation, nonlinear limited cycle oscillation, and more. Flutter is determined as a critical issue determining the reliability of the airplane wings or aircraft engine turbo-machine blades. Therefore, in the early phase of the structural design of the air vehicle, aircraft engine turbo-machinery, flutter problems should be calculate and predicted. However, accurate prediction of the flutter is very challenging due to the perplexing physical phenomena and the required large amount of computation [1, 2, 3, 4].
Coupled aeroelastic solution procedures use strongly coupled algorithms which contained sufficient interaction between computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and computational structural dynamics (CSD). As computer technology progresses, higher-order methods of CFD based on the Euler and the Navier-Stokes equations become more attractive due to the ability of the model and its more accurately transonic, nonlinear, and viscous effects. CFD has also advanced from two-dimensional problems to fully three-dimensional problems with or without coupled solution of the structural equations (CSD). The flow solvers used in aeroelastic analysis include 3D Euler and Navier-Stokes solvers which assumed inviscid flow.
The dynamic response of flutter characteristics of the first AGARD 445.6 wing standard aeroelastic configuration was studied using an unsteady Navier-Stokes algorithm in order to investigate a previously noted discrepancy between Euler flutter characteristics and the experimental data [5]. The 3D implicit upwind Euler/Navier-Stokes code (CFL3D Version 2.1) was previously modified for the time-marching aeroelastic analysis of wings using the unsteady Euler equations. A linear stability analysis and a time-marching aeroelastic analysis were used to determine the flutter characteristics of the isolated 45° swept-back wing. The flutter characteristics of the wing were determined using traditional V-g analysis. This stability analysis was determined at free-stream Mach numbers of 0.96 and 1.141 using the generalized aerodynamic forces calculated by solving the Euler equations and the Navier-Stokes equations.
Computational flutter required a fluid-structure interface as a common boundary to exchange the aerodynamic loads and structural displacements at the wing surface. But, the aerodynamic and structural grids were not coincident due to different systems used (fluent solver for aerodynamic grids and mechanical ADPL solver for structural grids). Therefore, the system coupling tool in ANSYS Workbench was used to transfer the aerodynamic pressure loads from the CFD grid points to the CSD grid points and vice versa, which ensured a conservative transfer of energy between the two systems [6].
Time-accurate aeroelastic simulations were carried out using the modal coupled aeroelastic implementation for a standard experimental test case: the AGARD 445.6 aeroelastic wind tunnel model in the subsonic and transonic regions [7]. A numerical methodology coupling Navier-Stokes equations and structural modal equations for predicting 3D transonic wing flutter was described in [8]. A modal approach is used for the structural response. The results indicate that the first five modes are sufficient to accurately model the wing structure response. In Ref. [9], an unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) model was coupled with normal modes of structure to predict the flutter boundary for the AGARD 445.6 wing. A new integrated CFD-CSD simulation for flutter calculations based on a parallel, multiblock, multigrid flow solver for the Euler/Navier-Stokes equations using the ANSYS software was found in [10]. Computations were performed for a three-dimensional test case of AGARD 445.6 wing to validate and establish the usefulness of the simulation. Immersed boundary method solved Navier-Stokes equations for flow in couple with the Newton equation for structure movement under the effect of friction force exerted on the structure surface to carry out fluid–structure interaction (FSI). However, computational grids needed to be re-meshed in each time step due to changes of the structure position in time. To overcome this obstacle, immersed boundary method and finite volume methods were both invoked in solving the interaction between fluid flow and moving structure [11]. This research estimated the numerical and experimental results on the wing structure at a low speed with four different wing models such as two rectangular and two trapezoid 3D-shape wings, each 3D-shape wing had symmetric and asymmetric airfoil, respectively.
The subsonic aeroelastic stability of a two-dimensional panel resting on a continuous elastic foundation was investigated in Ref. [12]. Tests were conducted experimentally on a 104 × 24 × 0.018 in. rectangular aluminum panel in a low-speed wind tunnel. Comparison of experiment and theory showed a good agreement in flutter speed and wavelength but poor agreement in wave speed and frequency at flutter. This discrepancy was attributed to the limitations in the test setup as well as to the general difficulty of predicting the wave speed and frequency as accurately as the flutter speed. Reference [13] tested the first AGARD standard aeroelastic configuration for dynamic response, 445.6 wing, in the 16 foot transonic dynamics tunnel at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Langley Research Center. Several models of the wing were tested in the transonic dynamic tunnel including full-span and semispan models over a range of Mach number from 0.338 to 1.141. The NASA conducted experiments in wind tunnel to estimate the aeroelastic characteristics of new and advanced flight vehicles, including fixed-wing, rotary-wing, and space-launch configurations. Reviews and assessments were made regarding available facilities, measurement techniques, and other means and devices useful in testing. The needs and requirements for advances and improvements in testing capabilities for future experimental research and development programs are described [14].
In [15], aeroelastic concepts for increased aircraft performance were mentioned. Active aeroelastic concepts as well as robust analysis concepts aiming at efficient analysis were carried out using numerical models with uncertain or varying model parameters. A high aspect ratio wing in wind tunnel testing conditions was considered for exploitation of fluid-structure interaction of active aeroelastic structures. The structural flexibility was exploited by using multiple control surfaces such that the deformed wing shape gives minimum drag for different flight conditions. Two different drag minimization methods were carried out: one was to reduce induced drag based on numerical optimization techniques, and another was to reduce measured total drag using real-time optimization in the wind tunnel experiment.
