\r\n\tThe objective of the proposed book is to give a multi-perspective view on role of autophagy in injury, infection and cancer diseases. The book chapters aim to elucidate autophagy pathways in sustaining the host defense mechanisms, adaptive homeostasis as well as in remodeling and regeneration events that are essential for recuperation of the affected tissues. A specific subject for discussion will be up-regulation and/or impairment of autophagy and crinophagy in phagocytes/granulocytes and adult stem cells.
\r\n
\r\n\tRationale: \r\n\tThe cell/tissue responses to acute stress, trauma/injury or pathogens are mediated by expression and release of plethora of paracrine and endocrine effectors including DAMPs, PAMPs and inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, defensins, and reactive intermediate species. These effectors drive the integrative interactome constituted by hubs of the acute phase response modules, the inflammatory response modules, the module of the adaptive homeostatic response in the damaged parenchymal cells, vascular cells, immunocompetent cells and emerging stem cells. Among these defense mechanisms is autophagy – the lysosomal pathway for processing of compromised cell constituents and/or bacterial and viral pathogens. In this light, explication of the role of autophagy in cellular pathology may arouse R&D of new modalities for management of devastating diseases such as injury, acute infections or cancer.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3daed6048bc8ff8368c4279558f109d7",bookSignature:"Dr. Nikolai Gorbunov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7997.jpg",keywords:"Autophagy-related Genes, Autophagy-related Proteins, Organelle Network, Signaling Mechanisms and Modulators, Cell Damage, Tissue Damage, PAMP and DAMP, Inflammasome, Autophagy Evasion, Cancer Stem Cells, Cancer Target Therapy, Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 13th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 1st 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180960/images/system/180960.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gorbunov obtained his Ph.D. degree in Biology from the Russian Academy Sciences. Then, he was a recipient of the NRC NAS (http://sites.nationalacademies.org/pga/rap/) and the Department of Energy fellowship awards to pursue postdoctoral training in translational science at the University of Pittsburgh and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (https://www.emsl.pnl.gov/emslweb Washington, USA). His translational research area has encompassed molecular pathology of trauma and countermeasures against acute radiation injury that was explored at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (http://wrair-www.army.mil) and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. His research interests are the disease-specific mechanisms driving alterations and defense responses in organelles, cells and tissues constituting biological barriers. With this perspective, the main objectives of his research are : i) to define the key components and pathways which regulate adaptive homeostasis and sustain intrinsic resistance to the harmful exposures and mediate recovery from the produced stress, cytotoxicity and damage; and (ii) to employ the acquired knowledge for advancement of injury-specific therapeutic modalities.",institutionString:"Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5295",title:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e16382542f283b73017bdb366aff66ad",slug:"autophagy-in-current-trends-in-cellular-physiology-and-pathology",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Marion Schneider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5295.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6207",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",subtitle:"Pathobiology, Advanced Diagnostics and Acute Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b39555959a8969f3d06634703afd3231",slug:"traumatic-brain-injury-pathobiology-advanced-diagnostics-and-acute-management",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Joseph B. Long",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"41045",title:"Developments in Electrochemistry: The Phase-Shift Method and Correlation Constants for Determining the Electrochemical Adsorption Isotherms at Noble and Highly Corrosion-Resistant Metal/Solution Interfaces",doi:"10.5772/52494",slug:"developments-in-electrochemistry-the-phase-shift-method-and-correlation-constants-for-determining-th",body:'
1. Introduction
To obtain an environmentally clean energy source, many experimental methods have been developed and used to study the adsorption of hydrogen for the cathodic H2 evolution reaction (HER) and hydroxide for the anodic O2 evolution reaction (OER) at noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/aqueous solution interfaces [1−7]. The cathodic HER is one of the most extensively studied topics in electrochemistry, electrode kinetics, renewable and sustainable energy, etc. It is well known that underpotentially deposited hydrogen (UPD H) and overpotentially deposited hydrogen (OPD H) occupy different surface adsorption sites and act as two distinguishable electroadsorbed H species, and that only OPD H can contribute to the cathodic HER [2−7]. Similarly, one can interpret that underpotentially deposited deuterium (UPD D) and overpotentially deposited deuterium (OPD D) occupy different surface adsorption sites and act as two distinguishable electroadsorbed D species, and that only OPD D can contribute to the cathodic D2 evolution reaction (DER). However, there is not much reliable electrode kinetic data for OPD H and OPD D, i.e. the fractional surface coverage, interaction parameter, and equilibrium constant for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm, at the interfaces. Also, a quantitative relationship between the Temkin and Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherms has not been developed to study the cathodic HER and DER. Thus, there is a technological need for a useful, effective, and reliable method to determine the Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms of OPD H and OPD D and related electrode kinetic and thermodynamic parameters. In the following discussions, H and D mean OPD H and OPD D, respectively.
Although the electrochemical Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms may be regarded as classical models and theories, it is preferable to consider the Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms for H and D rather than electrode kinetics and thermodynamics equations for H and D because these adsorption isotherms are associated more directly with the atomic mechanisms of H and D [8]. However, there is not much reliable information on the Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms of H for the cathodic HER and related electrode kinetic and thermodynamic data [1−7]. Furthermore, there is not much reliable information on the Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms of D for the cathodic DER and related electrode kinetic and thermodynamic data. Because, to the authors’ knowledge, the interaction parameter and equilibrium constant for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm of H and D cannot be experimentally and readily determined using other conventional methods [3,7].
To determine the Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms, the phase-shift method and correlation constants have been originally developed on the basis of relevant experimental results and data. The phase-shift method is a unique electrochemical impedance spectroscopy technique for studying the linear relationship between the phase shift (90° ≥ −φ ≥ 0°) vs. potential (E) behavior for the optimum intermediate frequency (fo) and the fractional surface coverage (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1) vs. E behavior of the intermediates (H, D, OH, OD) for the sequential reactions (HER, DER, OER) at noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/solution interfaces [9−29]. The θ vs. E behavior is well known as the Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherm.
At first glance, it seems that there is no linear relationship between the −φ vs. E behavior for fo and the θ vs. E behavior at the interfaces. Thus, the tedious experimental procedures presented there [e.g. 13, 16, 19−21, 27] have been used to verify or confirm the validity and correctness of the phase-shift method. This is discussed in more detail in the section on theoretical and experimental backgrounds of the phase-shift method. However, note that many scientific phenomena have been interpreted by their behavior rather than by their nature. For example, the wave−particle duality of light and electrons, i.e. their wave and particle behaviors, is well known in science and has been applied in engineering. To explain the photoelectric effect of light, the behavior of light is interpreted as a particle, i.e. a photon, on the basis of the observed phenomena or the measured experimental data. Note that the nature of light is a wave. Similarly, to explain the tunneling effect of electrons, the behavior of electrons is interpreted as a wave on the basis of the observed phenomena or the measured experimental data. Note that the nature of the electron is a real particle, which has a negative charge and a mass. Notably, these wave and particle behaviors are complementary rather than contradictory to each other.
The comments and replies on the phase-shift method are described elsewhere [30−34]. New ideas or methods must be rigorously tested, especially when they are unique, but only with pure logic and objectivity and through scientific procedures. However, the objections to the phase-shift method do not fulfill these criteria. The objections to the phase-shift method are substantially attributed to a misunderstanding of the phase-shift method itself [27, 28]. Note especially that all of the objections to the phase-shift method can be attributed to confusion regarding the applicability of related impedance equations for intermediate frequencies and a unique feature of the faradaic resistance for the recombination step [35]. The validity and correctness of the phase-shift method should be discussed on the basis of numerical simulations with a single equation for −φ vs. θ as functions of E and frequency (f) or relevant experimental data which are obtained using other conventional methods. The lack of the single equation for −φ vs. θ as functions of E and f and use of incorrect values of the electrode kinetic parameters or the equivalent circuit elements for the numerical simulations given in the comments result in the confused conclusions on the phase-shift method.
In practice, the numerical calculation of equivalent circuit impedances of the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/solution interfaces is very difficult or impossible due to the superposition of various effects. However, it is simply determined by frequency analyzers, i.e. tools. Note that the phase-shift method and correlation constants are useful and effective tools for determining the Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms and related electrode kinetic and thermodynamic parameters.
This work is one of our continuous studies on the phase-shift method and correlation constants for determining the Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms. In this paper, as a selected example of the phase-shift method and correlation constants for determining the electrochemical adsorption isotherms, we present the Frumkin and Temkin adsorption isotherms of (H + D) for the cathodic (HER + DER) and related electrode kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of a Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. These experimental results are compared with the relevant experimental data of the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/solution interfaces [11, 13, 16, 19−21, 23−29]. The interaction parameters, equilibrium constants, standard Gibbs energies of adsorptions, and rates of change of the standard Gibbs energies with θ for the Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms of H, D, (H + D), OH, and (OH + OD) are summarized and briefly discussed.
2. Experimental
2.1. Preparations
Taking into account the H+ and D+ concentrations [27] and the effects of the diffuse-double layer and pH [36], a mixture (1:1 volume ratio) of 0.1 M LiOH (H2O) and 0.1 M LiOH (D2O) solutions, i.e. 0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution, was prepared from LiOH (Alfa Aesar, purity 99.995%) using purified water (H2O, resistivity > 18 MΩ · cm) obtained from a Millipore system and heavy water (D2O, Alfa Aesar, purity 99.8%). The p(H + D) of 0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution was 12.91. This solution was deaerated with 99.999% purified nitrogen gas for 20 min before the experiments.
A standard three-electrode configuration was employed. A saturated calomel electrode (SCE) was used as the standard reference electrode. A platinum−iridium alloy wire (Johnson Matthey, 90:10 Pt/Ir mass ratio, 1.5 mm diameter, estimated surface area ca. 1.06 cm2) was used as the working electrode. A platinum wire (Johnson Matthey, purity 99.95%, 1.5 mm diameter, estimated surface area ca. 1.88 cm2) was used as the counter electrode. Both the Pt−Ir alloy working electrode and the Pt counter electrode were prepared by flame cleaning and then quenched and cooled sequentially in Millipore Milli-Q water and air.
2.2. Measurements
A cyclic voltammetry (CV) technique was used to achieve a steady state at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. The CV experiments were conducted for 20 cycles at a scan rate of 200 mV · s−1 and a scan potential of (0 to −1.0) V vs. SCE. After the CV experiments, an electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) technique was used to study the linear relationship between the −φ vs. E behavior of the phase shift (90° ≥ −φ ≥ 0°) for the optimum intermediate frequency (fo) and the θ vs. E behavior of the fractional surface coverage (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1). The EIS experiments were conducted at scan frequencies (f) of (104 to 0.1) Hz using a single sine wave, an alternating current (ac) amplitude of 5 mV, and a direct current (dc) potential of (0 to −1.20) V vs. SCE.
The CV experiments were performed using an EG&G PAR Model 273A potentiostat controlled with the PAR Model 270 software package. The EIS experiments were performed using the same apparatus in conjunction with a Schlumberger SI 1255 HF frequency response analyzer controlled with the PAR Model 398 software package. To obtain comparable and reproducible results, all of the measurements were carried out using the same preparations, procedures, and conditions at 298 K. The international sign convention is used: cathodic currents and lagged-phase shifts or angles are taken as negative. All potentials are given on the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) scale. The Gaussian and adsorption isotherm analyses were carried out using the Excel and Origin software packages.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Theoretical and experimental backgrounds of the phase-shift method
The equivalent circuit for the adsorption of (H + D) for the cathodic (HER + DER) at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface can be expressed as shown in Fig. 1a [27, 28, 37−39]. Taking into account the superposition of various effects (e.g. a relaxation time effect, a real surface area problem, surface absorption and diffusion processes, inhomogeneous and lateral interaction effects, an oxide layer formation, specific adsorption effects, etc.) that are inevitable under the experimental conditions, we define the equivalent circuit elements as follows: RS is the real solution resistance; RF is the real resistance due to the faradaic resistance (Rϕ) for the discharge step and superposition of various effects; RP is the real resistance due to the faradaic resistance (RR) for the recombination step and superposition of various effects; CP is the real capacitance due to the adsorption pseudocapacitance (Cϕ) for the discharge step and superposition of various effects; and CD is the real double-layer capacitance. Correspondingly, neither RF nor CP is constant; both depend on E and θ and can be measured. Note that both Rϕ and Cϕ also depend on E and θ but cannot be measured.
The numerical derivation of Cϕ from the Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms (θ vs. E) is described elsewhere, and Rϕ depends on Cϕ [37,39]. A unique feature of Rϕ and Cϕ is that they attain maximum values at θ ≈ 0.5 and intermediate E, decrease symmetrically with E at other values of θ, and approach minimum values or 0 at θ ≈ 0 and low E and θ ≈ 1 and high E; this behavior is well known in interfacial electrochemistry, electrode kinetics, and EIS. The unique feature and combination of Rϕ and Cϕ vs. E imply that the normalized rate of change of −φ with respect to E, i.e. Δ(−φ)/ΔE, corresponds to that of θ vs. E, i.e. Δθ/ΔE, and vice versa (see footnotes in Table 1). Both Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE are maximized at θ ≈ 0.5 and intermediate E, decrease symmetrically with E at other values of θ, and are minimized at θ ≈ 0 and low E and θ ≈ 1 and high E. Notably, this is not a mere coincidence but rather a unique feature of the Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms (θ vs. E). The linear relationship between and Gaussian profiles of −φ vs. E or Δ(−φ)/ΔE and θ vs. E or Δθ/ΔE most clearly appear at fo. The value of fo is experimentally and graphically evaluated on the basis of Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE for intermediate and other frequencies (see Figs. 3 to 5). The importance of fo is described elsewhere [21]. These aspects are the essential nature of the phase-shift method for determining the Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms.
The frequency responses of the equivalent circuit for all f that is shown in Fig. 1a are essential for understanding the unique feature and combination of (RS, RF) and (CP, CD) vs. E for fo, i.e. the linear relationship between the −φ vs. E behavior for fo and the θ vs. E behavior. At intermediate frequencies, one finds regions in which the equivalent circuit for all f behaves as a series circuit of RS, RF, and CP or a series and parallel circuit of RS, CP, and CD, as shown in Fig. 1 b. However, note that the simplified equivalent circuits shown in Fig. 1b do not represent the change of the cathodic (HER + DER) itself but only the intermediate frequency responses.
Figure 1.
(a) Experimentally proposed equivalent circuit for the phase-shift method. (b) Simplified equivalent circuits for intermediate frequency responses.
At intermediate frequencies, the impedance (Z) and lagged phase-shift (−φ) are given by [27−29]
for the lower circuit in Fig. 1b, where j is the imaginary unit (i.e. j2 = −1) and ω is the angular frequency, defined as ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency. Under these conditions,
RP>> 1/ωCP and RP>>RS+RFE3
In our previous papers [9−24], only Eq. (1) was used with a footnote stating that CP practically includes CD (see Tables 1 and 2 in Ref. 20, Table 1 in Ref. 19, etc.). Both Eqs. (1) and (2) show that the effect of RP on −φ for intermediate frequencies is negligible. These aspects are completely overlooked, confused, and misunderstood in the comments on the phase-shift method by Horvat-Radosevic et al. [30,32,34]. Correspondingly, all of the simulations of the phase-shift method using Eq. (1) that appear in these comments (where CP does not include CD) [30,32,34] are basically invalid or wrong [27,28]. All of the analyses of the effect of RP on −φ for intermediate frequencies are also invalid or wrong (see Supporting Information of Refs. 27 and 28).
The following limitations and conditions of the equivalent circuit elements for fo are summarized on the basis of the experimental data in our previous papers [9−29]. Neither RS nor CD is constant. At θ ≈ 0, RS > RF and CD > CP, or vice versa, and so forth. For a wide range of θ (i.e. 0.2 < θ < 0.8), RF >> RS or\n\t\t\t\t\tRF > RS and CP >> CD or CP > CD, and so forth. At θ ≈ 1, RS > RF or RS < RF and CP >> CD. The measured −φ for fo depends on E and θ. In contrast to the numerical simulations, the limitations and conditions for Eq. (1) or (2) are not considered for the phase-shift method because all of the measured values of −φ for intermediate frequencies include (RS, RF) and (CP, CD). Correspondingly, the measured −φ for fo is valid and correct regardless of the applicability of Eq. (1) or (2). Both the measured values of −φ at fo and the calculated values of −φ at fo using Eq. (1) or (2) are exactly the same (see Supporting Information in Refs. 27 and 28). The unique feature and combination of (RS, RF) and (CP, CD) are equivalent to those of Rϕ and Cϕ. This is attributed to the reciprocal property of RF and CP vs. E and suggests that only the polar form of the equivalent circuit impedance, i.e. −φ described in Eq. (1b) or (2b), is useful and effective for studying the linear relationship between the −φ (90° ≥ −φ ≥ 0°) vs. E behavior at fo and the θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1) vs. E behavior. Note that the phase-shift method for determining the electrochemical (Frumkin, Langmuir, Temkin) adsorption isotherms has been proposed and verified on the basis of the phase-shift curves (−φ vs. log f) at various E (see Fig. 2). The unique feature and combination of (RS, RF) and (CP, CD) vs. E, i.e. −φ vs. E or Δ(−φ)/ΔE and θ vs. E or Δθ/ΔE, most clearly appear at fo. The linear relationship between and Gaussian profiles of −φ vs. E or Δ(−φ)/ΔE and θ vs. E or Δθ/ΔE for fo imply that only one Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherm is determined on the basis of relevant experimental results (see Figs. 3 to 5). The shape and location of the −φ vs. E or Δ(−φ)/ΔE profile for fo and the θ vs. E or Δθ/ΔE profile correspond to the interaction parameter (g) and equilibrium constant (Ko) for the Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherm, respectively. These aspects have been experimentally and consistently verified or confirmed in our previous papers [9−29].
3.2. Basic procedure and description of the phase-shift method
Note that the following description of the phase-shift method for determining the Frumkin adsorption isotherm is similar to our previous papers due to use of the same method and procedures [27,28].