An approach for the prediction of dynamic modal transient response and flutter characteristics of structures with unknown system parameters, such as stiffness and mass, using experimental modal parameters was remarked in [16]. A finite element model was created by using the actual material properties of the structure to study the correlation of the results. The computed transient responses and flutter velocities by the proposed method using experimental modal parameters observed that material properties were not a prerequisite.
In Ref. [17], transonic flutter characteristics of AGARD 445.6 wing between the numerical method [5] and the experimental data of NASA’s experiment were compared [13]. The comparison provided the basis for developing the numerical setup and the experimental setup to check out subsonic flutter characteristics of some simple wing structures (e.g., a thin plate). Aeroelasticity on airplane wing, which had supercritical airfoil, was carried out in [18]. The model wings were made from different materials and dimensions. Hence, varied wing structures were created to accomplish a comprehensive analysis, and the flutter velocity was also restricted to appropriate values within the working range of experiment devices. At the same time, infinite element method with the help of the ANSYS software was also conducted to simulate the phenomena on the same model wings as a verification for the precision of the experimental models.
The generalized equations of aeroelasticity motion:
where:
w: structural displacement at any time instant and position.
q: generalized displacement vector.
[M]: generalized mass matrice.
[C]: damping matrice.
[K]: stiffness matrices.
ϕ: normal modes of the structure.
N: total number of modes of the structure.
F: generalized force vector, which is responsible for linking the unsteady aerodynamics and inertial loads with the structural dynamics.
Eq. (1) shows that there are distinct terms representing the structure, aerodynamic, and dynamic disciplines. This equation was solved numerically by integrated CFD-CSD tool on the ANSYS software. This method was also called the two-way fluid-solid interaction (FSI). Aerodynamic loads were first calculated by CFD solver. Then, these loads were used to calculate the structural response of the wing structure through the fluid-solid interface. By using CSD solver, the structural deflection was estimated, and the mesh in each time step was deformed. The simulation of the two-way FSI is presented in Figure 1 [10].
Two-way FSI algorithm.
Following [8], the first four modes of vibration were sufficient to accurately model the wing structure response. So, in order to determine the time step of the unsteady problem, a modal method was applied to estimate first the natural frequency of the first four modes and then calculate the time step using the following formula:
where:
Δt: time step
f: natural frequency
The flutter velocity was estimated from the vibration of the wing tip position, the most dangerous position of the wing [5, 8, 9, 13]. From the variation of this position, the damping coefficient except the influence of structural damping was measured. It means that there was an effect of aerodynamic damping coefficient on the vibration of the wing structure. The aerodynamic damping coefficient was calculated as follows:
where:
Xi: ith peak of vibration.
n: number of periods.
ζ: aerodynamic damping coefficient.
The damping coefficient increased/decreased when the air velocity decreased/increased. The type of vibration was distinguished from the value of damping coefficient:
ζ > 0: The vibration was convergent. The wing structure was stable.
ζ < 0: The vibration was divergent. The wing structure was unstable.
ζ = 0: The vibration was harmonic oscillation. The wing was in critical state. The air velocity was in the flutter velocity.
AGARD 445.6 wing with aspect ratio of 1.65, taper ratio of 0.66, and 45o sweep angle at quarter chord line was studied as seen in Figure 2. The cross section of the wing was NACA65A004 airfoil in the stream-wise direction. This NACA65A004 airfoil was a symmetric airfoil with a maximum thickness of 4% of the local chord. The dimensions of the wing were root chord of 0.558 m, tip chord of 0.368 m, and semispan of 0.762 m. The wing model used in aeroelastic experiments [13] was constructed by laminated mahogany which was modeled as an orthotropic material with different material properties in different directions. The properties of the laminated mahogany are given in Table 1. The modal analysis was performed using mechanical APDLs solver to evaluate the accuracy of the constructed model.
Semispan AGARD 445.6 wing model.
Material property | E11 | E22 | E33 | G | υ | ρ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Value | 3.151 | 0.416 | 0.416 | 0.439 | 0.310 | 397.5 |
Unit | GPa | GPa | GPa | GPa | N/m2 | kg/m3 |
Mechanical properties for the weakened AGARD 445.6 wing.
The AGARD 445.6 wing was modeled at a zero attack angle and at altitudes of 9.65 and 14 km, the same conditions of experimental study in [13]. The wing was meshed in 9257 nodes and 1350 elements (Figure 3a). The fluid domain in CFD problem was meshed in 67,949 nodes and 279,535 elements (Figure 3b).
Computational grids. (a) AGARD 445.6 wing grids. (b) Fluid computational grids.
The free-stream air velocity was from 0.29 to 0.59 M at an altitude of 9.65 km and from 0.47 M to 0.73 M at an altitude of 14 km.
The mode shapes are obtained from the finite element analysis of the modeled wing. The deflection contours between the modal analysis and experiment [13] were compared as shown in Figure 4. The natural frequencies between the developed solution, experiment [13], and other researches were also compared as shown in Table 2. It could be concluded that the obtained results were in good agreement with the experimental results in [4, 6, 13] within an error relative of 8%. The frequency of the first mode was around 9.96 Hz. Following Eq. (3), the time step of the unsteady problem was estimated about 0.005 s.
Comparison of the mode shapes. (a) Mode 1. (b) Mode 2. (c) Mode 3. (d) Mode 4.
At altitude 9.65 km, the Mach number of air velocity was varied from 0.29 to 0.59 (M = 0.29; 0.35; 0.41; 0.47; 0.53; 0.59). From Eq. (4), the aerodynamic damping coefficient was calculated and presented in Figure 5a. The zero damping coefficients were interpolated at Mach number 0.46. While the experimental zero damping was 0.499 in [13], the difference between simulation results and results of [13] was about 8%.
Aerodynamic damping coefficients. (a) At altitude 9.65 km. (b) At altitude 14 km.
At altitude 14 km, the Mach numbers of air velocity were varied from 0.47 to 0.73 (M = 0.47; 0.53; 0.59; 0.65; 0.67; 0.73). From Eq. (4), the aerodynamic damping coefficient was calculated and presented in Figure 5b. The zero damping coefficients were interpolated at Mach number 0.58. While the experimental zero damping was 0.678 in [13], the difference within simulation results was about 14%.
In both the two considered altitudes (9.65 and 14 km), the numerical results agreed well with the experimental results of [13] with a relative error about 14%. This difference would be from the computation such as the quality of mesh and order of model in CFD and CSD.
For more details of the stability of the wing structure, the vibrated value of the wing tip position at three Mach numbers were plotted as shown in Figure 5.
At a Mach number smaller than the flutter value, the damping coefficient was positive, and the wing was stable (Figure 6a).
Vibration of wing at altitude H = 9.65 km. (a) M = 0.29 – ζ = 0.0071. (b) M = 0.47 – ζ = −0.000125. (c) M = 0.53 – ζ = −0.006.
At a Mach number near the flutter value, the damping coefficient was zero, and the vibration was harmonic oscillation (Figure 6b).
At a Mach number greater than the flutter value, the damping coefficient was negative, and the vibration was divergent (Figure 6c). This divergent vibration would create the damage of the wing such as loss of control for the flap, aileron, fracture of wing, etc.
Dynamic aeroelastic analysis was a problem related to fluid-structure interaction over a period of time. Therefore, the quality of aerodynamic grid and the time step strongly influenced the results of aeroelastic analysis. These parameters were also two of the most important problems in the dynamic aeroelastic analysis.
In order to evaluate the quality of aerodynamic grid, the coefficient of pressure of AGARD 445.6 wing was first estimated at 26% semispan and at 75.5% semispan and then was compared with Ref. [6] as shown in Figure 7. The presented results were in good agreement with the results in Ref. [6]. It could be concluded that these simulation settings were appropriate for solving the transonic flow.
Comparison of Cp distribution at M = 1.141, α = 0°. (a) 26 % semispan. (b) 75.5 % semispan.
To evaluate the time step size, three different time sizes were examined such as 0.001, 0.002, and 0.005 s. As it could be seen in Figure 8, the displacement of the wing tip was reduced with the reduction of time step size up to 0.002 s until the aeroelastic simulation did not change [6]. Therefore, the value 0.002 s of time step size in the numerical solution was chosen for both aerodynamic and structural analysis.
Wing-tip oscillation depends on the selected time step.
The limit of flutter was identified by using damping estimations for a large test point at each Mach number. At M = 0.499, the oscillation of the displacement of the wing tip was harmonic (Figure 9), and it was considered as a flutter point. At this limit of flutter, the air speed was calculated as 174.26 m/s, and the density of air was calculated as 0.432 kg/m3. These values were very close to the experimental values: 172.46 m/s for flutter speed and 0.428 kg/m3 for density of air (Table 3). This remark illustrated that the developed solution could be used to specify the transonic flutter characteristics with errors less than 10%.
Wing-tip oscillation of flutter point at M = 0.499.
The test model was set in AF6116 (M = 0.1) subsonic wind tunnel located at the Hanoi University of Science and Technology, which was of a blowdown type with a closed test section (0.4 × 0.5 × 1.0 m3). The wind speed could be arbitrarily varied up to 30 m/s, where the Reynolds number based on wing root chord was 106, which was driven by an 8 kW electric motor.
Flutter characteristics were determined with the help of the frequency meter and load cell, which allowed to specify the flutter frequency and root wing force, respectively. The oscillated frequency was measured by the DT-2234C+ frequency meter. The signal of measured frequency was averaged by five measurements. The force applied to the wing was measured by load cell system. In the experimental aeroelastic analysis, the flutter frequency and the flutter amplitude were measured at different velocities ranging from 10 to 30 m/s using an oscillator generator system.
Two wing models with the parameter and dimension are shown in Figure 10 and Table 4. The non-structure wing had only balsa wood, while the structure wing had balsa wood for skin and carbon rod and hard wood for the inner parts.
Experimental models. (a) Wing model. (b) Wing with support. (c). Broken wing.
Wing 1 (non-structure) | Wing 2 (with structure) | |
---|---|---|
Chord length | 300 mm | 300 mm |
Root chord length | 500 mm | 500 mm |
Tip chord length | 100 mm | 100 mm |
Profile | NACA65A004 | NACA65A004 |
Taper ratio | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Material | Balsa wood | Balsa wood, carbon rod, hard wood |
Mass | 5.1 g | 11.6 g |
Wing models.