Figure 2 compares the phase-shift curves (−φ vs. log f) for different E at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. As shown in Fig. 2, −φ depends on both f and E [37−39]. Correspondingly, the normalized rate of change of −φ vs. E, i.e. Δ(−φ)/ΔE, depends on both f and E. In electrosorption, θ depends on only E [40]. The normalized rate of change of θ vs. E, i.e. Δθ/ΔE, obeys a Gaussian profile. This is a unique feature of the Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms (θ vs. E).
Figure 2.
Comparison of the phase-shift curves (−φ vs. log f) for different potentials (E) at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. Measured values: ●. Vertical solid line: 1.259 Hz; single sine wave; scan frequency range, (104 to 0.1) Hz; ac amplitude, 5 mV. Dc potentials: (a) −0.659 V, (b) −0.684 V, (c) −0.709 V, (d) −0.734 V, (e) −0.759 V, (f) −0.784 V, (g) −0.809 V, (h) −0.834 V, (i) −0.859 V, (j) −0.884 V, and (k) −0.909 V (all vs. SHE).
The intermediate frequency of 1.259 Hz, shown as a vertical solid line on the −φ vs. log f plot in Fig. 2, can be set as fo for −φ vs. E and θ vs. E profiles. The determination of fo is experimentally and graphically evaluated on the basis of Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE for intermediate and other frequencies (see Figs. 3 and 4). At the maximum −φ shown in curve a of Fig. 2, it appears that the adsorption of (H + D) and superposition of various effects are minimized; i.e. θ ≈ 0 and E is low. Note that θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1) depends only on E. At the maximum −φ, when θ ≈ 0 and E is low, both Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE are minimized because Rϕ and Cϕ approach minimum values or 0. At the minimum −φ, shown in curve k of Fig. 2, it appears that the adsorption of (H + D) and superposition of various effects are maximized or almost saturated; i.e. θ ≈ 1 and E is high. At the minimum −φ, when θ ≈ 1 and E is high, both Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE are also minimized because Rϕ and Cϕ approach minimum values or 0. At the medium −φ between curves d and e in Fig. 2, it appears that both Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE are maximized because Rϕ and Cϕ approach maximum values at θ ≈ 0.5 and intermediate E (see Table 1 and Fig. 4b). If one knows the three points or regions, i.e. the maximum −φ (θ ≈ 0 and low E region, where Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE approach the minimum value or 0), the medium −φ (θ ≈ 0.5 and intermediate E region, where Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE approach the maximum value), and the minimum −φ (θ ≈ 1 and high E region, where Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE approach the minimum value or 0) for fo, then one can easily determine the object, i.e. the Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherm. In other words, both Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE for fo are maximized at θ ≈ 0.5 and intermediate E, decrease symmetrically with E at other values of θ, and are minimized at θ ≈ 0 and low E and θ ≈ 1 and high E (see Table 1 and Fig. 4b). As stated above, this is a unique feature of the Frumkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms. The linear relationship between and Gaussian profiles of −φ vs. E or Δ(−φ)/ΔE and θ vs. E or Δθ/ΔE most clearly appear at fo.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tE/V vs. SHE
\n\t\t\t
−φ/deg
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tθ a\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Δ(−φ)/ΔE b\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Δθ/ΔE c\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.659
\n\t\t\t
84.7
\n\t\t\t
~ 0
\n\t\t\t
~ 0
\n\t\t\t
~ 0
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.684
\n\t\t\t
84.0
\n\t\t\t
0.00830
\n\t\t\t
0.08304
\n\t\t\t
0.08304
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.709
\n\t\t\t
79.4
\n\t\t\t
0.06287
\n\t\t\t
0.54567
\n\t\t\t
0.54567
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.734
\n\t\t\t
60.8
\n\t\t\t
0.28351
\n\t\t\t
2.20641
\n\t\t\t
2.20641
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.759
\n\t\t\t
26.6
\n\t\t\t
0.68921
\n\t\t\t
4.05694
\n\t\t\t
4.05694
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.784
\n\t\t\t
7.7
\n\t\t\t
0.91340
\n\t\t\t
2.24199
\n\t\t\t
2.24199
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.809
\n\t\t\t
2.6
\n\t\t\t
0.97390
\n\t\t\t
0.60498
\n\t\t\t
0.60498
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.834
\n\t\t\t
1.3
\n\t\t\t
0.98932
\n\t\t\t
0.15421
\n\t\t\t
0.15421
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.859
\n\t\t\t
0.7
\n\t\t\t
0.99644
\n\t\t\t
0.07117
\n\t\t\t
0.07117
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.884
\n\t\t\t
0.6
\n\t\t\t
0.99763
\n\t\t\t
0.01186
\n\t\t\t
0.01186
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
−0.909
\n\t\t\t
0.4
\n\t\t\t
~ 1
\n\t\t\t
0.02372
\n\t\t\t
0.02372
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
a (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1) and estimated using −φ. b {[(neighbor phase shift difference)/(total phase shift difference)]/[(neighbor potential difference)/(total potential difference)]}. c {[(neighbor fractional surface coverage difference)/(total fractional surface coverage difference)]/[(neighbor potential difference)/(total potential difference)]}.
Measured values of the phase shift (−φ) for the optimum intermediate frequency (fo = 1.259 Hz), the fractional surface coverage (θ) of (H + D), and the normalized rates of change of −φ and θ vs. E (i.e. Δ(−φ)/ΔE, Δθ/ΔE) at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface
Figure 3.
Comparison of (a) the phase-shift profiles (−φ vs. E) and (b) the fractional surface coverage profiles (θ vs. E) for four different frequencies at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. Measured or estimated values: ●, 0.1 Hz; ■, 1.259 Hz; ►, 10 Hz; ○, 100 Hz. The optimum intermediate frequency (fo) is 1.259 Hz.
Figure 4.
Comparison of the normalized rates of change of −φ and θ vs. E, i.e. Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE, for four different frequencies at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. Solid curves show the fitted Gaussian profiles. Measured or estimated values: ○, Δ(−φ)/ΔE; ●, Δθ/ΔE. (a) 0.1 Hz, (b) 1.259 Hz, (c) 10 Hz, and (d) 100 Hz. The optimum intermediate frequency (fo) is 1.259 Hz.
The procedure and description of the phase-shift method for determining the Frumkin adsorption isotherm of (H + D) at the interface are summarized in Table 1. The values of −φ and θ as a function of E at fo = 1.259 Hz shown in Fig. 3 are illustrated on the basis of the experimental results summarized in Table 1. The values of −φ and θ as a function of E at f = 0.1 Hz, 10 Hz, and 100 Hz shown in Fig. 3 are also illustrated through the same procedure summarized in Table 1. However, note that the differences between the −φ vs. E profile at fo = 1.259 Hz and the −φ vs. E profiles at f = 0.1 Hz, 10 Hz, and 100 Hz shown in Fig. 3a do not represent the measurement error but only the frequency response. In practice, the θ vs. E profiles at f = 0.1 Hz, 10 Hz, and 100 Hz shown in Fig. 3b should be exactly the same as the θ vs. E profile at fo = 1.259 Hz. Because, as stated above, θ depends on only E and this unique feature most clearly appears at fo. This is the reason why the comparison of −φ and θ vs. E profiles for different frequencies shown in Fig. 3 is necessary to determine fo.
The Gaussian profile shown in Fig. 4b is illustrated on the basis of Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE data for fo = 1.259 Hz summarized in Table 1. Figure 4b shows that both Δ(−φ)/ΔE and Δθ/ΔE are maximized at θ ≈ 0.5 and intermediate E, decrease symmetrically with E at other values of θ, and are minimized at θ ≈ 0 and low E and θ ≈ 1 and high E. The Gaussian profiles for f = 0.1 Hz, 10 Hz, and 100 Hz shown in Fig. 4 were obtained through the same procedure summarized in Table 1. Finally, one can conclude that the θ vs. E profile at fo = 1.259 Hz shown in Fig. 3b is applicable to the determination of the Frumkin adsorption isotherm of (H + D) at the interface. As stated above, the shape and location of the −φ vs. E or Δ(−φ)/ΔE profile and the θ vs. E or Δθ/ΔE profile for fo correspond to g and Ko for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm, respectively.
3.3. Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms
The derivation and interpretation of the practical forms of the electrochemical Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms are described elsewhere [41−43]. The Frumkin adsorption isotherm assumes that the Pt−Ir alloy surface is inhomogeneous or that the lateral interaction effect is not negligible. It is well known that the Langmuir adsorption isotherm is a special case of the Frumkin adsorption isotherm. The Langmuir adsorption isotherm can be derived from the Frumkin adsorption isotherm by setting the interaction parameter to be zero. The Frumkin adsorption isotherm of (H + D) can be expressed as follows [42]
[θ/(1 −θ)] exp(gθ)=KoC+exp(−EF/RT)E4
g=r/RTE5
K=Koexp(−gθ)E6
where θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1) is the fractional surface coverage, g is the interaction parameter for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm, Ko is the equilibrium constant at g = 0, C+ is the concentration of ions (H+, D+) in the bulk solution, E is the negative potential, F is Faraday’s constant, R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, r is the rate of change of the standard Gibbs energy of (H + D) adsorption with θ, and K is the equilibrium constant. The dimension of K is described elsewhere [44]. Note that when g = 0 in Eqs. (4) to (6), the Langmuir adsorption isotherm is obtained. For the Langmuir adsorption isotherm, when g = 0, the inhomogeneous and lateral interaction effects on the adsorption of (H + D) are assumed to be negligible.
At the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface, the numerically calculated Frumkin adsorption isotherms using Eq. (4) are shown in Fig. 5. Curves a, b, and c in Fig. 5 show the three numerically calculated Frumkin adsorption isotherms of (H + D) corresponding to g = 0, −2.2, and −5.5, respectively, for Ko = 5.3 × 10−5 mol−1. The curve b shows that the Frumkin adsorption isotherm, K = 5.3 × 10−5 exp(2.2θ) mol−1, is applicable to the adsorption of (H + D), and Eq. (5) gives r = −5.5 kJ · mol−1. The Frumkin adsorption isotherm implies that the lateral interaction between the adsorbed (H + D) species is not negligible. In other words, the Langmuir adsorption isotherm for g = 0, i.e. K = 5.3 × 10−5 mol−1, is not applicable to the adsorption of (H + D) at the interface (see Fig. 8).
Figure 5.
Comparison of the experimental and fitted data for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms of (H + D) at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. Experimental data: ■. Curves show the Frumkin adsorption isotherms calculated using Eq. (4) for (a) g = 0, (b) g = −2.2, and (c) g = −5.5 with Ko = 5.3 × 10−5 mol−1.
At intermediate values of θ (i.e. 0.2 < θ < 0.8), the pre-exponential term, [θ/(1 − θ)], varies little with θ in comparison with the variation of the exponential term, exp(gθ). Under these approximate conditions, the Temkin adsorption isotherm can be simply derived from the Frumkin adsorption isotherm. The Temkin adsorption isotherm of (H + D) can be expressed as follows [42]
exp(gθ)=KoC+exp(−EF/RT)E7
Figure 6 shows the determination of the Temkin adsorption isotherm corresponding to the Frumkin adsorption isotherm shown in curve b of Fig. 5. The dashed line labeled b in Fig. 6 shows that the numerically calculated Temkin adsorption isotherm of (H + D) using Eq. (7) is K = 5.3 × 10−4 exp(−2.4θ) mol−1, and Eq. (5) gives r = 6.0 kJ · mol−1. The values of g and K for the Frumkin and Temkin adsorption isotherms of H, D, (H + D), OH, and (OH + OD) at the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces are summarized in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Figure 6.
Comparison of the experimentally determined Frumkin adsorption isotherm and three fitted Temkin adsorption isotherms of (H + D) at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. Experimental data: ■. The curve shows the Frumkin adsorption isotherm calculated using Eq. (4). Dashed lines show the Temkin adsorption isotherms calculated using Eq. (7) and the correlation constants for (a) g = 0, (b) g = 2.4, and (c) g = 5.5 with Ko = 5.3 × 10−4 mol−1.
3.4. Applicability of the Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms
Figure 7 shows the applicability of ranges of θ, which are estimated using the measured phase shift (−φ) shown in Table 1, for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. Fig. 7 also shows that the phase-shift method for determining the Frumkin adsorption isotherm (θ vs. E) is valid, effective, and reasonable at 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1.
Figures 8 and 9 show the applicability of the Langmuir and Temkin adsorption isotherms at the same potential ranges, respectively. Figs. 8 and 9 also show that the Langmuir and Temkin adsorption isotherms are not applicable to the adsorption of (H + D) at the interface.
At extreme values of θ, i.e. θ ≈ 0 and 1, the Langmuir adsorption isotherm is often applicable to the adsorption of intermediates [42]. However, as shown in Figs. 8b and c, the validity and correctness of the Langmuir adsorption isotherm are unclear and limited even at θ ≈ 0 and 1. As stated in the introduction, the value of g for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm is not experimentally and consistently determined using other conventional methods. This is the reason why the Langmuir adsorption isotherm is often used even though it has the critical limitation and applicability. On the other hand, the Temkin adsorption isotherm is only valid and effective at 0.2 < θ < 0.8 (see Fig. 6). Note that the short potential range (ca. 37 mV) is difficult to observe in the Temkin adsorption isotherm correlating with the Frumkin adsorption isotherm. At other values of θ, i.e. 0 ≤ θ < 0.2 and 0.8 < θ ≤ 1, only the Frumkin adsorption isotherm is applicable to the adsorption of (H + D). Finally, one can conclude that the Frumkin adsorption isotherm is more useful, effective, and reliable than the Langmuir and Temkin adsorption isotherms at the interface.
Figure 7.
Comparison of ranges of θ for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm of (H + D) at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface. (a) 0.2 < θ < 0.8 (◄), (b) 0.1 < θ < 0.9 (●), and (c) 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1 (■). The blue curve is the Frumkin adsorption isotherm, K = 5.3 × 10−5 exp(2.2θ) mol−1.
Figure 8.
Comparison of the Langmuir adsorption isotherms of (H + D) at the same potential ranges. Experimental data: ■. Curves show the Langmuir adsorption isotherms (θ vs. E) calculated using Eq. (4) for g = 0. (a) K = 5.3 × 10−3 mol−1, (b) K = 5.3 × 10−4 mol−1, (c) K = 5.3 × 10−5 mol−1, and (d) K = 5.3 × 10−6 mol−1.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
interface
\n\t\t\t
adsorbate
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t g\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tK/mol−1 \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ref.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O+D2O)
\n\t\t\t
H+D
\n\t\t\t
−2.2
\n\t\t\t
5.3 × 10−5 exp(2.2θ)
\n\t\t\t
−
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
−2.2
\n\t\t\t
8.6 × 10−5 exp(2.2θ)
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (D2O)
\n\t\t\t
D
\n\t\t\t
−2.3
\n\t\t\t
2.1 × 10−5 exp(2.3θ)
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
−2.5
\n\t\t\t
3.3 × 10−5 exp(2.5θ)
\n\t\t\t
28
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH
\n\t\t\t
0.6
\n\t\t\t
5.4 × 10−9 exp(−0.6θ)
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (D2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH+OD
\n\t\t\t
2.7
\n\t\t\t
3.9 × 10−9 exp(−2.7θ)
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
−2.5
\n\t\t\t
3.1 × 10−5 exp(2.5θ)
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH
\n\t\t\t
1.8
\n\t\t\t
4.7 × 10−10 exp(−1.8θ)
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
−2.4
\n\t\t\t
1.2 × 10−4 exp(2.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
−2.4
\n\t\t\t
3.5 × 10−5 exp(2.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ir/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
−2.4
\n\t\t\t
9.4 × 10−5 exp(2.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ir/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
−2.4
\n\t\t\t
2.7 × 10−5 exp(2.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pd/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
1.4
\n\t\t\t
3.3 × 10−5 exp(−1.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Au/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
0\n\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2.3 × 10−6\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Re/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
0\n\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1.9 × 10−6\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Re/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
0\n\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4.5 × 10−7\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t/0.05 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t
1.3 × 10−1 exp(−10θ)
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
7.4
\n\t\t\t
3.6 × 10−4 exp(−7.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
5.3
\n\t\t\t
4.1 × 10−9 exp(−5.3θ)
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ti/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
6.6
\n\t\t\t
8.3 × 10−12 exp(−6.6θ)
\n\t\t\t
23
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Zr/0.2 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
3.5
\n\t\t\t
1.4 × 10−17 exp(−3.5θ)
\n\t\t\t
24
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
a Pt−Ir (90:10 mass ratio) alloy. b Pt−Ir (70:30 mass ratio) alloy. c Ni (purity 99.994%) foil. d Ni (purity 99.999%) wire. e Langmuir adsorption isotherm.
Comparison of the interaction parameters (g) and equilibrium constants (K) for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms at the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
interface
\n\t\t\t
adsorbate
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t g\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tK/mol−1 \n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ref.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O+D2O)
\n\t\t\t
H+D
\n\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t
5.3 × 10−4 exp(−2.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
−
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t
8.6 × 10−4 exp(−2.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (D2O)
\n\t\t\t
D
\n\t\t\t
2.3
\n\t\t\t
2.1 × 10−4 exp(−2.3θ)
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
2.1
\n\t\t\t
3.3 × 10−4 exp(−2.1θ)
\n\t\t\t
28
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH
\n\t\t\t
5.2
\n\t\t\t
5.4 × 10−8 exp(−5.2θ)
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (D2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH+OD
\n\t\t\t
7.3
\n\t\t\t
3.9 × 10−8 exp(−7.3θ)
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
2.1
\n\t\t\t
3.1 × 10−4 exp(−2.1θ)
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH
\n\t\t\t
6.4
\n\t\t\t
4.7 × 10−9 exp(−6.4θ)
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
2.2
\n\t\t\t
1.2 × 10−3 exp(−2.2θ)
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
2.2
\n\t\t\t
3.5 × 10−4 exp(−2.2θ)
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ir/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
2.2
\n\t\t\t
9.4 × 10−4 exp(−2.2θ)
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ir/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
2.2
\n\t\t\t
2.7 × 10−4 exp(−2.2θ)
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pd/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t
3.3 × 10−4 exp(−6θ)
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Au/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
4.6
\n\t\t\t
2.3 × 10−5 exp(−4.6θ)
\n\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Re/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
4.6
\n\t\t\t
1.9 × 10−5 exp(−4.6θ)
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Re/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
4.6
\n\t\t\t
4.5 × 10−6 exp(−4.6θ)
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t/0.05 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
14.6
\n\t\t\t
1.3 exp(−14.6θ)
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t
3.6 × 10−3 exp(−12θ)
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
9.9
\n\t\t\t
4.1 × 10−8 exp(−9.9θ)
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ti/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
11.2
\n\t\t\t
8.3 ×10−11 exp(−11.2θ)
\n\t\t\t
23
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Zr/0.2 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
8.1
\n\t\t\t
1.4 × 10−16 exp(−8.1θ)
\n\t\t\t
24
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
a Pt−Ir (90:10 mass ratio) alloy. b Pt−Ir (70:30 mass ratio) alloy. c Ni (purity 99.994%) foil. d Ni (purity 99.999%) wire.