Experimental results showed that a flutter phenomenon appeared with the non-structure wing (broken wing in Figure 10c), but this phenomenon did not happen with the structure wing model. It could be explained by the more durability of structure wing than that of the non-structure wing with the testing range of velocity. Experiments also demonstrated that the combination of multiple materials to more durability of structure of wing could be highly effective in preventing flutter phenomenon [18].
The measurement results of the non-structure wing were shown in Table 5. When the attack angle increased, the velocity of first oscillation, flutter velocity, and frequency decreased.
Attack angle (0) | Velocity of first oscillation (m/s) | Flutter velocity (m/s) | Frequency (Hz) |
---|---|---|---|
0 | 20 | 22 | 37.38 |
5 | 17.8 | 20.5 | 32.22 |
10 | 15.2 | 19.5 | 30.31 |
Flutter characteristics at different attack angles—Non-structure wing.
Figure 11 resumed the measurement of the force at the wing root in varying velocities from zero to flutter velocity and more by using the load cell system. After increasing the air velocity from zero to the limit of non-structure wing, the limit velocity of non-structure wing was found at 19.5 m/s. The load at the wing root of this wing at flutter velocity is shown in Figure 12. The maximum force was 5.44 N, and the minimum force was 4.32 N.
Force at the wing root of the non-structure wing—Attack angle 10°.
Force at the wing root of the non-structure wing—Attack angle 10° and velocity 19.5 m/s.
With structure wing, different modes of vibration appeared depending on the characteristics of the structure as remarked in [8]. With the help of the oscillator generator system, the specific oscillation frequencies of the first four modes were estimated as shown in Table 6.
Mode | Frequency (Hz) | |
---|---|---|
Non-structure wing | Structure wing | |
1 | 24.3 | 23.5 |
2 | 67.0 | 63.0 |
3 | 103.6 | 115.3 |
4 | 132.0 | 139.0 |
Specific oscillation frequency of the non-structure and structure wings.
The frequencies of the first and second modes of the non-structure wing were higher than those of the structure wing, while the frequencies of third and fourth mode of structure wing were higher than those of non-structure wing (Table 6). Considering both wings in the first mode of oscillation, when the force was applied to the wing, the amplitude of the non-structure wing was higher than that of the structure wing (Figure 13). In conclusion, the non-structure wing was easier to resonate than the structure wing.
Amplitude of oscillation of the structure wing—Mode 1.
Fluid flow and deformation of structure were governed by the following equations with assumption of linear elastic structure [11]:
where:
u: fluid velocity vector
p: fluid pressure
f: force that affected on wing
Re: Reynolds number
Uc: displacement velocity
ωp: angular velocity
xc: center of gravity
θp: rotation of wing r
mp: mass of wing
Ip: inertial moment of wing
F: force created by fluid passing through the wing
T: moment created by fluid passing through the wing
To solve out these equations using IBM method, the most important was that the velocity of fluid at fluid-solid interface was equal to the velocity of the wing. It means that the interaction force (f) between the wing and fluid was calculated such that the boundary condition of fluid was satisfied on the surface of the wing.
IBM method used the Cartesian grid and immersed boundary that were illustrated in Figure 14, in which the moving surface of wing was described by Lagrangian points (rounded points) and fixed points in fluid were called Eulerian points. Parameters of Lagrangian points were noted as capitalization.
Cartesian grid and immersed boundary.
Discrete partial derivative of velocity over time in Eq. (5) with denote intermediate velocity at zero force of Lagrangian point, Ûk, force F of Lagrangian points were estimated as follows:
where:
k: time step.
Uk+1: identified from the moving surface of wing, so this velocity was known as U(b).
Force was created from displacement and affected on the fluid element. Force was calculated using the following interpolation formula:
where:
x: coordinate of Eulerian point.
N: set of Lagrangian points round Eulerian point
x
∆U
δh: 3D delta function identified as follows:
Three-step Runge–Kutta method was applied to solve Navier-Stokes equations and Newton equations as follows:
Step 1: Calculate the instantaneous velocity at Eulerian points with no immersed boundary surface, i.e., f = 0:
where:
k: step calculation of Runge-Kutta method (k = 1, 2, 3)
αk: coefficient of kth step calculation
γk: coefficient of kth step calculation
ζk: coefficient of kth step calculation
υ: kinematic viscosity
Apply this instantaneous velocity to calculate Lagrangian velocity on the surface of the wing:
This Lagrangian velocity was combined with wing velocity, U(b)x
Step 2: Solve out Navier-Stokes Eqs. (5) using calculated forces of Eulerian points to estimate the effect of flutter of the wing into the velocity field around the wing:
To satisfy the continuity equation, a temporary pressure was described:
Step 3: Solve Eq. (17), and calculate velocity and pressure at kth step of the Runge-Kutta method:
From the estimated forces at Lagrangian points, translational and angular movements of the wing were carried out by solving Eqs. (7) and (9):
After calculating the velocity of center of gravity (Uck) and angular velocity of wing (ωpk), coordinates of Lagrangian points were estimated by the same expressions.
Four different wing models were carried out in order to analyze the effect of the wing structure. There were two rectangular and two trapezoid 3D-shape wings, and each 3D-shape wing had symmetric (NACA65A004) and asymmetric (supercritical) airfoil, respectively. The wings had the same area of 450 cm2 and the same semispan-wise length of 30 cm. Therefore, the rectangular wing had a chord length of 7.5 cm, while the trapezoidal wing has no sweep angle, and the leading edge line had a tip chord length of 5 cm and root chord length of 10 cm. The wings were made of aluminum (Figure 15).
Wing models. (a) Rectangular wing. (b) Trapezoidal wing.
Experiments were performed using a low-speed blowdown wind tunnel, which belongs to the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Vietnam. This wind tunnel had a maximum free-stream velocity in empty test section of 30 m/s that corresponded to Reynolds number 106. The wind tunnel was operated continuously by an 8 kW electric motor. The turbulence level in test section was slightly less than 1%. Free-stream velocity was kept constant in test section within ±2%. Total pressure of free-stream and dynamic pressures were measured by pitot tube within ±2%. Ambient temperature was measured within ±1%. Both experimental and numerical researches were performed at air velocity of 20 m/s and attack angle of 5°.
For the experimental study, 160 pressure taps were applied on the wing model (Figure 15). These pressure taps were connected to an external digital manometer via stainless and silicon tubes. Each pressure tap was measured one time with waiting time of 5 s (average of about 1000 instant values) using the Keyence pressure measurement. The standard deviation of the Keyence pressure measurement errors was within ±0.001 Pa. Moreover, flutter of wing was captured with help of high performance camera.
The results of IBM method were analyzed at three different instants (Figure 16):
Time T0: initial time when distortion did not occurred
Time T1: time between maximum deformation and non-deformation
Time T2: time of maximum distortion
Instant displacement of wings. (a) NACA65A004 – Rectangular wing. (b) NACA65A004 – Trapezoidal wing. (c) Supercritical – Rectangular wing. (d) Supercritical – Trapezoidal wing.
The wing deformation was maximum at the tip of the wing and decreased gradually into the root of the wing over time. However, the normal stress was found to have an opposite tendency in comparison with deformation. The maximum normal stress was observed at the root of the wing, while the minimum normal stress was found at the tip of the wing (Figures 17 and 18). It could be explained by the fixed support with fuselage at the root of the wing and free support at the tip of the wing [13]. These remarks were in well agreement with the experimental results within a relative error less than 10% (Table 7).
Instant normal stress—Rectangular wing.
Instant normal stress—Trapezoidal wing.
Wing | IBM method (mm) | Experiment method (mm) | Relative error (%) |
---|---|---|---|
NACA65A004-rectangular | 0.119 | 0.131 | 9.7 |
NACA65A004-trapezoidal | 0.030 | 0.033 | 8.6 |
Supercritical-rectangular | 0.035 | 0.039 | 9.9 |
Supercritical-trapezoidal | 0.034 | 0.037 | 9.2 |
Maximum deformation of the wing tip.
At T0 instant, the normal stress had important value near the wing tip. During flutter behaviors of wing, this important normal stress propagated from the tip of the wing to the root of the wing. The maximum value of the normal stress was found out at the root of the wing and at T2 instant.
With the same airfoil, the rectangular wing was found to be more distorted and have higher maximum deformation and higher maximum normal stress than the trapezoid wing. Thus, 3D-shape wing contributed significantly to the deformation of wing when aeroelasticity phenomenon occurred (Table 7).
With the same 3D-shape wing, the maximum deformation and maximum normal stress of NACA65A004 rectangular wing were higher than those of the rectangle supercritical wing. Meanwhile, the maximum deformation and maximum normal stress of NACA65A004 trapezoidal wing were less than those of the supercritical trapezoidal wing. It could be concluded that the 3D shape of wing played an important role in the durability of the structure (Table 7).
The flutter phenomenon of AGARD 445.6 wing was determined by (a) a modal approach for a structural response; (b) an aerodynamic damping coefficient to predict the appearance of flutter phenomenon; (c) a strongly coupled FSI method to predict the aeroelastic response for subsonic and transonic flutter characteristics; (d) an experiment method to predict the aeroelastic response for subsonic flutter characteristics with wing structure; (e) and an IBM method to improve the interface between the fluid and solid of aircraft wing.
In brief, the major results could be summarized as follows:
Experimental results were in good agreement with numerical results within a relative error less than 10%.
During aeroelasticity phenomenon, deformation of the wing tip was maximum while it was minimum at the wing root. The tendency of normal stress was in contrast with deformation. The minimum normal stress was observed at the wing tip, while the maximum normal stress was observed at the wing root;
Geometry of wing (3D shape, airfoil) had a significantly contribution to the deformation of wing when aeroelasticity phenomenon occurred.
For further research of aeroelasticity in the future, both experimental and numerical researches at low and high speed should be performed.