Comparison of the interaction parameters (g) and equilibrium constants (K) for the Temkin adsorption isotherms at the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces
Figure 9.
Comparison of the Temkin adsorption isotherms of (H + D) at the same potential ranges. Experimental data: ■. The curve shows the Frumkin adsorption isotherm calculated using Eq. (4). Dashed lines show the Temkin adsorption isotherms calculated using Eq. (7) for (a) g = 0, (b) g = 8.5, and (c) g = 12.5 with Ko = 1.1 × 10−2 mol−1.
3.5. Standard Gibbs energy of adsorption
Under the Frumkin adsorption conditions, the relationship between the equilibrium constant (K) for (H + D) and the standard Gibbs energy (∆Gθ○) of (H + D) adsorption is [42]
2.3RTlogK=−ΔGθ○E8
For the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface, use of Eqs. (6) and (8) shows that ∆Gθ○ is in the range (24.4 ≥ ∆Gθ○ ≥ 18.9) kJ · mol−1 for K = 5.3 × 10−5 exp(2.2θ) mol−1 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1. This result implies an increase in the absolute value of ∆Gθ○, i.e. |∆Gθ○|, with θ. Note that ∆Gθ○ is a negative number, i.e. ∆Gθ○ < 0 [42]. The values of ∆Gθ○ and r for the Frumkin and Temkin adsorption isotherms at the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces are summarized in Tables 4 and 5, respectively.
4. Comparisons
4.1. Mixture solution
Curves a, b, and c in Fig. 10 show the K vs. θ behaviors of H, (H + D), and D at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O), 0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O), and 0.1 M LiOH (D2O) solution interfaces, respectively [27]. In Fig. 10, the value of K for (H + D) is approximately equal to the average value of K for H and D isotopes. The value of K for (H + D) decreases with increasing D2O. In other words, the value of K decreases in going from H2O to D2O. Over the θ range (i.e. 1 ≥ θ ≥ 0), the value of K for H is approximately 3.7 to 4.1 times greater than that for D (see Table 2). As shown in Tables 2 and 4, the values of g, K, ∆Gθ○, and r for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms of H, (H + D), and D are readily distinguishable using the phase-shift method. Fig. 10 also shows that the kinetic isotope effect, i.e. the ratio of rate constants of H and D or equilibrium constants of H and D, is readily determined using the phase-shift method (also see Table 2) [45]. Note that the kinetic isotope effect is widely used and applied in electrochemistry, surface science, biochemistry, chemical geology, physics, etc.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
interface
\n\t\t\t
adsorbate
\n\t\t\t
∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○/kJ·mol−1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tr/kJ·mol−1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ref.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O+D2O)
\n\t\t\t
H+D
\n\t\t\t
24.4 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 18.9
\n\t\t\t
−5.5
\n\t\t\t
−
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
23.2 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 17.7
\n\t\t\t
−5.5
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (D2O)
\n\t\t\t
D
\n\t\t\t
26.7 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 21.0
\n\t\t\t
−5.7
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
25.6 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 19.4
\n\t\t\t
−6.2
\n\t\t\t
28
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH
\n\t\t\t
47.2 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤ 48.6
\n\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (D2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH+OD
\n\t\t\t
48.0 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤54.7
\n\t\t\t
6.7
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
25.7 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 19.5
\n\t\t\t
−6.2
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH
\n\t\t\t
53.2 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤57.7
\n\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
22.4 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 16.5
\n\t\t\t
−6.0
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
25.4 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 19.5
\n\t\t\t
−6.0
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ir/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
23.0 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 17.1
\n\t\t\t
−6.0
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ir/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
26.1 ≥ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≥ 20.1
\n\t\t\t
−6.0
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pd/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
25.6 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤ 29.0
\n\t\t\t
3.5
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Au/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
32.2
\n\t\t\t
0\n\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Re/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
32.6
\n\t\t\t
0\n\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Re/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
36.2
\n\t\t\t
0\n\t\t\t\t\te\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t/0.05 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
5.1 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤ 29.8
\n\t\t\t
24.8
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
19.6 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤ 38.0
\n\t\t\t
18.4
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
47.8 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤ 61.0
\n\t\t\t
13.1
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ti/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
63.2 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤ 79.6
\n\t\t\t
16.4
\n\t\t\t
23
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Zr/0.2 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
96.1 ≤ ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ ≤ 104.8
\n\t\t\t
8.7
\n\t\t\t
24
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 4.
a Pt−Ir (90:10 mass ratio) alloy. b Pt−Ir (70:30 mass ratio) alloy. c Ni (purity 99.994%) foil. d Ni (purity 99.999%) wire. e Langmuir adsorption isotherm.
Comparison of the standard Gibbs energies (∆Gθ○) of adsorptions and rates of change (r) of ∆Gθ○ with θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1) for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms at the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
interface
\n\t\t\t
adsorbate
\n\t\t\t
∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○/kJ·mol−1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tr/kJ·mol−1\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ref.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O+D2O)
\n\t\t\t
H+D
\n\t\t\t
19.9 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 23.4
\n\t\t\t
6.0
\n\t\t\t
−
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
18.7 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 22.2
\n\t\t\t
6.0
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (D2O)
\n\t\t\t
D
\n\t\t\t
22.2 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 25.6
\n\t\t\t
5.7
\n\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
20.9 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 24.0
\n\t\t\t
5.2
\n\t\t\t
28
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH
\n\t\t\t
44.0 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 51.8
\n\t\t\t
12.9
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (D2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH+OD
\n\t\t\t
45.9 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ <56.8
\n\t\t\t
18.1
\n\t\t\t
26
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
21.1 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ <24.2
\n\t\t\t
5.2
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt−Ir alloy\n\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
OH
\n\t\t\t
50.7 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 60.2
\n\t\t\t
15.9
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
17.8 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 21.0
\n\t\t\t
5.5
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pt/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
20.8 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 24.1
\n\t\t\t
5.5
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ir/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
18.3 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 21.7
\n\t\t\t
5.5
\n\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ir/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
21.5 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 24.7
\n\t\t\t
5.5
\n\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pd/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
22.8 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 31.8
\n\t\t\t
14.9
\n\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Au/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
28.7 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 35.6
\n\t\t\t
11.4
\n\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Re/0.1 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
29.2 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 36.0
\n\t\t\t
11.4
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Re/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
32.7 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 39.7
\n\t\t\t
11.4
\n\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t/0.05 M KOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
6.6 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 28.3
\n\t\t\t
36.2
\n\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t/0.1 M LiOH (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
19.9 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 37.8
\n\t\t\t
29.8
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ni\n\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
47.0 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 61.7
\n\t\t\t
24.6
\n\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ti/0.5 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
63.1 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 79.6
\n\t\t\t
27.8
\n\t\t\t
23
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Zr/0.2 M H2SO4 (H2O)
\n\t\t\t
H
\n\t\t\t
94.4 < ∆G\n\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t○ < 106.5
\n\t\t\t
20.1
\n\t\t\t
24
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 5.
a Pt−Ir (90:10 mass ratio) alloy. b Pt−Ir (70:30 mass ratio) alloy. c Ni (purity 99.994%) foil. d Ni (purity 99.999%) wire.
Comparison of the standard Gibbs energies (∆Gθ○) of adsorptions and rates of change (r) of ∆Gθ○ with θ (0.2 < θ < 0.8) for the Temkin adsorption isotherms at the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces
Figure 10.
Comparison of the experimentally determined equilibrium constants (K vs. θ) for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms of H, (H + D), and D at the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH solution interfaces. Experimental data calculated using Eq. (6), i.e. the equilibrium constant: (a) 0.1 M LiOH (H2O) solution (●), (b) 0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution (■), and (c) 0.1 M LiOH (D2O) solution (▼).
4.2. Correlation constants between the adsorption isotherms
Curves a, b, c, and d in Fig. 8 show the four numerically calculated Langmuir adsorption isotherms of (H + D) corresponding to K = 5.3 × 10−3, 5.3 × 10−4, 5.3 × 10−5, and 5.3 × 10−6 mol−1, respectively. For 0.2 < θ < 0.8, all of the Langmuir adsorption isotherms are always parallel to each other [13,16,42]. Correspondingly, all of the slopes of the Langmuir adsorption isotherms, i.e. all of g for the Temkin adsorption isotherms, are all the same regardless of the values of K. As summarized in Tables 2 and 3, we have experimentally and consistently found and confirmed that the values of g for the Temkin adsorption isotherms are approximately 4.6 greater than those for the Langmuir adsorption isotherms, i.e. g = 0. Similarly, the values of g for the Temkin adsorption isotherms are approximately 4.6 greater than those for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms. Because the Frumkin adsorption isotherm is determined on the basis of the Langmuir adsorption isotherm, i.e. g = 0 (see Fig. 5).
In addition, we have experimentally and consistently found and confirmed that the equilibrium constants (Ko) for the Temkin adsorption isotherms are approximately 10 times greater than those (Ko or K) for the correlated Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherms (see Fig. 6 and Tables 2 and 3). These factors (ca. 4.6 and 10) can be taken as correlation constants between the Temkin and Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherms. The two different adsorption isotherms, i.e. the Temkin and Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherms, appear to fit the same data regardless of their adsorption conditions. These aspects are described elsewhere [19, 20, 23−29].
In this work, one can also confirm that the values of g and Ko for the Temkin adsorption isotherm are approximately 4.6 and 10 times greater than those for the correlated Frumkin adsorption isotherm, respectively. The Temkin adsorption isotherm correlating with the Frumkin adsorption isotherm, and vice versa, is readily determined using the correlation constants. Note that this is a unique feature between the Temkin and Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherms.
4.3. Negative and positive values of the interaction parameters for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms
A negative value of g for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm is qualitatively and quantitatively interpreted elsewhere [42,46]. Negative and positive values of g correspond to lateral attractive and repulsive interactions between the adsorbed species, respectively. At Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces, the lateral attractive interaction (g < 0) between the adsorbed H, D, or (H + D) species is determined [22]. As stated above, this implies an increase in |∆Gθ○| of H, D, or (H + D) adsorption with θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1). At Pd, Ni, Ti, and Zr/H2O solution interfaces, the lateral repulsive interaction (g > 0) between the adsorbed H species is determined. This implies a decrease in |∆Gθ○| of H adsorption with θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 1). At Au and Re/H2O solution interfaces, the lateral interaction between the adsorbed H species is negligible, i.e. g = 0 or g ≈ 0. This implies that the Langmuir adsorption isotherm is applicable. At Pt−Ir alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces, the lateral repulsive interaction (g > 0) between the adsorbed OH or (OH + OD) species is determined. This is significantly different from the lateral attractive interaction (g < 0) between the adsorbed H, D, or (H + D) species at the Pt−Ir alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces.
In contrast to Table 2, Table 3 shows that only the lateral repulsive interaction (g > 0) between the adsorbed H, D, (H + D), OH, or (OH + OD) species is determined. This is attributed to the values of g for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms, i.e. g > −4.6. Finally, one can conclude that the lateral attractive interaction (g < 0) between the adsorbed H, D, or (H + D) species is a unique feature of the Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces. The duality of the lateral attractive and repulsive interactions between the adsorbed H, D, or (H + D) species at the Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy interfaces is attributed to the negative values of g for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms. The Frumkin adsorption isotherm is more useful, effective, and reliable than the Temkin adsorption isotherm. As previously stated, the values of g for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms have never been experimentally and consistently determined using other conventional methods.
4.4. Equilibrium constants
In the acidic H2O solutions, the values of Ko, i.e. K at g = 0, for H at the noble metal and alloy (Pt, Ir, Pt−Ir alloy, Pd, Au, Re) interfaces are much greater than those at the highly corrosion-resistant metal (Ni, Ti, Zr) interfaces. In general, the values of Ko for H in the alkaline H2O solutions are greater than those in the acidic H2O solutions. The values of Ko for H in the acidic H2O solutions are much greater than those for OH in the alkaline H2O solutions. In the alkaline H2O solutions, the values of Ko for H at the Ni interfaces are greater than those at the Pt, Ir, Pt−Ir alloy, Pd, Au, Re, Ti, and Zr interfaces. This is a unique feature of Ni and Ni alloy/alkaline H2O solution interfaces. Note that Ni and Ni alloys are the metals most widely used for the cathodic HER in alkaline H2O solutions.
The lateral interaction between the adsorbed H, D, (H + D), OH, or (OH + OD) species cannot be interpreted by the value of Ko for the Frumkin adsorption isotherm. For example, the lateral attractive interaction (g < 0) between the adsorbed H, D, or (H + D) species at the Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy interfaces is significantly different from the lateral repulsive interaction (g > 0) between the adsorbed H species at the Pd interface even though all of the Pt, Ir, Pt−Ir alloys, and Pd are the same platinum group metals and the values of Ko for H, D, and (H + D) are similar.
5. Conclusions
The Frumkin and Temkin adsorption isotherms (θ vs. E) of (H + D) and the related electrode kinetic and thermodynamic parameters (g, K, ∆Gθ○, r) of the Pt−Ir alloy/0.1 M LiOH (H2O + D2O) solution interface have been determined using the phase-shift method and correlation constants and are compared with the relevant experimental data. The value of K decreases with increasing D2O. The value of K for (H + D) is approximately equal to the average value of K for H and D isotopes. The Frumkin adsorption isotherms of H, D, and (H + D) are readily distinguishable at the interface. For 0.2 < θ < 0.8, the lateral attractive (g < 0) or repulsive (g > 0) interaction between the adsorbed (H + D) species appears at the interface. The Temkin adsorption isotherm correlating with the Frumkin or Langmuir adsorption isotherm, and vice versa, is readily determined using the correlation constants.
The lateral attractive interaction (g < 0) between the adsorbed H, D, or (H + D) species appears at the Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy interfaces. The lateral repulsive interaction (g > 0) between the adsorbed H species appears at the Pd, Ni, Ti, and Zr interfaces. At the Au and Re interfaces, the lateral interaction between the adsorbed H species is negligible, i.e. g = 0 or g ≈ 0. The lateral repulsive interaction (g > 0) between the adsorbed OH or (OH + OD) species appears at the Pt−Ir alloy interfaces. The lateral attractive interaction (g < 0) between the adsorbed H, D, or (H + D) species is a unique feature of the Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy interfaces. For 0.2 < θ < 0.8, the duality of the lateral attractive and repulsive interactions between the adsorbed H, D, or (H + D) species appears at the Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy interfaces. This unique feature of the Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy interfaces is attributed to the range of g for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms of H, D, and (H + D), i.e. −4.6 < g < 0.
The phase-shift method and correlation constants are the most accurate and efficient techniques to determine the Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms and the related electrode kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of the noble and highly corrosion-resistant metal and alloy/H2O and D2O solution interfaces. They are useful and effective in facilitating selection of optimal electrode materials to yield electrochemical systems of maximum hydrogen, deuterium, and oxygen evolution performances. We expect that numerical simulations with a single equation for −φ vs. θ as functions of E and f or relevant experimental data for the phase-shift method and correlation constants will be obtained, compared, and discussed by other investigators.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Dr. Mu S. Cho (First President of Kwangwoon University, Seoul, Republic of Korea) for supporting the EG&G PAR 273A potentiostat/galvanostat, Schlumberger SI 1255 HF frequency response analyzer, and software packages. The section on theoretical and experimental backgrounds of the phase-shift method was reprinted with permission from Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data 55 (2010) 5598−5607. Copyright 2010 American Chemical Society. The authors wish to thank the American Chemical Society. This work was supported by the Research Grant of Kwangwoon University in 2012.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/41045.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/41045.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/41045",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/41045",totalDownloads:2698,totalViews:311,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 5th 2012",dateReviewed:"August 20th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 21st 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/41045",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/41045",book:{slug:"developments-in-electrochemistry"},signatures:"Jinyoung Chun and Jang H. Chun",authors:[{id:"164636",title:"Prof.",name:"Jang Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Chun",fullName:"Jang Ho Chun",slug:"jang-ho-chun",email:"jhchun@kw.ac.kr",position:null,institution:{name:"Kwangwoon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"164637",title:"Mr.",name:"Jinyoung",middleName:null,surname:"Chun",fullName:"Jinyoung Chun",slug:"jinyoung-chun",email:"gillyflower@postech.ac.kr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Experimental ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Preparations ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Measurements ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Results and discussion ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Theoretical and experimental backgrounds of the phase-shift method ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Basic procedure and description of the phase-shift method ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4. Applicability of the Frumkin, Langmuir, and Temkin adsorption isotherms ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.5. Standard Gibbs energy of adsorption ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Comparisons ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1. Mixture solution ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2. Correlation constants between the adsorption isotherms ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.3. Negative and positive values of the interaction parameters for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.4. Equilibrium constants ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Conclusions ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'GileadiE.Kirowa-EisnerE.PencinerJ.1975Interfacial electrochemistry.\n\t\t\t\t\tReading MA: Addison-Wesley\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'GileadiE.\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrode kinetics.\n\t\t\t\t\tNew York: VCH\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'ConwayB. E.JerkiewiczG.1995Electrochemistry and materials science of cathodic hydrogen absorption and adsorption.\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochemical Society Proceedings\n\t\t\t\t\t94Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'JerkiewiczG.MarcusP.1997Electrochemical surface science and hydrogen adsorption and absorption.\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochemical Society Proceedings\n\t\t\t\t\t97Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'JerkiewiczG.1998Hydrogen sorption at/in electrodes.\n\t\t\t\t\tProg. Surf. Sci\n\t\t\t\t\t572137186\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'JerkiewiczG.FeliuJ. M.PopovB. N.2000Hydrogen at surface and interfaces.\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochemical Society Proceedings\n\t\t\t\t\t2000-16Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'JerkiewiczG.2010Electrochemical hydrogen adsorption and absorption. Part 1: Under-potential deposition of hydrogen.\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrocatal\n\t\t\t\t\t14179199\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'GileadiE.1967Adsorption in electrochemistryGileadi E, editor. Electrosorption. New York: Plenum Press\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'ChunJ. H.RaK. H.1998The phase-shift method for the Frumkin adsorption isotherms at the Pd/H2SO4 and KOH solution interfaces.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Electrochem. Soc1451137943798'},{id:"B10",body:'ChunJ. H.RaK. H.KimN. Y.2001The Langmuir adsorption isotherms of electroadsorbed hydrogens for the cathodic hydrogen evolution reactions at the Pt(100)/H2SO4 and LiOH aqueous electrolyte interfaces. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy269941948\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B11",body:'ChunJ. H.RaK. H.KimN. Y.2002Qualitative analysis of the Frumkin adsorption isotherm of the over-potentially deposited hydrogen at the poly-Ni/KOH aqueous electrolyte interface using the phase-shift method.J. Electrochem. Soc1499E325330\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'ChunJ. H.JeonS. K.2003Determination of the equilibrium constant and standard free energy of the over-potentially deposited hydrogen for the cathodic H2 evolution reaction at the Pt-Rh alloy electrode interface using the phase-shift method.\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy281213331343\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'ChunJ. H.RaK. H.KimN. Y.2003Langmuir adsorption isotherms of over-potentially deposited hydrogen at poly-Au and Rh/H2SO4 aqueous electrolyte interfaces: Qualitative analysis using the phase-shift method.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Electrochem. Soc1504E207217\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'ChunJ. H.2003Methods for estimating adsorption isotherms in electrochemical systems.\n\t\t\t\t\tU.S. Patent\n\t\t\t\t\t6613218\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'ChunJ. H.JeonS. K.KimB. K.ChunJ. Y.2005Determination of the Langmuir adsorption isotherms of under- and over-potentially deposited hydrogen for the cathodic H2 evolution reaction at poly-Ir/aqueous electrolyte interfaces using the phase-shift method.\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy303247259\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'ChunJ. H.JeonS. K.RaK. H.ChunJ. Y.2005The phase-shift method for determining Langmuir adsorption isotherms of over-potentially deposited hydrogen for the cathodic H2 evolution reaction at poly-Re/aqueous electrolyte interfaces.\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy305485499\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'ChunJ. H.JeonS. K.KimN. Y.ChunJ. Y.2005The phase-shift method for determining Langmuir and Temkin adsorption isotherms of over-potentially deposited hydrogen for the cathodic H2 evolution reaction at the poly-Pt/H2SO4 aqueous electrolyte interface.\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy3013-1414231436\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'ChunJ. H.KimN. Y.2006The phase-shift method for determining adsorption isotherms of hydrogen in electrochemical systems.Int. J. Hydrogen Energy312277283\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'ChunJ. H.JeonS. K.ChunJ. Y.2007The phase-shift method and correlation constants for determining adsorption isotherms of hydrogen at a palladium electrode interface.\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy321219821990\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'ChunJ. H.KimN. Y.ChunJ. Y.2008Determination of adsorption isotherms of hydrogen and hydroxide at Pt−Ir alloy electrode interfaces using the phase-shift method and correlation constants.\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy\n\t\t\t\t\t332762774\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'ChunJ. H.ChunJ. Y.2008Correction and supplement to the determination of the optimum intermediate frequency for the phase-shift method [Chun et al., Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 247−259, 1423−1436].\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy\n\t\t\t\t\t331949624965\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'ChunJ. Y.ChunJ. H.2009A negative value of the interaction parameter for over-potentially deposited hydrogen at Pt, Ir, and Pt−Ir alloy electrode interfaces.\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochem. Commun\n\t\t\t\t\t114744747\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'ChunJ. Y.ChunJ. H.2009Determination of adsorption isotherms of hydrogen on titanium in sulfuric acid solution using the phase-shift method and correlation constants.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Chem. Eng. Data\n\t\t\t\t\t54412361243\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'ChunJ. H.ChunJ. Y.2009Determination of adsorption isotherms of hydrogen on zirconium in sulfuric acid solution using the phase-shift method and correlation constants.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Korean Electrochem. Soc\n\t\t\t\t\t1212633\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'ChunJ.LeeJ.ChunJ. H.2010Determination of adsorption isotherms of over-potentially deposited hydrogen on platinum and iridium in KOH aqueous solution using the phase-shift method and correlation constants.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Chem. Eng. Data\n\t\t\t\t\t55723632372\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'ChunJ.KimN. Y.ChunJ. H.2010Determination of adsorption isotherms of hydroxide and deuteroxide on Pt−Ir alloy in LiOH solutions using the phase-shift method and correlation constants.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Chem. Eng. Data55938253833\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'ChunJ.KimN. Y.ChunJ. H.2010Determination of the adsorption isotherms of hydrogen and deuterium isotopes on a Pt−Ir alloy in LiOH solutions using the phase-shift method and correlation constants.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Chem. Eng. Data551255985607\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'ChunJ.KimN. Y.ChunJ. H.2011Determination of the adsorption isotherms of overpotentially deposited hydrogen on a Pt−Ir alloy in H2SO4aqueous solution using the phase-shift method and correlation constants.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Chem. Eng. Data562251258\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B29",body:'ChunJ. H.2012Determination of the Frumkin and Temkin adsorption isotherms of hydrogen at nickel/acidic and alkaline aqueous solution interfaces using the phase-shift method and correlation constants. J. Korean Electrochem. Soc, 15(1), 54-66.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'KvastekK.Horvat-RadosevicV.2004Comment on: Langmuir adsorption isotherms of over-potentially deposited hydrogen at poly-Au and Rh/H2SO4 aqueous electrolyte interfaces; Qualitative analysis using the phase-shift method.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Electrochem. Soc\n\t\t\t\t\t1519L910\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'ChunJ. H.RaK. H.KimN. Y.2004Response to comment on: Langmuir adsorption isotherms of over-potentially deposited hydrogen at poly-Au and Rh/H2SO4 aqueous electrolyte interfaces; Qualitative analysis using the phase-shift method\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Electrochem. Soc 150 (2003) E207−217. J. Electrochem. Soc, 151(9), L11-13.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'LasiaA.2005Comments on: The phase-shift method for determining Langmuir adsorption isotherms of over-potentially deposited hydrogen for the cathodic H2 evolution reaction at poly-Re/aqueous electrolyte interfaces\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 485−499. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy,30(8), 913-917.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'ChunJ. H.JeonS. K.KimN. Y.ChunJ. Y.2005Response to comments on: The phase-shift method for determining Langmuir adsorption isotherms of over-potentially deposited hydrogen for the cathodic H2 evolution reaction at poly-Re/aqueous electrolyte interfaces\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 485−499. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy\n\t\t\t\t\t308919928\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'Horvat-RadosevicV.KvastekK.2009Pitfalls of the phase-shift method for determining adsorption isotherms.\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochem. Commun11714601463\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'In our e-mail communications, Horvat-Radosevic et al. admitted that all of their objections to the phase-shift method in Ref. 34 were confused and misunderstood. The exact same confusion and misunderstanding about the phase-shift method also appear in Refs. 30 and 32.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'GileadiE.Kirowa-EisnerE.PencinerJ.1975Interfacial electrochemistry.\n\t\t\t\t\tReading, MA: Addison-Wesley\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'GileadiE.Kirowa-EisnerE.PencinerJ.1975Interfacial electrochemistry. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley\n\t\t\t\t\t86\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'HarringtonD. A.ConwayB. E.1987AC impedance of faradaic reactions involving electrosorbed intermediates−I. Kinetic theory.\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochim. Acta\n\t\t\t\t\t321217031712\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'GileadiE.1993Electrode kinetics.\n\t\t\t\t\tNew York: VCH\n\t\t\t\t\t291\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'GileadiE.1993Electrode kinetics.\n\t\t\t\t\tNew York: VCH\n\t\t\t\t\t307\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B41",body:'GileadiE.Kirowa-EisnerE.PencinerJ.1975Interfacial electrochemistry.\n\t\t\t\t\tReading, MA: Addison-Wesley\n\t\t\t\t\t82\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'GileadiE.1993Electrode kinetics.\n\t\t\t\t\tNew York: VCH\n\t\t\t\t\t261\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'BockrisJ.O’M ReddyA. K. N.Gamboa-AldecoM.2000Modern electrochemistry.\n\t\t\t\t\t2nd edition. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press\n\t\t\t\t\t2A1193\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'OxtobyD. W.GillisH. P.NachtrieN. H.2002Principles of modern chemistry.\n\t\t\t\t\t5th edition. New York: Thomson Learning Inc\n\t\t\t\t\t446\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B45",body:'BockrisJ.O’M KhanS. U. M.1993Surface electrochemistry.\n\t\t\t\t\tNew York: Plenum Press\n\t\t\t\t\t596'},{id:"B46",body:'GileadiE.1993Electrode kinetics.\n\t\t\t\t\tNew York: VCH\n\t\t\t\t\t303\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jinyoung Chun",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Kyungbuk, Republic of Korea
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jang H. Chun",address:"jhchun@kw.ac.kr",affiliation:'
Department of Electronic Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3476",title:"Developments in Electrochemistry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Developments in Electrochemistry",slug:"developments-in-electrochemistry",publishedDate:"November 21st 2012",bookSignature:"Jang H. Chun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3476.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164636",title:"Prof.",name:"Jang Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Chun",slug:"jang-ho-chun",fullName:"Jang Ho Chun"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"41045",title:"Developments in Electrochemistry: The Phase-Shift Method and Correlation Constants for Determining the Electrochemical Adsorption Isotherms at Noble and Highly Corrosion-Resistant Metal/Solution Interfaces",slug:"developments-in-electrochemistry-the-phase-shift-method-and-correlation-constants-for-determining-th",totalDownloads:2698,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jinyoung Chun and Jang H. Chun",authors:[{id:"164636",title:"Prof.",name:"Jang Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Chun",fullName:"Jang Ho Chun",slug:"jang-ho-chun"},{id:"164637",title:"Mr.",name:"Jinyoung",middleName:null,surname:"Chun",fullName:"Jinyoung Chun",slug:"jinyoung-chun"}]},{id:"40853",title:"Quantitative Separation of an Adsorption Effect in Form of Defined Current Probabilistic Responses for Catalyzed / Inhibited Electrode Processes",slug:"quantitative-separation-of-an-adsorption-effect-in-form-of-defined-current-probabilistic-responses-f",totalDownloads:1769,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Piotr M. Skitał and Przemysław T. Sanecki",authors:[{id:"99510",title:"Prof.",name:"Przemyslaw",middleName:null,surname:"Sanecki",fullName:"Przemyslaw Sanecki",slug:"przemyslaw-sanecki"},{id:"100206",title:"Dr.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Skitał",fullName:"Piotr Skitał",slug:"piotr-skital"}]},{id:"40855",title:"Electrochemical Basis for EZSCAN/SUDOSCAN: A Quick, Simple, and Non-Invasive Method to Evaluate Sudomotor Dysfunctions",slug:"electrochemical-basis-for-ezscan-sudoscan-a-quick-simple-and-non-invasive-method-to-evaluate-sudomot",totalDownloads:2544,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Hanna Ayoub, Jean Henri Calvet, Virginie Lair, Sophie Griveau, Fethi Bedioui and Michel Cassir",authors:[{id:"162686",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Lair",fullName:"Virginie Lair",slug:"virginie-lair"},{id:"162687",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanna",middleName:null,surname:"Ayoub",fullName:"Hanna Ayoub",slug:"hanna-ayoub"},{id:"162688",title:"Prof.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Cassir",fullName:"Michel Cassir",slug:"michel-cassir"},{id:"162689",title:"Dr.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Bedioui",fullName:"Fethi Bedioui",slug:"fethi-bedioui"},{id:"162690",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophie",middleName:null,surname:"Griveau",fullName:"Sophie Griveau",slug:"sophie-griveau"},{id:"162691",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Henry",middleName:null,surname:"Calvet",fullName:"Jean-Henry Calvet",slug:"jean-henry-calvet"}]},{id:"40856",title:"Cyclohexane-Based Liquid-Biphasic Systems for Organic Electrochemistry",slug:"cyclohexane-based-liquid-biphasic-systems-for-organic-electrochemistry",totalDownloads:2029,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yohei Okada and Kazuhiro Chiba",authors:[{id:"96734",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuhiro",middleName:null,surname:"Chiba",fullName:"Kazuhiro Chiba",slug:"kazuhiro-chiba"},{id:"99939",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohei",middleName:null,surname:"Okada",fullName:"Yohei Okada",slug:"yohei-okada"}]},{id:"40857",title:"Electrochemical Transformation of White Phosphorus as a Way to Compounds With Phosphorus-Hydrogen and Phosphorus-Carbon Bonds",slug:"electrochemical-transformation-of-white-phosphorus-as-a-way-to-compounds-with-phosphorus-hydrogen-an",totalDownloads:2090,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Yu. G. Budnikova and S. A. Krasnov",authors:[{id:"162235",title:"Prof.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Budnikova",fullName:"Yulia Budnikova",slug:"yulia-budnikova"},{id:"162237",title:"Mr.",name:"Sergei",middleName:null,surname:"Krasnov",fullName:"Sergei Krasnov",slug:"sergei-krasnov"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"21",title:"Ferroelectrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"ferroelectrics",bookSignature:"Indrani Coondoo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/21.