A part of this work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Vietnam through the bilateral and multilateral research project HNQT/SPĐP/12.19.
structural displacement at any time instant and position
generalized displacement vector
generalized mass matrice
damping matrice
stiffness matrices
normal modes of the structure
total number of modes of the structure
generalized force vector
ith peak of vibration
number of period
aerodynamic damping coefficient
Mach number
fluid velocity vector
fluid pressure
force that affected on wing
Reynolds number
displacement velocity
angular velocity
center of gravity
rotation of wing
mass of wing
inertial moment of wing
force that created by fluid go pass through the wing
moment that created by fluid go pass through the wing
coordinate of Eulerian point
set of Lagrangian points round Eulerian point
coordinate of Lagrangian point
volume of effect corresponded to Lagrangian point
3D delta function
coefficient of step Runge-Kutta calculation
kinematic viscosity
normal stress following x-coordinates
normal stress following y-coordinates
normal stress following z-coordinates
shear stress
density
coefficient of pressure
attack angle
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TMJ internal derangement (ID) is the most frequent type of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs). The ID of TMJ is defined as a joint dysfunction associated with an abnormal disc position. Identification and elimination of the causes of tissue breakdown of the TMJ that lead to ID are the key factors for successful treatment. The common causes for TMJ ID are trauma and parafunctional habits which lead to joint overload and degenerative changes in the articular structures, increased friction, and gradual disc displacement. Local and systemic inflammatory/degenerative arthropathies may also affect TMJ and cause ID. The aim of this chapter is to give comprehensive knowledge about the contemporary perspective of TMJ ID including diagnostic and therapeutic developments and innovations. Clinicians should establish the correct diagnosis and cause of the disease for appropriate management so that patients do not suffer from ineffective treatments. As an innovative development, TMJ replacements with alloplastic joint prosthesis and tissue-engineered structures hold promise for the future of management of TMJ ID.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Ufuk Tatli and Vladimir Machon",authors:[{id:"203864",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ufuk",middleName:null,surname:"Tatli",slug:"ufuk-tatli",fullName:"Ufuk Tatli"},{id:"204401",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Machon",slug:"vladimir-machon",fullName:"Vladimir Machon"}]},{id:"58184",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72302",title:"Benign Tumors of Temporomandibular Joint",slug:"benign-tumors-of-temporomandibular-joint",totalDownloads:2058,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) forms a complex functional system with teeth, bones, connected muscles and ligaments. Any discomfort in any of these structures directly affects the joint. The complaints are mostly pain, malocclusion and swelling. Temporomandibular joint tumors are very uncommon but show symptoms similar to intra-articular disorders that make up most of these disorders. The most common TMJ-specific benign tumors are classified after a brief literature review. Our classification also includes the osteoma of the TMJ, other than World Health Organization’s (WHO) classification of soft tissue and bone tumors. This benign tumor was also included in the classification because of its higher frequency in the literature. The treatment of these neoplasms may be conservative or radical surgery.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Mehmet Emre Yurttutan, Ayşegül Tüzüner Öncül and Hakan Alpay\nKarasu",authors:[{id:"178706",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysegul",middleName:null,surname:"Tuzuner Oncul",slug:"aysegul-tuzuner-oncul",fullName:"Aysegul Tuzuner Oncul"},{id:"213436",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Emre",middleName:null,surname:"Yurttutan",slug:"mehmet-emre-yurttutan",fullName:"Mehmet Emre Yurttutan"},{id:"213439",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakan Alpay",middleName:null,surname:"Karasu",slug:"hakan-alpay-karasu",fullName:"Hakan Alpay Karasu"}]},{id:"58412",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72529",title:"Myofascial Pain Dysfunction Syndrome: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment",slug:"myofascial-pain-dysfunction-syndrome-etiology-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:1979,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome (MPDS) is a stomatognathic system disturbance, which consists of pain, jaw movement irregularities, and muscle spasm. Hyperexcitation of peripheral sensory neurons causes a reaction of induction in the motor neuron and then spasms of the masticatory muscles follow. Long-term spasm causes muscular pain and irregular mandibular motion. Pain is the most important inducer and therefore must be managed firstly in order to manage the muscle spasms. Symptomatic treatment approaches may be useful, but after symptom elimination, etiologically based treatment must be provided to the patient. The neurophysiology of the stomatognathic system must be well understood to determine a proper treatment for the MPDS condition. Both symptomatic and etiological treatment methods have been proposed by differing authors as potential solutions for MPDS. Occlusal splints are a commonly used treatment for relieving MPDS symptoms. Alternatively, some forms of occlusal adjustment (not all) have been shown to be an effective, permanent treatment course for myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome. This chapter describes the neural controls over the stomatognathic system and how that system can neurologically promote the MPDS disease state. It then details the computer-guided MPDS occlusal adjustment treatment known as disclusion time reduction that has been shown in many published studies to be a highly effective myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome (MPDS) therapy.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Serdar Gözler",authors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler"}]},{id:"59286",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74141",title:"Surgical Approaches to the Temporomandibular Joint",slug:"surgical-approaches-to-the-temporomandibular-joint",totalDownloads:6820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) acts as a sliding hinge between mandible and temporal bone. Disorders of temporomandibular joint are intolerable for the patients in severe cases. Furthermore, surgical treatment of temporomandibular joint problems is a challenge for surgeons in some cases. In that order, it is critical for the surgeon to choose the best surgical approach in treating the temporomandibular joint diseases. There are several surgical approaches in the management of temporomandibular joint problems including some pros and cons. So, in this chapter, we aim to present a comprehensive review of surgical approaches to the temporomandibular joint.