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"289832",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrani",surname:"Coondoo",slug:"indrani-coondoo",fullName:"Indrani Coondoo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"12488",title:"Principle Operation of 3-D Memory Device based on Piezoacousto Properties of Ferroelectric Films",slug:"principle-operation-and-3-d-architectures-of-universal-memory-device-based-on-piezoacousto-propertie",signatures:"Ju. H. Krieger",authors:[{id:"14174",title:"Dr.",name:"Juri",middleName:null,surname:"Krieger",fullName:"Juri Krieger",slug:"juri-krieger"}]},{id:"12683",title:"Ferroelectric and Multiferroic Tunnel Junctions",slug:"tunneling-electroresistance-and-magnetoresistance-in-ferroelectrics-based-tunneling-junctions",signatures:"Tianyi Cai, Sheng Ju, Jian Wang and Zhen-Ya Li",authors:[null]},{id:"12489",title:"Photoluminescence in Low-Dimensional Oxide Ferroelectric Materials",slug:"photoluminescence-in-low-dimensional-oxide-ferroelectric-materials",signatures:"Dinghua Bao",authors:[{id:"15843",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinghua",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",fullName:"Dinghua Bao",slug:"dinghua-bao"}]},{id:"12490",title:"Optical Properties and Electronic Band Structures of Perovskite-Type Ferroelectric and Conductive Metallic Oxide Films",slug:"optical-properties-and-electronic-band-structures-of-perovskite-type-ferroelectric-and-conductive-me",signatures:"Zhigao Hu, Yawei Li, Wenwu Li, Jiajun Zhu, Min Zhu, Ziqiang Zhu and Junhao Chu",authors:[{id:"15342",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhigao",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",fullName:"Zhigao Hu",slug:"zhigao-hu"},{id:"15584",title:"Dr.",name:"Yawei",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yawei Li",slug:"yawei-li"},{id:"15585",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenwu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Wenwu Li",slug:"wenwu-li"},{id:"15586",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Min Zhu",slug:"min-zhu"},{id:"15587",title:"Prof.",name:"Junhao",middleName:null,surname:"Chu",fullName:"Junhao Chu",slug:"junhao-chu"},{id:"15629",title:"Prof.",name:"Ziqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Ziqiang Zhu",slug:"ziqiang-zhu"},{id:"23823",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiajun",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Jiajun Zhu",slug:"jiajun-zhu"}]},{id:"12491",title:"Epitaxial SrRuO3 Thin Films Deposited on SrO buffered-Si(001) Substrates for Ferroelectric Pb(Zr0.2Ti0.8)O3 Thin Films",slug:"the-structural-and-ferroelectric-properties-of-the-epitaxial-thin-films-grown-on-appropriate-buffer-",signatures:"Soon-Gil Yoon",authors:[{id:"15405",title:"Prof.",name:"Soon-Gil",middleName:null,surname:"Yoon",fullName:"Soon-Gil Yoon",slug:"soon-gil-yoon"}]},{id:"12492",title:"Electrocaloric Effect (ECE) in Ferroelectric Polymer Films",slug:"electrocaloric-effect-ece-in-ferroelectric-polymer-films",signatures:"S. G. Lu, B. Rozic, Z. Kutnjak and Q. M. Zhang",authors:[null]},{id:"12493",title:"Study on Substitution Effect of Bi4Ti3O12 Ferroelectric Thin Films",slug:"study-on-substitution-effect-of-bi4ti3o12-ferroelectric-thin-films",signatures:"Jianjun Li, Jun Yu and Ping Li",authors:[{id:"14227",title:"Prof.",name:"jianjun",middleName:null,surname:"li",fullName:"jianjun li",slug:"jianjun-li"},{id:"15749",title:"Prof.",name:"jun",middleName:null,surname:"yu",fullName:"jun yu",slug:"jun-yu"},{id:"24225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Ping Li",slug:"ping-li"}]},{id:"12494",title:"Uniaxially Aligned Poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and Carbon Nanofiber Yarns through Electrospinning of a Precursor",slug:"uniaxially-aligned-poly-p-phenylenevinylene-and-carbon-nanofiber-yarns-through-electrospinning-of-a-",signatures:"Hidenori Okuzaki and Hu Yan",authors:[{id:"13999",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Okuzaki",fullName:"Hidenori Okuzaki",slug:"hidenori-okuzaki"},{id:"23875",title:"Dr.",name:"Hu",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",fullName:"Hu Yan",slug:"hu-yan"}]},{id:"12495",title:"Applications of Carbon Materials for Ferroelectric and Related Materials",slug:"carbon-composites-for-applications-as-ferroelectric-related-materials",signatures:"Young-Seak Lee, Euigyung Jeong and Ji Sun Im",authors:[{id:"7212",title:"Prof.",name:"Young-Seak",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Young-Seak Lee",slug:"young-seak-lee"}]},{id:"12496",title:"Dielectric Relaxation Phenomenon in Ferroelectric Perovskite-related Structures",slug:"dielectric-relaxation-phenomenon-in-ferroelectric-perovskite-related-structures",signatures:"Aimé Peláiz-Barranco and José De Los Santos Guerra",authors:[{id:"14679",title:"Dr.",name:"Aimé",middleName:null,surname:"Peláiz-Barranco",fullName:"Aimé Peláiz-Barranco",slug:"aime-pelaiz-barranco"},{id:"14726",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"De Los Santos Guerra",fullName:"José De Los Santos Guerra",slug:"jose-de-los-santos-guerra"}]},{id:"12497",title:"The Ferroelectric-Ferromagnetic Composite Ceramics with High Permittivity and High Permeability in Hyper-Frequency",slug:"the-ferroelectric-ferromagnetic-composite-ceramics-with-high-permittivity-and-high-permeability-in-h",signatures:"Yang Bai",authors:[{id:"14618",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Bai",fullName:"Yang Bai",slug:"yang-bai"}]},{id:"12498",title:"Aging-Induced, Defect-Mediated Double Ferroelectric Hysteresis Loops and Large Recoverable Electrostrains in Mn-Doped Orthorhombic KNbO3-Based Lead-Free Ceramics",slug:"aging-induced-defect-mediated-double-ferroelectric-hysteresis-loops-and-large-recoverable-electrostr",signatures:"Siu Wing Or",authors:[{id:"15767",title:"Prof.",name:"Siu Wing",middleName:null,surname:"Or",fullName:"Siu Wing Or",slug:"siu-wing-or"}]},{id:"12499",title:"Effects of B-Site Donor and Acceptor Doping in Pb-Free (Bi0.5Na0.5)TiO3 Ceramics",slug:"doping-effects-in-pb-free-bi0-5na0-5-tio3-ceramics",signatures:"Yeon Soo Sung and Myong Ho Kim",authors:[{id:"16240",title:"Dr.",name:"Myong Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Myong Ho Kim",slug:"myong-ho-kim"},{id:"16246",title:"Prof.",name:"Yeon Soo",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",fullName:"Yeon Soo Sung",slug:"yeon-soo-sung"}]},{id:"12500",title:"Enhanced Dielectric and Ferroelectric Properties of Donor (W6+, Eu3+) Substituted SBT Ferroelectric Ceramics",slug:"enhanced-dielectric-and-ferroelectric-properties-of-donor-w6-eu3-substituted-sbt-ferroelectric-ceram",signatures:"Indrani Coondoo and Neeraj Panwar",authors:[{id:"289832",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrani",middleName:null,surname:"Coondoo",fullName:"Indrani Coondoo",slug:"indrani-coondoo"}]},{id:"12501",title:"Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics of Ferroelectric Phase Transitions",slug:"non-equilibrium-thermodynamics-of-ferroelectric-phase-transitions",signatures:"Shu-tao Ai",authors:[{id:"13804",title:"Dr.",name:"Shu-Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Ai",fullName:"Shu-Tao Ai",slug:"shu-tao-ai"}]},{id:"12502",title:"Theories and Methods of First Order Ferroelectric Phase Transitions",slug:"theories-and-methods-of-first-order-ferroelectric-phase-transitions",signatures:"Chunlei Wang",authors:[{id:"14521",title:"Prof.",name:"Chunlei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Chunlei Wang",slug:"chunlei-wang"}]},{id:"12503",title:"Electroacoustic Waves in a Ferroelectric Crystal with of a Moving System of Domain Walls",slug:"electroacoustic-waves-in-a-ferroelectric-crystal-with-of-a-moving-system-of-domain-walls",signatures:"Evgeniy Vilkov and Sergey Maryshev",authors:[{id:"14628",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgeniy",middleName:null,surname:"Vilkov",fullName:"Evgeniy Vilkov",slug:"evgeniy-vilkov"},{id:"14760",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Maryshev",fullName:"Sergey Maryshev",slug:"sergey-maryshev"}]},{id:"12504",title:"Ferroelectric Optics: Optical Bistability in Nonlinear Kerr Ferroelectric Materials",slug:"ferroelectric-optics-optical-bistability-in-nonlinear-kerr-ferroelectric-materials-",signatures:"Abdel-baset Ibrahim, Mohd Kamil Abd Rahman and Junaidah Osman",authors:[{id:"13792",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Baset",middleName:"M. A.",surname:"Ibrahim",fullName:"Abdel-Baset Ibrahim",slug:"abdel-baset-ibrahim"},{id:"14762",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Kamil",middleName:null,surname:"Abd Rahman",fullName:"Mohd Kamil Abd Rahman",slug:"mohd-kamil-abd-rahman"},{id:"23902",title:"Dr.",name:"Junaidah",middleName:null,surname:"Osman",fullName:"Junaidah Osman",slug:"junaidah-osman"}]},{id:"12505",title:"Nonlinear Conversion Enhancement for Efficient Piezoelectric Electrical Generators",slug:"nonlinear-conversion-enhancement-for-efficient-piezoelectric-electrical-generators",signatures:"Daniel Guyomar and Mickaël Lallart",authors:[{id:"10041",title:"Dr.",name:"Mickaël",middleName:null,surname:"Lallart",fullName:"Mickaël Lallart",slug:"mickael-lallart"},{id:"10042",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Jean",surname:"Guyomar",fullName:"Daniel Guyomar",slug:"daniel-guyomar"}]},{id:"12506",title:"Quantum Chemical Investigations of Structural Parameters of PVDF-based Organic Ferroelectric Materials",slug:"quantum-chemical-investigations-of-structural-parameters-of-pvdf-based-organic-ferroelectric-materia",signatures:"Ortiz Elba, Cuan Angeles, NoreÑa Luis, Cortes- Romero Carlos and Wang Qing",authors:[{id:"14607",title:"Dr.",name:"Elba",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",fullName:"Elba Ortiz",slug:"elba-ortiz"},{id:"15561",title:"Dr.",name:"Angeles",middleName:null,surname:"Cuan",fullName:"Angeles Cuan",slug:"angeles-cuan"},{id:"15562",title:"Dr.",name:"Noreña",middleName:null,surname:"Luis",fullName:"Noreña Luis",slug:"norena-luis"},{id:"15563",title:"Dr.",name:"Cortes- Romero",middleName:null,surname:"Carlos",fullName:"Cortes- Romero Carlos",slug:"cortes-romero-carlos"},{id:"15564",title:"Dr.",name:"Qing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Qing Wang",slug:"qing-wang"}]},{id:"12507",title:"An Exact Impedance Control of DC Motors Using Casimir Functions",slug:"an-exact-impedance-control-for-dc-motor-using-casimir-functions",signatures:"Satoru Sakai",authors:[{id:"13709",title:"Prof.",name:"Satoru",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",fullName:"Satoru Sakai",slug:"satoru-sakai"}]},{id:"12508",title:"Stabilization of Networked Control Systems with Input Saturation",slug:"stabilization-of-networked-control-systems-with-input-saturation",signatures:"PooGyeon Park and Sung Hyun Kim",authors:[{id:"7092",title:"Dr.",name:"Sung Hyun",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Sung Hyun Kim",slug:"sung-hyun-kim"},{id:"14243",title:"Prof.",name:"PooGyeon",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"PooGyeon Park",slug:"poogyeon-park"}]},{id:"12509",title:"Robust Sampled-Data Control Design of Uncertain Fuzzy Systems with Discrete and Distributed Delays",slug:"robust-sampled-data-control-design-of-uncertain-fuzzy-systems-with-discrete-and-distributed-delays",signatures:"Yuzu Uchida, Makoto Nishigaki and Jun Yoneyama",authors:[{id:"6944",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Yoneyama",fullName:"Jun Yoneyama",slug:"jun-yoneyama"},{id:"15518",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuzu",middleName:null,surname:"Uchida",fullName:"Yuzu Uchida",slug:"yuzu-uchida"},{id:"15519",title:"Prof.",name:"Makoto",middleName:null,surname:"Nishigaki",fullName:"Makoto Nishigaki",slug:"makoto-nishigaki"}]},{id:"12510",title:"Numerical Solution of a System of Polynomial Parametric Form Fuzzy Linear Equations",slug:"numerical-solution-of-a-system-of-polynomial-parametric-form-fuzzy-linear-equations",signatures:"Majid Amirfakhrian",authors:[{id:"13687",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Majid",middleName:null,surname:"Amirfakhrian",fullName:"Majid Amirfakhrian",slug:"majid-amirfakhrian"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72979",title:"Management of E. coli\ufeff Sepsis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93132",slug:"management-of-e-coli-sepsis",body:'
1. Introduction
Escherichia coli strains compose, physiologically part of the microflora of the gastrointestinal tract [1, 2, 3, 4]. Belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family, fermentative, non-sporulated and facultative anaerobic commensals, they are mainly from the large intestine [5, 6].
Despite being commensal microorganisms, they are the Gram-negatives which are most often a cause of human infections, having pathogenic strains that cause a wide variety of intestinal or extra-intestinal infections, such as urinary tract, intra-abdominal and soft tissue, sepsis, neonatal meningitis, gastrointestinal infection, and pneumonia, often leading to bacteremia [3, 7]. Although Gram-positive microorganisms have been increasing as a cause of sepsis due to the instrumentation of medical care—understood as the use of invasive devices or tools for the treatment or diagnosis of patients, and to infections associated with health care—E. coli continues to be an important and perhaps the most frequent cause of threatening infections in our environment [8, 9].
They are classified as Gram-negative bacteria and divided into 3 main groups: commensal lines, intestinal pathogenic lines (enteric or diarrhea) and extra-intestinal pathogenic lines [10].
Furthermore, Gram-negative bacteria produce large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide, known as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), lipoglycans and endotoxin, which increases their pathogenicity in relation to Gram-positive bacteria [11].
2. Epidemiology
E. coli is one of the most commonly isolated bacteria in the bloodstream (responsible for approximately 20% of all clinically significant isolates) and is the Gram-negative organism most frequently isolated in adult patients with bacteremia [12]. In the United States of America, E. coli sepsis was associated with approximately 40,000 deaths in 2001, a number that corresponds to 17% of all cases of sepsis [13].
Studies have shown an increasing incidence of E. coli early-onset sepsis in all age groups, overruling group B Streptoccocus for the last 10 years. Beyond that, E. coli resistant strains also increased equally in all age groups, with high resistance rates to first line antibiotics available (ampicillin and gentamicin).
Very low birth weight newborns remained the group with higher incidence (10.4 cases per 1000 live births) and mortality (35.3%). Systematic use of PCR increased E. coli early-onset sepsis diagnosis, mainly in the term newborn group. There was also an increase in resistant E. coli strains causing early-onset sepsis, with especially high resistance to ampicillin and gentamicin (92.8 and 28.6%, respectively) [14].
3. Risk factors
Several hospital-based studies have suggested that a number of comorbid illnesses, including diabetes, malignancy, chronic lung disease, cirrhosis and heart disease, may increase the risk of E. coli bacteremia. Previous researches have also identified age (very young and very elder), hospital acquisition, comorbid illnesses, presence of shock, non-urinary focus, and antimicrobial resistance in conjunction with inadequate treatment as being associated with higher rates of death [15, 16, 17].
Dialysis, solid organ transplantation and neoplastic disease were important risk factors for acquiring E. coli bacteraemia. Ciprofloxacin resistance and non-urinary focus were independently associated with an increased risk of death [18]. For males, urinary catheterization and incontinence were associated as risk factors to Escherichia coli bloodstream, and for females, cancer, renal failure, heart disease and urinary incontinence were risk factors reported [19]. Several risk factors which have significantly mortality due to E. coli bacteremia are age, severe sepsis or shock, non-urinary origin, Charlson index, inadequate empirical treatment (Table 1).
Mortality risk factor
P
OR (95% CI)
Age
0.03
1.04 (1–1.08)
Severe sepsis or shock
<0.0001
14.64 (6.14–30.86)
Non-urinary origin
0.013
2.78 (1.24–6.2)
Charlson index
0.006
1.31 (1.08–1.59)
Inadequate empirical treatment
0.006
2.98 (1.25–7.11)
Table 1.
Results of multivariate analyses examining risk factors for mortality associated with bacteraemia due to E. coli [15].
4. Pathogenesis
The human gastrointestinal tract is normally inhabited by Escherichia coli, which is why they are the bacterial species most commonly found in the isolation of fecal culture [20, 21]. By the time the strains acquire additional genetic material, they can become pathogenic and circulate widely throughout the body. Pathological clones are divided into two major groups: intestinal (among the most virulent enteric pathogens) and extraintestinal (less present, but not less dangerous) [22, 23].
4.1 Intestinal
4.1.1 EPEC
Typical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (tEPEC) contains a virulence plasmid (pEAF) that encodes the bundle-forming pilus (BFP), the primary factor for colonization [24, 25]. In addition, EPEC carries the crossomic island of locus for enterocyte effacement, which features the eae gene, which is the encoder of a colonization factor in the outer membrane protein called intimin [26, 27]. Only the E. coli strain that has pEAF and the eae gene can be considered tEPEC, one that has only the eae gene and is called atypical EPEC (aETEC) [28].
The small intestine is the most likely place for EPEC infection to occur. For the onset of diseases, tEPEC obeys the following steps:
Initial localized adhesion of organisms to enterocyte via BFP.
Induction of signal transduction in the enterocyte by secretion of protein toxins.
Development of intimin-mediated intimate adhesion to the enterocyte.
Around 20 protein toxins are injected directly into the target epithelial cell, made, together with the intimin, by the chromosomal island LEE and expressed by both tEPEC and aEPEC [29]. The complex nanomachine called type III secretion injector is the one that injects protein toxins. It is assumed that some modifications happen to the epithelial stem cells, which is physiologically absorbent, and through a pathological process, it becomes a secretory dynamo [30].
What is believed is that type III ejection toxins are responsible for binding to protein elements of the cell’s signal transduction apparatus. This event is accompanied by the mobilization of calcium from the intracellular compartment, activation of protein kinase C, kinase light chain myosin and induction of protein phosphorylation by tyrosine. The rearrangement of cytoskeletal proteins is induced by effectors, which results in the classic lesion "attaching and erasing," changes in the secretion of water and electrolytes and increased permeability of the tight intestinal junctions [31].
4.1.2 ETEC
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) consists of ingestion of bacteria, intestinal colonization and production of virulence factors. Colonizing fimbriae (CFs) must be expressed by ETEC to allow the consolidation of the bacteria in the intestine [32].
After colonization, ETEC produces two classes of secretory toxins encoded by plasmids: heat-labile toxin (LT) and heat-stable toxin (ST). To be classified as ETEC, E. coli must contain one or both classes of toxins [33, 34].
LT toxin is related to Vibrio cholera toxins in terms of structure, function and mechanism. It works by stimulating adenylate cyclase and increasing adenosine intracellular cyclic monophosphate (AMP), a fact that stimulates chloride secretion from intestinal crypt cells and inhibits the absorption of sodium chloride at the ends of the villi. After that, the water secretion is free in the intestinal lumen, clinically developing watery diarrhea [35].
STa toxin, the only ST variant that causes disease in humans, activates cyclic GMP of enterocytes, leading to increased chloride secretion and decreased sodium chloride absorption. As a final result, the secretion of free water in the intestinal lumen clinically appears as watery diarrhea [36].
4.1.3 EHEC
Among the pathotypes that cause the most severe conditions, the strains classified as enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) stand out, which are the most common to cause disease in developed countries [29].
They are bacteria responsible for food infections and represent a risk to the health of the population, so they must be monitored frequently. Thus, good hygiene practices, as well as the use of quality tools, are extremely important to help reduce the risk of cross-contamination and human infection.
EHEC has the ability to attach itself to the host and to produce shiga-toxins, which gives the strain pathogenicity. The toxins produced by EHEC cause damage to the mucosa of the large intestine, where they are absorbed by reaching the bloodstream, which makes it possible to affect other organs, such as the kidneys [37]. An average of 5–10% of patients confirmed with EHEC infection develop potentially fatal complications, such as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), which leads to sudden renal failure and hemolytic anemia [38].
Outbreaks are related to the ingestion of contaminated food and water, causing watery diarrhea and hemorrhagic colitis to those infected. The disease has a sudden onset with severe abdominal cramps and watery diarrhea that progresses to bloody, on average after 24 hours, lasting between 1 to 8 days.
The treatment consists of supportive therapy for fluid replacement, since the use of antibiotics is not indicated, as there is no proven efficacy. In fact, it could increase the risk of developing HUS, since the death of the bacteria would increase the release of toxins, predisposing to the syndrome [39].
4.1.4 EIEC
Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) is very close to Shigella and develops a colitis similar to shigellosis. The intestinal cell is invaded by the EIEC which multiplies intracellularly and reaches the adjacent intestinal cells [40].
To differentiate Shigella from EIEC it is necessary to analyze the strains, those from EIEC ferment glucose and xylose, this differentiates them. Nucleic acid tests, including multiplexed panels, are used to detect organisms [41].
4.1.5 DAEC
Diffusely adherent E. coli is associated with diarrhea, which is characterized as watery and can become persistent in children between 1 and 5 years of age, occurring more frequently in developing and developed countries. In addition, this bacterium is also related to urinary tract infections and complications during the pregnancy period.
The pattern of diffuse adhesion in HEp-2 or HeLa cells is a characteristic that differentiates this pathotype from the others, although DAEC strains are quite heterogeneous. This adhesion is mediated by fimbrial and afimbrial adhesins, which can cause damage to microvilli due to the disorganization of the cytoskeleton. However, some strains produce an adhesin involved in diffuse adhesion (AIDA-I), instead of encoding the diffuse adhesion pattern, which is why they are called atypical DAEC [42].
In addition, DAEC can also provide a pro-inflammatory effect [43].
4.2 Extraintestinal
The type of E. coli responsible for the invasion, colonization and induction of diseases in body sites outside the gastrointestinal tract is the extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC). It is noteworthy that diseases caused by ExPEC range from urinary tract infections, neonatal meningitis, sepsis, pneumonia, surgical site infections to infections in other extraintestinal sites, representing a burden in terms of medical costs and lost productivity [44].
Thereto, the ExPEC strains were isolated from food products, in particular raw meat and poultry, indicating that these organisms potentially represent a new class of foodborne pathogens [45].
4.2.1 Urosepsis
Almost 25% of sepsis cases originate from the urogenital tract. [46, 47, 48]. Considering this percentage, the most common pathogen that causes urinary tract infection (and, consequently, urosepsis) is Escherichia coli (50%) [49]. It is known that this condition is better managed with an interprofessional team of health professionals—a nephrologist, infectious disease expert, urologist, intensivist, a nurse and a pharmacist [50, 51]. The outcomes after urosepsis depend on the cause and severity of the infection, and if the patient has a complicating factor in the urinary tract that is identified and warrants treatment, it should be performed as soon as possible. As an example, the literature reveals Foley catheter placement to relieve urinary retention or stent placement to bypass an obstructing ureteral calculus causing urosepsis. Moreover, the prognosis also depends on the type of bacteria, antimicrobial resistance, and patient comorbidity.
In addition to early antibiotics, there are some important parts of the management of sepsis. Initial fluid resuscitation with crystalloid is still recommended at a minimum of 30 mL/kg. Consider early administration of vasopressor support to maintain a mean arterial pressure greater than 65 mm Hg. The first choice for vasopressor support in sepsis is norepinephrine (with epinephrine and vasopressin 2 and 3). Tight glucose control is also recommended, with corticosteroids and blood products being more controversial in the literature [52].
5. Antimicrobial resistance
Although Escherichia coli is one of the most-studied microorganisms worldwide, its characteristics are constantly changing. Elseways, one important global problem is the increase of antimicrobial resistance shown by bacteria, being considered as “threatens the achievements of modern medicine” [53, 54].
E. coli resistant strains increased equally in all age groups, with high resistance rates to our first line antibiotics (ampicillin and gentamicin), with relevant highlight in neonatal E. coli isolates from invasive infection [55]. Table 2 shows the temporal trends for antibiotic resistance to E. coli.
Agent or phenotype [n (%)]
1997 n = 58
1998 n = 49
1999 n = 52
2000 n = 83
2001 n = 86
2002 n = 70
2003 n = 87
2004 n = 122
2005 (January–June) n = 56
Total n = 663
P
Ampicillin
27 (46.6)
24 (49)
24 (46.2)
50 (60.2)
54 (62.8)
46 (65.7)
55 (63.2)
70 (57.9)
35 (62.5)
385 (58.2)
0.02
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole
14 (24.1)
11 (22.4)
13 (25.0)
28 (33.7)
21 (24.4)
28 (40)
32 (36.8)
41 (33.6)
20 (35.7)
208 (31.4)
0.02
Ciprofloxacin
9 (15.5)
7 (14.3)
10 (19.2)
7 (8.4)
14 (16.3)
16 (22.9)
22 (25.3)
27 (22.1)
13 (23.2)
125 (18.9)
0.02
Amoxicillin/clavulanate
9 (15.5)
4 (8.2)
9 (17.3)
16 (19.3)
8 (9.3)
7 (10)
11 (12.6)
15 (12.3)
20 (35.7)
99 (14.9)
0.1
Gentamicin
4 (6.9)
6 (12.2)
5 (9.6)
5 (6.0)
8 (9.3)
6 (8.6)
7 (8.0)
8 (6.6)
8 (14.3)
57 (8.6)
0.8
Piperacillin/tazobactam
1 (1.7)
4 (8.2)
1 (1.9)
8 (9.6)
6 (7.0)
4 (5.7)
5 (5.7)
2 (1.6)
2 (3.6)
33 (5)
0.4
Cefotaxime
11
2 (4.1)
0
2 (2.4)
3 (3.5)
5 (7.1)
3 (3.4)
12 (9.8)
4 (7.1)
31 (4.7)
0.001
ESBL production
0
0
0
2 (2.4)
3 (3.5)
3 (4.3)
2 (2.3)
9 (7.4)
3 (5.4)
22 (3.3)
0.002
MDR
4 (6.9)
4 (8.2)
5 (9.6)
9 (10.8)
9 (10.5)
12 (17.1)
15 (17.2)
17 (13.9)
12 (21.4)
87 (13.1)
0.006
Table 2.
Number, yearly percentages, and P values for temporal trend of non-susceptible cases of E. coli bacteraemia.
6. Evaluation
The sepsis’ diagnosis confirmation is done from the evaluation of the clinical status of the patient, analyzing some criteria. For adult patients, it is confirmed or a diagnosis of sepsis is made when two criteria are present: hyperthermia>38.3 °C or hypothermia <36°C, tachycardia>90 bpm, leukocytosis (>12,000 μL-1) or leukopenia (<4000 μL-1) or >10% bands, acutely altered mental status, tachypnea > 20 bpm, hyperglycemia (>120 mg/dl) in the absence of diabetes [56].
7. Clinical assessment and patient presentations
7.1 History and physical examination
Collect a careful history from patient, addressing information such as previous illnesses, surgeries, how long ago the symptoms started, if there are comorbidities, if it have traveled to a place recently and other details, added to a complete physical examination, which provides very relevant information and leads to a line of rationality, it is extremely important to start the development of a preliminary differential diagnosis of the patient’s complaints.
All this information collected is recorded and saved in medical records, more recently, electronics, which are more organized, more readable and allows a better comparison, in relation to written records [57].
Some of the most frequent reasons that lead patients to go to a medical consultation are dyspnea, cough with or without hemoptysis and chest pain, as these symptoms can be indications of serious illnesses, it shows the importance of asking questions and exams in a way attentive and careful [58].
7.2 Presentations
7.2.1 Pneumonia
Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is the most common fatal hospital infection [59]. One of the bacteria most involved in the clinical picture in question is Enterobacteriaceae Escherichia coli [60, 61] and there is little awareness when it comes to the pathophysiology of E. coli pneumonia.
Studies show that these E. coli pathogenic islands (PAIs) are involved differently in the pathogenicity of the lung compared to those present in urinary tract and bloodstream infections [62]. In addition, research on mice has also shown that these isolated strains are highly virulent extra-intestinal pathogens that express virulence factors, representing potential targets for new therapy. A French national study also demonstrated that, despite the genomic and phylogenetic characteristics of E. coli pneumonia isolates from critically ill patients, they belong to the same extra-intestinal pathogen as E. coli, they have specific distinct characteristics when lungs [63].
7.2.2 Acute-bacterial meningitis
E. coli meningitis is rare in adult forms of the disease [64, 65, 66], but it is a frequent pathogen in the pediatric field [67]. Despite its rarity, it has a serious clinical course [64, 65, 66]. It is usually diagnosed based on clinical signs and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis.
Due to the severity of the disease, early diagnosis, adequate antibiotic treatment and hemodynamic control are essential [68].
E. coli meningitis follows a high degree of bacteraemia and invasion of the blood–brain barrier. With mortality rates ranging from 15 to 40%, Meningitis due to this bacterium leaves approximately 50% of survivors with some type of neurological sequelae [69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78].
Although the process is unknown, it is known that, for the onset of the disease, it is necessary to have an invasion of the blood–brain barrier by E. coli, which requires specific microbial and host factors such as specific signaling molecules for microbes and hosts. Thus, blocking these microbial and host factors that contribute to the invasion of the blood–brain barrier by E. coli is effective in preventing the penetration of E. coli into the brain.
With the complete discovery of this mechanism, it is likely that new targets for the prevention and therapy of Escherichia coli meningitis will be achieved [79].
Regarding treatment, it is currently known only that antimicrobial chemotherapy has limited efficacy [79, 80, 81].
7.2.3 Intra-abdominal infections
Intra-abdominal infections (IAI) are invasive and bacterial multiplications in the hollow organ walls and beyond. Usually, it is located in the abdominal cavity, in the retroperitoneum and in the abdominal organs, being a common complication in the post-surgical period [82]. In addition, they have a wide variety of pathological conditions, from appendicitis to fecal peritonitis, which makes IAI generally have a poor prognosis (especially in high-risk patients) and is an important cause of morbidity [83]. Mostly, the most common source of this infection is the appendix, followed by gastroduodenal perforations. The Gram-negative bacteria E. coli is the most common causative agent of IAI. Therefore, it is important to know that they have great sensitivity to imipenem, meropenem, mainly, and to amoxi-clavulanate, amikacin and piperacillin-tazobactam, next [84, 85]. However, amici-clavulanate is prescribed as a first-line drug in developing countries, due to cost factors [86].
7.2.4 Enteric infections
Although E. coli strains have been isolated as part of the normal beneficial flora of the intestine, some strains have developed pathogenic mechanisms to cause disease in humans and animals. One of these strains capable of causing diseases is enteric Escherichia coli (E. coli), comprising important pathogens, since they cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Traditionally enteric E. coli was divided into 6 pathotypes, however two other divisions were proposed by several studies (as mentioned individually in topic 4) [87].
Although there are many etiological agents responsible for diarrhea, pathogenic E. coli is a major contributor. On the other hand, the onset and complications of enteric E. coli vary significantly, despite there are many common features in the pathogenic process of colonizing the intestinal mucosa and the onset of disease [88].
Outbreaks are common all over the world, with fatal consequences mainly in children under 5 years of age living in underdeveloped countries, where diarrheal diseases can lead to death more frequently [89].
The transmission of enteric E. coli is also a public health concern, related to the development of countries, since its transmission is through contaminated water and food. Thus, the seriousness in relation to the microorganism can be exemplified by national and international surveillance programs, created by developed countries that aim to constantly monitor outbreaks [90]. In developing countries ETEC, EPEC and EAEC are considered to be the main causes of childhood diarrhea, and when left untreated, they have potentially fatal consequences. However. in developed countries, these infections are mild and self-limiting, with EHEC and, more recently, EAEC and STEAEC being the main E. coli pathotypes associated with food poisoning outbreaks [91, 92].
7.2.5 UTI
Among the most common types of bacterial infections that occur both in the community and in hospitals, urinary tract infections (UTI) stand out. Urinary tract infections can be associated with the hospital (HAUTIs) and the community (CAUTIs). In the case of CAUTIs, it is known whether women are the predominant group of patients.
Although the UTI is multifactorial, the main bacteria related to the diagnosis is E. coli, predominant in both community and nosocomial UTIs [93].
Co-trimoxazole (trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole), nitrofurantoin, ciprofloxacin and ampicillin are the antibiotics commonly recommended for the treatment of UTIs. However, there is an overall increase in antibiotic resistance among pathogens in the urinary tract, which is a limitation on treatment options [94, 95].
Since the evidence suggests a significant relationship between the extensive use of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance, it is necessary to prescribe and use antibiotics in order to reduce their complications and costs [96].
For this reason, in order to guide the selection of empirical therapy, surveillance of antibiotic resistance is crucial for determining the pattern of antimicrobial resistance [97].
8. Workup
8.1 Urine culture
It aims to check the presence of fungi and bacteria in the urine, being carried out from a urine sample, which was placed in Petri dishes. The urine culture is placed in an incubator (1–2 days) and if there is any microorganism in the tested material, colonies grow and are visible on the plate. When the result is positive for some bacteria, a test antibiogram is performed, which determines the type of antibiotic needed to act against the pathogen [98].
The culture of urine is important precisely because it allows the precise recognition of the bacteria and, consequently, the best antibiotic to be used [99].
As urine culture is most frequently requested when UTI is suspected, the most common bacteria found are Escherichia coli (between 47.5% and 56.4% of all urine culture) [100, 101].
8.2 Blood culture
Blood culture is part of the routine assessment of patients with suspected bloodstream infection, and is crucial to guide therapeutic intervention. The ideal method for collecting blood culture is venepuncture, since it increases diagnostic yield, and has lower rates of contamination, according to some studies [102].
Since the timing of blood culture collection does not influence the detection of clinically relevant microorganisms, most authorities recommend collecting several sets simultaneously or for a short period of time, with the exception of patients with endovascular infection who need documented continuous bacteremia [103, 104].
Two to four sets of blood samples should be collected, whenever possible, at independent locations [103, 104, 105, 106]. For adults, the volume required for the examination varies between 40 and 160 mL of blood, and for babies and children, the volume is age-based and does not exceed 1% of the patient’s total blood volume [103, 107].
The importance of blood culture, as well as urine, is related to the determination of the bacteria and the antibiogram, which directs the treatment to the best antibiotic to be used [108].
8.3 Localization of underlying abnormality
In some cases, it is possible to suspect a complicated urinary tract infection/urosepsis without being serious urological abnormalities. In such cases, there are some screening options that can be performed to assist in the management of the patient. Thus, simple abdominal radiography, intravenous urography, ultrasound, computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are cited [109].
8.4 Imaging exams
The anatomical identification of most areas of infection has become common with the development of high resolution cross-sectional images, which allow visualization of bacterial and viral metabolism, early diagnosis and treatment. Thus, the cross-sectional image was included as part of the routine investigation of unidentified infection sites and sources of sepsis. The trend is that the use of these images will become increasingly widespread and become part of standard clinical care in the near future [110].
8.4.1 Ultrasonography
When abdominal sepsis is suspected, ultrasound is a valuable tool. As it is a portable scanning technique, it is ideal for clinically unstable patients who cannot be transported to an examination room [110].
Ideal for the diagnosis of liver sepsis and gallbladder, ultrasound identifies and indicates the presence and location of intra-abdominal fluids (subphrenic space, in pericological calculations or pelvis) [110, 111, 112, 113]. Intrahepatic fluids are also well visualized, and can even be drained percutaneously with ultrasound guidance [110].
The main obstacle for ultrasound responses is air interference, highlighted in loop regions of the intestine with intraluminal gas, since the USG image is darkened and makes it difficult to visualize interloop abscesses or peri-pancreatic collections. The intestine in patients with disease due to sepsis or recent intra-abdominal surgery is also capable of compromising the quality of the ultrasound [114].
8.4.2 CT scanning
The availability of CT scanners with multiple detectors allows rapid acquisition of images, making this method the most common in the diagnosis and detection of intra-abdominal abscesses [114, 115]. It is an interesting option especially for sick patients who have difficulty holding their breath, obese or with abdominal or chest bandages.
In addition, CT is essential in the diagnosis of interloop and retroperitoneal pathologies (including retroperitoneal abscesses or pancreatitis or intra-biliary stones), in addition to being highly sensitive in the detection of chest pathologies (pneumonia, pleural effusion and localized collections) [113, 115, 116, 117]. For intra-abdominal fluids and abscesses, CT showed a sensitivity of 90–100%, while ultrasound showed sensitivity between 80% and 85% [115, 118, 119].
Due to the contemporary contrast protocols available, it is possible to identify by CT even small infected collections [110].
8.4.3 Hybrid PET/MRI systems
With the development of hybrid cameras, the combination of PET and magnetic resonance imaging was introduced, which despite having interesting advantages and clinical applications, is still such an expensive tool.
The simultaneous acquisition of PET and magnetic resonance imaging can provide quantitative molecular functional information about the inflammatory lesion and precise location, in addition to anatomical changes with movement correction, improving the differential diagnosis and guiding anti-inflammatory treatment strategies.
Since MRI cannot visualize all parts of the body at once, the new hybrid technique may require collaboration between radiologists and nuclear medicine doctors to interpret the image and can be more expensive than PET/CT (capital and operational costs).
The functional image of inflammation and infection was mainly restricted to the flat image and SPECT, however, with the increasing development of PET radiopharmaceuticals, the detection and quantification of specific aspects of inflammatory processes became more sensitive. Precisely for this reason, there is an interesting potential in the application of hybrid whole body PET/MRI in the context of the investigation of infectious and inflammatory diseases [120].
8.5 Biologic scanning
Imaging technique that uses biological radionuclides to track hidden infections and improve the specificity of the infection diagnosis that allows the detection of early pathophysiological changes even when there are no apparent anatomical changes. When compared to ex vivo techniques (blood culture), in vivo biological screening is preferred since it is accurate, does not require a sterile environment and does not expose the health team to the risk of contamination by blood-borne pathogens.
This type of tool is used mainly in patients suspected of infection or abscess, but who have had negative results for the cross-sectional image. Thus, the use of marked leukocyte traffic allows a response to hidden sites, based on the recognition of white blood cells marked with radionuclides. The marked leukocytes travel to the infection sites and allow noninvasive images in areas of hidden infection, such as osteomyelitis, orthopedic prosthesis, endocarditis or inflammation and intestinal disease [110].
9. General management of sepsis and septic shock
9.1 Hemodynamic support
Adequate organ perfusion must be ensured. Hypotension should be managed initially with intravenous fluid administration and the goal should be maintenance of pulmonary capillary wedge pressure at 12–16 mm Hg or central venous pressure at 8–12 cm H2O. Urine output rate should be kept at greater than 0.5 mL/kg/hr. A mean arterial blood pressure of greater than 65 mmHg (systolic blood pressure greater than 90 mmHg) and a cardiac index of greater than or equal to 4 L/min/m2 should be maintained. Vasopressor therapy should be initiated in the event of failure to achieve these goals with iv fluids alone. These include dopamine, dobutamine and norepinephrine [109].
9.2 Respiratory support
Ventilatory support should be provided for patients with progressive hypoxemia, hypercapnia, altered sensorium or respiratory muscle fatigue. A study of “early goal directed therapy” (EGDT) found that prompt resuscitation to maintain SvO2 > 70% was associated with improved survival in patients of severe sepsis [121]. In this study, failure to maintain saturation after fluids and vasopressors was followed by erythrocyte infusion to raise hematocrit to 30%. Patients requiring mechanical ventilation should be adequately sedated and stress ulcer prophylaxis should be administered.
9.3 Metabolic support
Blood glucose levels should be maintained at less than 150 mg/dL during initial few days of severe sepsis and normoglycemic range could be targeted later. Frequent blood glucose monitoring should be done to avoid hypoglycemia in patients on intensive insulin therapy. Multi-organ dysfunction, if any should be managed. Disseminated intravascular coagulation, if accompanied by major bleeding, should be treated with fresh-frozen plasma and platelet transfusion. Hypercatabolic individuals with acute renal failure benefit substantially from hemodialysis or hemofiltration. Prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis and nutritional supplementation should be undertaken [109].