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Mohammad Esmaeelinejad and Maryam Sohrabi",authors:[{id:"172188",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeelinejad",slug:"mohammad-esmaeelinejad",fullName:"Mohammad Esmaeelinejad"},{id:"240723",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Sohrabi",slug:"maryam-sohrabi",fullName:"Maryam Sohrabi"}]},{id:"58657",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72496",title:"Osteoarthritis of the Temporomandibular Joint: Clinical and Imagenological Diagnosis, Pathogenic Role of the Immuno- Inflammatory Response, and Immunotherapeutic Strategies Based on T Regulatory Lymphocytes",slug:"osteoarthritis-of-the-temporomandibular-joint-clinical-and-imagenological-diagnosis-pathogenic-role-",totalDownloads:2191,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease affecting the TMJ. It is the most common TMJ disorder and shows a higher prevalence in women and older people. TMJ osteoarthritis (TMJ-OA) is characterized by variable degrees of inflammation, destruction of the articular cartilage, and sub-chondral bone resorption. In this context, diverse pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, enzymes, and bone-resorptive associated factors have been considered as possible markers of active TMJ-OA. The molecular balance is determinant not only for initiation and progression, but also for the clinical expression of the disease. Recent advances in the biochemical analysis of synovial fluid from affected patients have provided new insights into the patho-physiology of the TMJ-OA; however, its molecular pathogenesis still remains unclear. Recently, a Th1 and Th17-dominated immune response has been associated with the inflammatory and destructive events characteristic of TMJ-OA and, in particular, the Th17 lymphocyte pathway has a pivotal role in the increased production of RANKL, which is involved in osteoclast activation and subsequent sub-chondral bone resorption. Understanding the TMJ physiology and pathogenesis of the TMJ-OA, together with the key molecular determinants of the TMJ tissue destruction, will enable the development of new chair-side point of care diagnostics and more conservative treatment modalities with minimal complications.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Gustavo Monasterio, Francisca Castillo, Daniel Betancur, Arnoldo\nHernández, Guillermo Flores, Walter Díaz, Marcela Hernández and\nRolando Vernal",authors:[{id:"92267",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández",slug:"marcela-hernandez",fullName:"Marcela Hernández"},{id:"96397",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",middleName:null,surname:"Vernal",slug:"rolando-vernal",fullName:"Rolando Vernal"},{id:"199490",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Monasterio",slug:"gustavo-monasterio",fullName:"Gustavo Monasterio"},{id:"199493",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnoldo",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández",slug:"arnoldo-hernandez",fullName:"Arnoldo Hernández"},{id:"199494",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"guillermo-flores",fullName:"Guillermo Flores"},{id:"199495",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz",slug:"walter-diaz",fullName:"Walter Díaz"},{id:"203984",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Betancur",slug:"daniel-betancur",fullName:"Daniel Betancur"},{id:"221501",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisca",middleName:null,surname:"Castillo",slug:"francisca-castillo",fullName:"Francisca Castillo"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59286",title:"Surgical Approaches to the Temporomandibular Joint",slug:"surgical-approaches-to-the-temporomandibular-joint",totalDownloads:6831,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) acts as a sliding hinge between mandible and temporal bone. Disorders of temporomandibular joint are intolerable for the patients in severe cases. Furthermore, surgical treatment of temporomandibular joint problems is a challenge for surgeons in some cases. In that order, it is critical for the surgeon to choose the best surgical approach in treating the temporomandibular joint diseases. There are several surgical approaches in the management of temporomandibular joint problems including some pros and cons. So, in this chapter, we aim to present a comprehensive review of surgical approaches to the temporomandibular joint.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Mohammad Esmaeelinejad and Maryam Sohrabi",authors:[{id:"172188",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeelinejad",slug:"mohammad-esmaeelinejad",fullName:"Mohammad Esmaeelinejad"},{id:"240723",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Sohrabi",slug:"maryam-sohrabi",fullName:"Maryam Sohrabi"}]},{id:"58358",title:"Internal Derangements of the Temporomandibular Joint: Diagnosis and Management",slug:"internal-derangements-of-the-temporomandibular-joint-diagnosis-and-management",totalDownloads:3224,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Millions of individuals worldwide suffer from temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders and are characterized by pain and joint dysfunction. TMJ internal derangement (ID) is the most frequent type of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs). The ID of TMJ is defined as a joint dysfunction associated with an abnormal disc position. Identification and elimination of the causes of tissue breakdown of the TMJ that lead to ID are the key factors for successful treatment. The common causes for TMJ ID are trauma and parafunctional habits which lead to joint overload and degenerative changes in the articular structures, increased friction, and gradual disc displacement. Local and systemic inflammatory/degenerative arthropathies may also affect TMJ and cause ID. The aim of this chapter is to give comprehensive knowledge about the contemporary perspective of TMJ ID including diagnostic and therapeutic developments and innovations. Clinicians should establish the correct diagnosis and cause of the disease for appropriate management so that patients do not suffer from ineffective treatments. As an innovative development, TMJ replacements with alloplastic joint prosthesis and tissue-engineered structures hold promise for the future of management of TMJ ID.