10. Treatment of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae
10.1 Monotherapy vs. combination therapy for treatment
Considering the limited knowledge about the combination of antibiotics, the susceptibility of these pathogens to drugs and the lack of evidence to support the routine use of combined antimicrobial therapy, the decision regarding the ideal therapy is the responsibility of medical professionals [122]. Regarding the most appropriate approach, it is prioritized in the literature that the optimization of antimicrobial therapy includes adaptation of the appropriate antibiotics in terms of class, dose, frequency, route and duration [123].
The combination of different antibiotics has been widely used by large centers when it comes to invasive infections by multi-resistant Gram-negative bacteria [122].
10.1.1 Positive and negative aspects of combination therapy for treatment
The various positive and negative aspects of combination therapy are depicted in Table 3.
Positive aspects of combination therapy for treatment
Negative aspects of combination therapy for treatment
1. Greater probability of choosing an effective agent and well-founded theoretical reasons to support its use 2. Considering the increase in mortality related to the delay in the establishment of treatment and delays in appropriate and effective antimicrobial treatment, it is prudent to initiate empirical broad-spectrum antimicrobial treatment in the first suspected infection in critically ill patients 3. Indicated for patients with compromised immune systems, previous ICU admissions or who have recently received broad-spectrum antibiotics [124]
1. Increased toxicity in treatment by combining antibiotics (nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity). In such cases, it is suggested to discontinue the old therapy and introduce a new one, based on the clinical evolution of the patient and the results of the culture and susceptibility profile 2. This type of therapy has not been shown to be effective by clinical data (meta-analyses performed with the evaluation of randomized clinical trials demonstrate that there was no difference in clinical results between the two strategies for definitive treatment of Gram-negative bacteria infections) [124]
Table 3.
Comparison of positive and negative aspects of combination therapy.
10.2 Colistin
Antibiotics such as colistin are the last resort to deal with infections by carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CREB), and when the pathogen does not respond to colistin, therapeutic options are severely restricted. Thus, it becomes necessary to restore the sensitivity of the pathogen to the drug [125].
The combination of colistin + salicylate + potent efflux pump inhibitor (BC1) has been documented with highly positive results, providing a connection between colistin and the efflux pump inhibitor (BC1), which prevents extrusion of colistin [126].
The reduction in affinity between the drug and Gram-negative bacteria is due to the modification of lipid A, linked to the appearance of the gene that confers resistance to bacteria, which is present in animals that receive colistin and are part of human food. Despite this, there is still no complete explanation of the mutation and resistance of Gram-negative bacteria (especially Enterobacteriaceae) in patients who received administered colistin [127].
10.3 Carbapenems
Due to the increased resistance of bacteria to cephalosporin (and aminopenicillins), the use of narrow-spectrum β-lactamases, especially carbapenems, has increased considerably, being the only β-lactamase antibiotics with proven effectiveness in serious infections due to ESBL-producing bacteria [128, 129, 130].
With the discovery of E. coli isolates capable of producing new b-lactamases, a new strain of E. coli was found capable of resisting the action of carbapenems, mediated by plasmids.
These enzymes are able to confer resistance to drugs of the class b-lactamases, and in relation to E. coli specifically, the main types of enzymes are CMY, CTX-M and NDM of b-lactamase [131].
10.4 Tigecycline and other tetracyclines
Tigecycline is a new expanded-spectrum antimicrobial agent in the glycylcycline class. Developed with the objective of overcoming the most common processes of bacterial resistance, the drug has emerged as a great therapeutic option in the treatment of serious infections, which endanger the patient’s life, and which no longer respond to traditional antibiotics. The use of tigecycline is mainly interesting for the initial therapy of major infections, and is largely effective in the action against multi-resistant Gram-negative bacteria [132].
10.5 Aminoglycosides
Aminoglycosides are natural or semi-synthetic drugs obtained from actinomycetes, used as an antibiotic since the beginning of bacterial treatment. As it was replaced in the 1980s by cephalosporins, carbapenems and fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides had little use.
With the increase in the number of cases of multidrug-resistant bacteria, aminoglycosides were again considered for their ability to synergize with a variety of other classes of antibacterials, improving the safety and effectiveness of the class through optimized dosing regimens, being broad-spectrum and quickly bactericidal.
Enzymatic modification by acetylation of an amino group, impaired uptake and phosphorylation of aminoglycosides are the most commonly reported processes that confer resistance to bacteria in relation to aminoglycosides [133].
10.6 Fosfomycin
Fosfomycin is an antibiotic from the 1969s, prescribed mainly in its oral form for the treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections (UTI), and considered as an option in the treatment of bacteria with advanced resistance, causing serious infections [134].
For E. coli NDM-producing strains, fosfomycin, colistin and tigecycline are more effective than other antibiotics [135].
The best pharmacological approach to E. coli infections resistant to carbapenems is still an obstacle to be overcome, since patients infected with this type of bacteria have more limited clinical results and when compared to patients infected with bacteria susceptible to drugs [136].
10.7 Duration of therapy
The duration of treatment for infection caused by Escherichia coli varies in the literature, but most patients require treatment for about 14–21 days [109]. For E. coli perinephric abscesses or prostatitis, it is recommended that the minimum antibiotic use time should be 6 weeks, intra-abdominal infections 14–21 days, and pneumonia 14 days (Table 4) [137].
Condition
General
Perinephric abscesses
Prostatitis
Intra-abdominal infections
Pneumonia
Duration
14–21 days
42 days
42 days
14–21 days
14 days
Table 4.
Recommended duration of antibiotic therapy depending upon the type of infection.
11. Special considerations
11.1 Urinary infections in diabetes mellitus
In general, infectious diseases occur more frequently and cause greater concern when dealing with diabetic patients. This occurs because the environment offered by the organism is rich in glucose, which favors immune dysfunction, including decreasing the antibacterial activity of the urine and its motility [138].
Moreover, when comparing E. coli isolated in the urine of diabetics and non-diabetics, the same virulence factors and the same resistance to antimicrobials are found, inferring that there is no difference in the causative bacteria. This way, what makes the prevalence of urinary infections to be higher in diabetic patients is the greater adhesion of E. coli bacteria to diabetic uroepithelial cells, the reduction of urinary cytokine secretion and the number of leukocytes [139].
Hence, to treat the disease, the most commonly prescribed antimicrobials are used—amoxicillin, nitrofurantoin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) and ciprofloxacin. It is understood that the same treatment choice used by nondiabetic patients can be made, depending only on the local resistance patterns of the commonly found uropathogens [140, 141].
Generally, most uropathogens have a high resistance to TMP/SMX, in addition, this antimicrobial can cause hypoglycemia, which makes it not a good first choice of treatment for this portion of patients [142].
As for the treatment, it is recommended to consider the urinary tract infection complicated, it is advisable to keep the treatment for a period of 7 to 14 days [143].
11.2 Acute pyelonephritis
Acute pyelonephritis is an infection located in the upper urinary tract, which accommodates either parenchyma and renal pelvis, with Escherichia coli being the most common etiological agent [144, 145].
Approximately 250,000 cases of this disease are reported each year, with more than 100,000 eventually requiring hospitalization [146].
In order to confirm the diagnosis of the disease, the patient’s urine culture is performed before the start of antibiotic therapy [147]. In addition, it is recommended to perform a microbial susceptibility test in order to select the most appropriate antimicrobial regimen [148, 149].
If the diagnosis is uncertain or the patient is immunocompromised and suspected of having a hematogenic infection, blood culture analysis is requested [150, 151].
In the last few decades, there has been an increasing rate of resistance of E. coli bacteria to beta-lactam antibiotics of extended spectrum [152]. Thus, for patients with mild and uncomplicated acute pyelonephritis, fluoroquinolone is a good choice for initial outpatient antibiotic therapy, if the drug resistance rate is 10% or less in the community [153].
On the other hand, in cases of complicated infections, sepsis or failed outpatient treatment, hospital treatment is best indicated [154]. After antibiotic therapy, urine culture should be performed again after 1–2 weeks to conclude whether the treatment was successful or not [155].
11.3 Emphysematous pyelonephritis
Emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN) is a severe necrotizing infection of the renal parenchyma and its surrounding tissues—resulting in the presence of gas in the renal parenchyma, collecting system or perinephric tissue—and is caused in 70% of cases by Escherichia coli (isolated in cultures of urine or pus from patients with the condition) [156].
The clinical evolution of EPN when not recognized and treated immediately can be serious and pose a risk to the patient’s life. Another fact that should be mentioned is that up to 95% of the cases of EPN are underlyingly associated with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus [157, 158].
In addition to the risk of developing EPN primarily, the risk of developing secondary to an obstruction of the urinary tract is considerably relevant, about 25–40% can be considered as positive findings in EPN [159, 160].
The combination of percutaneous drainage (PCD) and medical management (MM) revealed a significant reduction in mortality rates [161, 162]. Thus, it is recommended that PCD be performed in patients with localized areas of gas and the presence of functional renal tissue. Another approach that can be used in association with treatment is emergency nephrectomy, classified as simple, radical or laparoscopic [163].
11.4 Renal abscess
Being caused by kidney stones, structural abnormality, history of urological surgery, trauma or any other cause of obstruction, renal abscess can also be related to pathogens [164]. The predominant organisms causing renal abscesses are Gram-negative organisms, and the most common is Escherichia coli [165, 166, 167].
Among the various intra-abdominal abscesses, renal abscess is a rare entity, especially in children and accounts for a number of cases of “missed diagnoses” [166, 168].
With regard to the symptoms of pediatric patients, the presentation of fever, flank pain, with or without a palpable mass, has been established in the literature; increased leukocyte count and increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate [169].
Early diagnosis is a key factor in the management of these patients, which can be aided by Ultrasound (USG). Drainage of pus and appropriate antibiotic therapy is the gold standard for treatment, being able to treat a great amount of cases. Thereby, the most successful combination of antibiotics was ceftriaxone, being associated with amikacin. Cases that cannot be resolved by the conventional approach can be treated with surgery, such as nephrectomy. Thus, complications such as extension of the peritoneal cavity, skin or chest can be avoided [166, 167].
11.5 Perinephric abscess
Perinephric abscess results from perirenal fatty necrosis, usually a complication of urological infection (more than 75%) [170]. Most of these abscesses have Escherichia coli as the main responsible, about 51.4% [171]. Perinephric abscess, when more diffuse, is capable of affecting the renal capsule and also Gerota’s fascia [170]. Since the condition has an insidious onset of nonspecific protein symptoms, it is necessary for a clinical physician to maintain a high level of attention to avoid possible delay in diagnosis, since perinephric abscesses are associated with significant morbidity and mortality [172].
11.6 Renal papillary necrosis
Renal papillary necrosis (NPN) is a condition defined as ischemic necrobiosis of the papilla in the kidney medulla. Among several etiological factors important for the involvement of papillary necrosis, pyelonephritis due to bacterial uropathogens such as E. coli is one of those mentioned in the literature [173].
In order to improve the prognosis of the disease and reduce morbidity, the ideal is that the diagnosis of the disease is as early as possible. In this sense, it is clear that the radiological image is able to offer an early diagnosis and guidance in relation to the immediate treatment of papillary necrosis, thus minimizing the decline in renal function [174].
11.7 Prostatic abscess
Failure to respond to standard therapy for acute bacterial prostatitis can lead to complications, such as prostate abscess or fistula [175].
Acute bacterial prostatitis is a common and clinically important genitourinary disorder that has a higher incidence in patients with diabetes, cirrhosis and suppressed immune system. Usually caused by an ascending infection, it can also be triggered by organisms that cause other common genitourinary infections that may also be responsible for acute bacterial prostatitis. Being introduced during transrectal prostate biopsy, the clinical presentation ranges from mild symptoms of the lower urinary tract to total sepsis, and Escherichia coli is one of the main bacteria related to the clinical picture.
Regarding the therapeutic approach, oral or intravenous antibiotics are most effective in curing the infection. In this sense, the progression to chronic bacterial prostatitis is uncommon. It should be noted that special attention is needed in relation to immunosuppressed patients, whereas bacterial prostatitis in these patients may be caused by atypical infecting organisms and, therefore, may require additional therapies [176].
12. Prevention
It is already known that iron is an essential micronutrient for most bacteria and hosts, in this thought line, it is also known that there are relatively rare classical siderophilic pathogens that cause an increase in hepcidin in the body, responsible for the sequestration of iron for macrophages and enterocytes and, consequently hypoferremia [177, 178, 179, 180]. So, current studies investigate if this mechanism used by the body against rare siderophilic bacteria, it also works for a wider set of bacteria. Results of these studies are shown to be positive, by demonstrating that excess iron allows rapid bacterial replication and spread, which means a susceptibility to infection caused by E. coli and that hepcidin is essential to protect against infections caused by Escherichia coli. [181, 182]. Thus, the use of hepcidin agonists promises to be an effective early intervention in patients with infections and dysregulated iron metabolism to avoid complications.
With regard to urinary tract infection, an effective preventive measure is the characterization and correction of the underlying genitourinary abnormalities that promote the infection. Another alternative mentioned in the literature is the future development of catheters whose material limits the growth of biofilm [109].
13. Conclusion
Early symptom recognition, followed by appropriate investigations, accurate diagnosis and early goal-directed therapy, is essential to improve results. Patient management includes an interprofessional team approach, with microbiologists, radiologists, surgeons and intensive care physicians [109].