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Ufuk Tatli and Vladimir Machon",authors:[{id:"203864",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ufuk",middleName:null,surname:"Tatli",slug:"ufuk-tatli",fullName:"Ufuk Tatli"},{id:"204401",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Machon",slug:"vladimir-machon",fullName:"Vladimir Machon"}]},{id:"58184",title:"Benign Tumors of Temporomandibular Joint",slug:"benign-tumors-of-temporomandibular-joint",totalDownloads:2059,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) forms a complex functional system with teeth, bones, connected muscles and ligaments. Any discomfort in any of these structures directly affects the joint. The complaints are mostly pain, malocclusion and swelling. Temporomandibular joint tumors are very uncommon but show symptoms similar to intra-articular disorders that make up most of these disorders. The most common TMJ-specific benign tumors are classified after a brief literature review. Our classification also includes the osteoma of the TMJ, other than World Health Organization’s (WHO) classification of soft tissue and bone tumors. This benign tumor was also included in the classification because of its higher frequency in the literature. The treatment of these neoplasms may be conservative or radical surgery.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Mehmet Emre Yurttutan, Ayşegül Tüzüner Öncül and Hakan Alpay\nKarasu",authors:[{id:"178706",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysegul",middleName:null,surname:"Tuzuner Oncul",slug:"aysegul-tuzuner-oncul",fullName:"Aysegul Tuzuner Oncul"},{id:"213436",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Emre",middleName:null,surname:"Yurttutan",slug:"mehmet-emre-yurttutan",fullName:"Mehmet Emre Yurttutan"},{id:"213439",title:"Prof.",name:"Hakan Alpay",middleName:null,surname:"Karasu",slug:"hakan-alpay-karasu",fullName:"Hakan Alpay Karasu"}]},{id:"58412",title:"Myofascial Pain Dysfunction Syndrome: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment",slug:"myofascial-pain-dysfunction-syndrome-etiology-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:1985,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome (MPDS) is a stomatognathic system disturbance, which consists of pain, jaw movement irregularities, and muscle spasm. Hyperexcitation of peripheral sensory neurons causes a reaction of induction in the motor neuron and then spasms of the masticatory muscles follow. Long-term spasm causes muscular pain and irregular mandibular motion. Pain is the most important inducer and therefore must be managed firstly in order to manage the muscle spasms. Symptomatic treatment approaches may be useful, but after symptom elimination, etiologically based treatment must be provided to the patient. The neurophysiology of the stomatognathic system must be well understood to determine a proper treatment for the MPDS condition. Both symptomatic and etiological treatment methods have been proposed by differing authors as potential solutions for MPDS. Occlusal splints are a commonly used treatment for relieving MPDS symptoms. Alternatively, some forms of occlusal adjustment (not all) have been shown to be an effective, permanent treatment course for myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome. This chapter describes the neural controls over the stomatognathic system and how that system can neurologically promote the MPDS disease state. It then details the computer-guided MPDS occlusal adjustment treatment known as disclusion time reduction that has been shown in many published studies to be a highly effective myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome (MPDS) therapy.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Serdar Gözler",authors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler"}]},{id:"58657",title:"Osteoarthritis of the Temporomandibular Joint: Clinical and Imagenological Diagnosis, Pathogenic Role of the Immuno- Inflammatory Response, and Immunotherapeutic Strategies Based on T Regulatory Lymphocytes",slug:"osteoarthritis-of-the-temporomandibular-joint-clinical-and-imagenological-diagnosis-pathogenic-role-",totalDownloads:2197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease affecting the TMJ. It is the most common TMJ disorder and shows a higher prevalence in women and older people. TMJ osteoarthritis (TMJ-OA) is characterized by variable degrees of inflammation, destruction of the articular cartilage, and sub-chondral bone resorption. In this context, diverse pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, enzymes, and bone-resorptive associated factors have been considered as possible markers of active TMJ-OA. The molecular balance is determinant not only for initiation and progression, but also for the clinical expression of the disease. Recent advances in the biochemical analysis of synovial fluid from affected patients have provided new insights into the patho-physiology of the TMJ-OA; however, its molecular pathogenesis still remains unclear. Recently, a Th1 and Th17-dominated immune response has been associated with the inflammatory and destructive events characteristic of TMJ-OA and, in particular, the Th17 lymphocyte pathway has a pivotal role in the increased production of RANKL, which is involved in osteoclast activation and subsequent sub-chondral bone resorption. Understanding the TMJ physiology and pathogenesis of the TMJ-OA, together with the key molecular determinants of the TMJ tissue destruction, will enable the development of new chair-side point of care diagnostics and more conservative treatment modalities with minimal complications.",book:{id:"6025",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Gustavo Monasterio, Francisca Castillo, Daniel Betancur, Arnoldo\nHernández, Guillermo Flores, Walter Díaz, Marcela Hernández and\nRolando Vernal",authors:[{id:"92267",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández",slug:"marcela-hernandez",fullName:"Marcela Hernández"},{id:"96397",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",middleName:null,surname:"Vernal",slug:"rolando-vernal",fullName:"Rolando Vernal"},{id:"199490",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Monasterio",slug:"gustavo-monasterio",fullName:"Gustavo Monasterio"},{id:"199493",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnoldo",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández",slug:"arnoldo-hernandez",fullName:"Arnoldo Hernández"},{id:"199494",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"guillermo-flores",fullName:"Guillermo Flores"},{id:"199495",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz",slug:"walter-diaz",fullName:"Walter Díaz"},{id:"203984",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Betancur",slug:"daniel-betancur",fullName:"Daniel Betancur"},{id:"221501",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisca",middleName:null,surname:"Castillo",slug:"francisca-castillo",fullName:"Francisca Castillo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1397",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne 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Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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