\n',keywords:"bacteremia, septicemia, septic shock, antimicrobial therapy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72979.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72979.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72979",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72979",totalDownloads:206,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 29th 2020",dateReviewed:"June 8th 2020",datePrePublished:"August 14th 2020",datePublished:"September 30th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"E. coli\ufeff is the most common cause of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in humans and is a leading cause of enteric infections and systemic infections. The systemic infections include bacteremia, nosocomial pneumonia, cholecystitis, cholangitis, peritonitis, cellulitis, osteomyelitis, and infectious arthritis. E. coli\ufeff is also the leading cause of neonatal meningitis.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72979",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72979",signatures:"Akshay Kumar, Ana Francesca Vommaro Leite, Lais Sanches Maekawa, Roopvir Kaur, Silas Jose Braz Filo, Purnadeo Persaud, Juber Dastagir Shaikh, Asim Kichloo and Nimisha Shiwalkar",book:{id:"8722",title:"E. Coli Infections",subtitle:"Importance of Early Diagnosis and Efficient Treatment",fullTitle:"E. Coli Infections - Importance of Early Diagnosis and Efficient Treatment",slug:"e-coli-infections-importance-of-early-diagnosis-and-efficient-treatment",publishedDate:"September 30th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8722.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"320940",title:"M.D.",name:"Akshay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Akshay Kumar",slug:"akshay-kumar",email:"drakshay82@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Lokmanya Tilak Municipal General Hospital and Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"321764",title:"Dr.",name:"Nimisha",middleName:null,surname:"Shiwalkar",fullName:"Nimisha Shiwalkar",slug:"nimisha-shiwalkar",email:"dr.nimisha4u@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"321765",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Francesca Vommaro Leite",fullName:"Ana Francesca Vommaro Leite",slug:"ana-francesca-vommaro-leite",email:"francescavommaroleite@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"321766",title:"Dr.",name:"Lais",middleName:null,surname:"Sanches Maekewa",fullName:"Lais Sanches Maekewa",slug:"lais-sanches-maekewa",email:"laisanchesm@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"321767",title:"Dr.",name:"Silas",middleName:null,surname:"Jose Braz Filho",fullName:"Silas Jose Braz Filho",slug:"silas-jose-braz-filho",email:"silasbrazf@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"321768",title:null,name:"Purnadeo",middleName:"Narpaul",surname:"Persaud",fullName:"Purnadeo Persaud",slug:"purnadeo-persaud",email:"narpaulpersaud@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"323418",title:"Dr.",name:"Roopvir",middleName:null,surname:"Kaur",fullName:"Roopvir Kaur",slug:"roopvir-kaur",email:"roopvirsaini@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Government Medical College, Amritsar",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323419",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Kichloo",fullName:"Asim Kichloo",slug:"asim-kichloo",email:"kichlooasim@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"327610",title:"Dr.",name:"Juber Dastagir",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",fullName:"Juber Dastagir Shaikh",slug:"juber-dastagir-shaikh",email:"jubershaikh703@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Mahatma Gandhi Mission Medical College and Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Epidemiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Risk factors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Pathogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Intestinal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1 EPEC",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.1.2 ETEC",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.1.3 EHEC",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.4 EIEC",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.5 DAEC",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Extraintestinal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.2.1 Urosepsis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Antimicrobial resistance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Evaluation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Clinical assessment and patient presentations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"7.1 History and physical examination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.2 Presentations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"7.2.1 Pneumonia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"7.2.2 Acute-bacterial meningitis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"7.2.3 Intra-abdominal infections",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"7.2.4 Enteric infections",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"7.2.5 UTI",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23",title:"8. Workup",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"8.1 Urine culture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"8.2 Blood culture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"8.3 Localization of underlying abnormality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"8.4 Imaging exams",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"8.4.1 Ultrasonography",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_3",title:"8.4.2 CT scanning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"8.4.3 Hybrid PET/MRI systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"8.5 Biologic scanning",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32",title:"9. General management of sepsis and septic shock",level:"1"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"9.1 Hemodynamic support",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"9.2 Respiratory support",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"9.3 Metabolic support",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36",title:"10. Treatment of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae",level:"1"},{id:"sec_36_2",title:"10.1 Monotherapy vs. combination therapy for treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_38_2",title:"10.2 Colistin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_39_2",title:"10.3 Carbapenems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_40_2",title:"10.4 Tigecycline and other tetracyclines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_41_2",title:"10.5 Aminoglycosides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_42_2",title:"10.6 Fosfomycin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_43_2",title:"10.7 Duration of therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_45",title:"11. Special considerations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_45_2",title:"11.1 Urinary infections in diabetes mellitus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_46_2",title:"11.2 Acute pyelonephritis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_47_2",title:"11.3 Emphysematous pyelonephritis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_48_2",title:"11.4 Renal abscess",level:"2"},{id:"sec_49_2",title:"11.5 Perinephric abscess",level:"2"},{id:"sec_50_2",title:"11.6 Renal papillary necrosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_51_2",title:"11.7 Prostatic abscess",level:"2"},{id:"sec_53",title:"12. Prevention",level:"1"},{id:"sec_54",title:"13. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Foxman B. The epidemiology of urinary tract infection. Nature Reviews. Urology. 2010;7:653-660'},{id:"B2",body:'Kaper JB, Nataro JP, Mobley HL. Pathogenic Escherichia coli. Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2004;2:123-140'},{id:"B3",body:'Kim KS. Current concepts on the pathogenesis of Escherichia coli meningitis: Implications for therapy and prevention. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 2012;25:273-278'},{id:"B4",body:'Leimbach A, Hacker J, Dobrindt U. E. coli\ufeff as an all-rounder: The thin line between commensalism and pathogenicity. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 2013;358:3-32'},{id:"B5",body:'Berg RD. The indigenous gastrointestinal microflora. Trends in Microbiology. 1996;4:430-435'},{id:"B6",body:'Gordon DM, Cowling A. The distribution and genetic structure of Escherichia coli in Australian vertebrates: Host and geographic effects. Microbiology. 2003;149:3575-3586'},{id:"B7",body:'Wasiński B. Extra-intestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli-threat connected with food-borne infections. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 2019;26(4):532-537'},{id:"B8",body:'Donnenberg MS. Capítulo 220: Enterobacteriaceae. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blase MJ, editors. Mandell, Douglas y Bennett. Enfermedades Infecciosas. Principios y Práctica. 8va Edición ed. España: Elsevier; 2016. pp. 2640-2655'},{id:"B9",body:'Artico MJ, Rocchi M, Gasparotto A, Ocaña Carrizo V, Navarro M, Mollo V, et al. Bacteriemias de origen comunitario en pacientes adultos que acuden al servicio de urgencias de un hospital universitario. Revista Argentina de Microbiología. 2012;44(1):10-15'},{id:"B10",body:'Salyers AA, Whitt DD. Bacterial Pathogenesis: A Molecular Approach. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2002'},{id:"B11",body:'Bertani B, Ruiz N. Function and biogenesis of lipopolysaccharides. EcoSal Plus. 2018;8(1)'},{id:"B12",body:'Mora-Rillo M, Fernández-Romero N, Navarro-San Francisco C, Díez-Sebastián J, Romero-Gómez MP, Fernández FA, et al. Impact of virulence genes on sepsis severity and survival in Escherichia coli bacteremia. Virulence. 2015;6(1):93-100'},{id:"B13",body:'Biran D, Ron EZ. Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 2018;416:149-161'},{id:"B14",body:'Mendoza-Palomar N, Balasch-Carulla M, González-Di Lauro S, et al. Escherichia coli early-onset sepsis: Trends over two decades. European Journal of Pediatrics. 2017;176(9):1227-1234'},{id:"B15",body:'Peralta G, Sanchez MB, Garrido JC, et al. Impact of antibiotic resistance and of adequate empirical antibiotic treatment in the prognosis of patients with Escherichia coli bacteraemia. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2007;60:855-863'},{id:"B16",body:'Melzer M, Petersen I. Mortality following bacteraemic infection caused by extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing E. coli compared to non-ESBL producing E. coli\ufeff. The Journal of Infection. 2007;55:254-259'},{id:"B17",body:'Gransden WR, Eykyn SJ, Phillips I, Rowe B. Bacteremia due to Escherichia coli: A study of 861 episodes. Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 1990;12:1008-1018'},{id:"B18",body:'Laupland KB, Gregson DB, Church DL, Ross T, Pitout JD. Incidence, risk factors and outcomes of Escherichia coli bloodstream infections in a large Canadian region. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2008;14(11):1041-1047'},{id:"B19",body:'Jackson LA, Benson P, Neuzil KM, Grandjean M, Marino JL. Burden of community-onset Escherichia coli bacteremia in seniors. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2005;191:1523-1529'},{id:"B20",body:'Katouli M. Population structure of gut Escherichia coli and its role in development of extra-intestinal infections. Iranian Journal of Microbiology. 2010;2(2):59'},{id:"B21",body:'Thursby E, Juge N. Introduction to the human gut microbiota. Biochemical Journal. 2017;474(11):1823-1836'},{id:"B22",body:'Kaper JB, Nataro JP, Mobley HL. Pathogenic Escherichia coli. Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2004;2:123-140'},{id:"B23",body:'Croxen MA, Finlay BB. Molecular mechanisms of Escherichia coli pathogenicity. Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2010;8:26-38'},{id:"B24",body:'Trabulsi LR, Keller R, Tardelli Gomes TA. Typical and atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2002;8:508-513'},{id:"B25",body:'Bieber D, Ramer SW, Wu CY, Murray WJ, Tobe T, Fernandez R, et al. Type IV pili, transient bacterial aggregates, and virulence of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. Science. 1998;280:2114-2118'},{id:"B26",body:'Frankel G, Phillips AD, Rosenshine I, Dougan G, Kaper JB, Knutton S. Enteropathogenic and enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli: More subversive elements. Molecular Microbiology. 1998;30:911-921'},{id:"B27",body:'Gomez-Duarte OG, Kaper JB. A plasmid-encoded regulatory region activates chromosomal eaeA expression in enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. Infection and Immunity. 1995;63:1767-1776'},{id:"B28",body:'Hu J, Torres AG. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli: Foe or innocent bystander? Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2015;21(8):729-734'},{id:"B29",body:'Gomes TAT, Elias WP, Scaletsky ICA, Guth BEC, Rodrigues JF, Piazza RMF, et al. Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 2016;47(Suppl. 1):3-30'},{id:"B30",body:'Diepold A, Armitage JP. Type III secretion systems: The bacterial flagellum and the injectisome. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences. 2015;370(1679):20150020'},{id:"B31",body:'Berkes J, Viswanathan VK, Savkovic SD, Hecht G. Intestinal epithelial responses to enteric pathogens: Effects on the tight junction barrier, ion transport, and inflammation. Gut. 2003;52(3):439-451'},{id:"B32",body:'Madhavan TP, Sakellaris H. Colonization factors of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Advances in Applied Microbiology. 2015;90:155-197. DOI: 10.1016/bs.aambs.2014.09.003'},{id:"B33",body:'Loos M, Geens M, Schauvliege S, Gasthuys F, van der Meulen J, Dubreuil JD, et al. Role of heat-stable enterotoxins in the induction of early immune responses in piglets after infection with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. PLoS One. 2012;7:e41041'},{id:"B34",body:'Beltran AR, Carraro-Lacroix LR, Bezerra CN, Cornejo M, et al. Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin mediates Na+/H+ exchanger 4 inhibition involving cAMP in T84 human intestinal epithelial cells. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0146042'},{id:"B35",body:'Dorsey FC, Fischer JF, Fleckenstein JM. Directed delivery of heat-labile enterotoxin by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Cellular Microbiology. 2006;8(9):1516-1527'},{id:"B36",body:'Sears CL, Kaper JB. Enteric bacterial toxins: Mechanisms of action and linkage to intestinal secretion. Microbiological Reviews. 1996;60(1):167'},{id:"B37",body:'Ceponis PJ, Riff JD, Sherman PM. Epithelial cell signaling responses to enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli infection. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 2005;100:199-203'},{id:"B38",body:'Boyer O, Niaudet P. Hemolytic uremic syndrome: New developments in pathogenesis and treatment. International Journal of Nephrology. 2011'},{id:"B39",body:'Polito MG, Kirsztajn GM. Microangiopatias trombóticas: púrpura trombocitopênica trombótica e síndrome hemolítico-urêmica. Brazilian Journal of Nephrology. 2010;32(3):303-315'},{id:"B40",body:'Ud-Din A, Wahid S. Relationship among Shigella spp. and enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) and their differentiation. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 2014;45(4):1131-1138'},{id:"B41",body:'Tulloch EF, Ryan KJ, Formal SB, Franklin FA. Invasive enteropathic Escherichia coli dysentery: An outbreak in 28 adults. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1973;79(1):13-17'},{id:"B42",body:'Jafari A, Aslani MM, Bouzari S. Escherichia coli: A brief review of diarrheagenic pathotypes and their role in diarrheal diseases in Iran. Iranian Journal of Microbiology. 2012;4(3):102'},{id:"B43",body:'Mansan-Almeida R, Pereira AL, Giugliano LG. Diffusely adherent Escherichia coli strains isolated from children and adults constitute two different populations. BMC Microbiology. 2013;13(1):22'},{id:"B44",body:'Sarowska J, Futoma-Koloch B, Jama-Kmiecik A, Frej-Madrzak M, Ksiazczyk, et al. Virulence factors, prevalence and potential transmission of extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from different sources: Recent reports. Gut Pathogens. 2019;11(1):10'},{id:"B45",body:'Smith JL, Fratamico PM, Gunther NW. Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease. 2007;4(2):134-163'},{id:"B46",body:'Areda MA, Bailey CR, O’Mara D, Weiss CR. Transplant uretero-inguinal hernia resulting in urosepsis. Radiology Case Reports. 2019;14(1):14-17'},{id:"B47",body:'Thornton HV, Hammond A, Hay AD. Urosepsis: A growing and preventable problem? The British Journal of General Practice. 2018;68(675):493-494'},{id:"B48",body:'Fadel MG, Louis C, Tay A, Bolgeri M. Obstructive urosepsis secondary to ureteric herniation into the sciatic foramen. BML Case Reports. 2018 27;2018'},{id:"B49",body:'Scotland KB, Lange D. Prevention and management of urosepsis triggered by ureteroscopy. Research and Reports in Urology. 2018;10:43-49'},{id:"B50",body:'Heppner HJ, Yapan F, Wiedemann A. Urosepsis in geriatric patients. Aktuelle Urologie. 2016;47(1):54-59'},{id:"B51",body:'Goveas B. Urosepsis: A simple infection turns toxic. The Nurse Practitioner. 2017;42(7):53-54'},{id:"B52",body:'Porat A, Kesler S. Urosepsis. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2020'},{id:"B53",body:'Vila J, Sáez-López E, Johnson JR, et al. Escherichia coli: An old friend with new tidings. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 2016;40(4):437-463'},{id:"B54",body:'World Health Organization. Antimicrobial Resistance Global Report on Surveillance; 2014'},{id:"B55",body:'Friedman S, Shah V, Ohlsson A, Matlow AG. Neonatal Escherichia coli infections: Concerns regarding resistance to current therapy. Acta Paediatrica. 2000;89(6):686-689'},{id:"B56",body:'Stony Brook Medicine. Severe Sepsis/Septic Shock Recognition and Treatment Protocols. Surviving Sepsis Campaign. Society of Critical of Medicine. 2013'},{id:"B57",body:'Tsai J, Bond G. A comparison of electronic records to paper records in mental health centers. International Journal for Quality in Health Care. 2008;20:136-143'},{id:"B58",body:'Davis JL, Murray JF. History and physical examination. Murray and Nadel’s Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 2016;263'},{id:"B59",body:'Timsit JF, Esaied W, Neuville M, Bouadma L, Mourvllier B. Update on ventilator-associated pneumonia. F1000Research. 2017;6:2061'},{id:"B60",body:'Chastre J, Fagon JY. Ventilator-associated pneumonia. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2002;165:867-903'},{id:"B61",body:'Messika J, Magdoud F, Clermont O, et al. Pathophysiology of Escherichia coli ventilator-associated pneumonia: Implication of highly virulent extraintestinal pathogenic strains. Intensive Care Medicine. 2012;38(12):2007-2016'},{id:"B62",body:'Phillips-Houlbracq M, Ricard JD, Foucrier A, Yoder-Himes D, Gaudry S, et al. Pathophysiology of Escherichia coli pneumonia: Respective contribution of pathogenicity islands to virulence. International Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2018;308(2):290-296'},{id:"B63",body:'La Combe B, Clermont O, Messika J, Eveillard M, Kouatchet A, Lasocki S, et al. Pneumonia-specific Escherichia coli with distinct phylogenetic and virulence profiles, France, 2012-2014. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2019;25(4):710-718'},{id:"B64",body:'Sule AA, Tai D. Spontaneous Escherichia coli meningitis in an adult. Critical Care and Shock. 2007;10:148-150'},{id:"B65",body:'Mofredj A, Guerin JM, Leibinger F, Mamoudi R. Spontaneous Escherichia coli meningitis in an adult. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2000;32:699-700'},{id:"B66",body:'Abhilash K, Gigin SV. A rare manifestation of Escherichia coli septicemia. International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences. 2013;1:299-300'},{id:"B67",body:'Shrestha RG, Tandukar S, Ansari S, Subedi A, Shrestha A, Poudel R, et al. Bacterial meningitis in children under 15 years of age in Nepal. BMC Pediatrics. 2015;15:94'},{id:"B68",body:'Ishida K, Noborio M, Nakamura M, Ieki Y, Sogabe T, Sadamitsu D. Spontaneous Escherichia coli bacterial meningitis mimicking heatstroke in an adult. Clinical Case Reports. 2016;4(4):323-326'},{id:"B69",body:'Chang CJ, Chang WN, Huang LT, Huang SC, Chang YC, et al. Bacterial meningitis in infants: The epidemiology, clinical features, and prognostic factors. Brain & Development. 2004;26:168-175'},{id:"B70",body:'Dawson KG, Emerson JC, Burns JL. Fifteen years of experience with bacterial meningitis. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 1999;18:816-822'},{id:"B71",body:'de Louvois J, Halket S, Harvey D. Neontal meningitis in England and Wales: Sequelae at 5 years of age. European Journal of Pediatrics. 2004;7:730-734'},{id:"B72",body:'Doctor BA, Newman N, Minich NM, Taylor HG, Fanaroff AA, Hack M. Clinical outcomes of neonatal meningitis in very-low birth-weight infants. Clinical Pediatrics (Phila). 2001;40:473-480'},{id:"B73",body:'Gladstone IM, Ehrenkranz RA, Edberg SC, Baltimore RS. A ten-year review of neonatal sepsis and comparison with the previous fifty-year experience. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 1990;9:819-825'},{id:"B74",body:'Holt DE, Halket S, de Louvois J, Harvey D. Neonatal meningitis in England and Wales: 10 years on. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 2001;84:F85-F89'},{id:"B75",body:'Kim KS. Acute bacterial meningitis in infants and children. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2010;10:32-42'},{id:"B76",body:'Klinger G, Chin C-N, Beyene J, Perlman M. Predicting the outcome of neonatal bacterial meningitis. Pediatrics. 2000;106:477-482'},{id:"B77",body:'Stevens JP, Eames M, Kent A, Halket S, Holt D, Harvey D. Long term outcome of neonatal meningitis. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 2003;88:F179-F184'},{id:"B78",body:'Unhanand M, Mustafa MM, McCracken GH Jr, Nelson JD. Gram-negative enteric bacillary meningitis: A twenty-one-year experience. The Journal of Pediatrics. 1993;122:15-21'},{id:"B79",body:'Kim KS. Comparison of cefotaxime, imipenem-cilastatin, ampicillin-gentamicin, and ampicillin chloramphenicol in the treatment of experimental Escherichia coli bacteremia and meningitis. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1985;28:433-436'},{id:"B80",body:'McCracken GH Jr, Threlkeld N, Mize S, Baker CJ, Kapal SL, Fraingezicht I, et al. Moxalactam therapy for neonatal meningitis due to gram-negative sepsis enteric bacilli. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1984;252:1427-1432'},{id:"B81",body:'Kim KS. Human meningitis-associated Escherichia coli. EcoSal Plus. 2016;7(1). DOI: 10.1128/ecosalplus.ESP-0015-2015'},{id:"B82",body:'Bodmann KF. Complicated intra-abdominal infections: Pathogens, resistance. Recommendations of the Infectliga on antbiotic therapy. Der Chirurg; Zeitschrift fur alle Gebiete der operativen Medizen. 2010;81(1):38-49'},{id:"B83",body:'Sartelli M. A focus on intra-abdominal infections. World Journal of Emergency Surgery. 2010;5(1):9'},{id:"B84",body:'Chaithanya J, Ashwini RK, Rajagopalan S. Clinical and microbiological profile in intra-abdominal infection. International Surgery Journal. 2019;6(10):3608-3613'},{id:"B85",body:'Ruppé É, Woerther PL, Barbier F. Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in Gram-negative bacilli. Annals of Intensive Care. 2015;5:61'},{id:"B86",body:'Kot B. Antibiotic resistance among uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Polish Journal of Microbiology. 2019;68(4):403-415'},{id:"B87",body:'Clements A, Young JC, Constantinou N, Frankel G. Infection strategies of enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli. Gut Microbes. 2012;3(2):71-87'},{id:"B88",body:'Croxen MA, Law RJ, Scholz R, Keeney KM, Wlodarska M, Finlay BB. Recent advances in understanding enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2013;26(4):822-880'},{id:"B89",body:'World Health Organization. World Health Statistics 2012. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press; 2012'},{id:"B90",body:'Croxen MA, Law RJ, Scholz R, Keeney KM, Wlodarska M, Finlay BB. Recent advances in understanding enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2013;26(4):822-880'},{id:"B91",body:'Clements A, Young JC, Constantinou N, Frankel G. Infection strategies of enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli. Gut Microbes. 2012;3(2):71-87'},{id:"B92",body:'Berger CN, Sodha SV, Shaw RK, Griffin PM, Pink D, Hand P, et al. Fresh fruit and vegetables as vehicles for the transmission of human pathogens. Environmental Microbiology. 2010;12:2385-2397'},{id:"B93",body:'Car J. Urinary tract infections in women: Diagnosis and management in primary care. BMJ. 2006;332(7533):94-97'},{id:"B94",body:'Alanazi MQ , Alqahtani FY, Aleanizy FS. An evaluation of E. coli\ufeff in urinary tract infection in emergency department at KAMC in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Retrospective study. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2018;17(1)'},{id:"B95",body:'Lee JB, Neild GH. Urinary tract infection. Medicine. 2007;35(8):423-428'},{id:"B96",body:'Foxman B et al. Urinary tract infection: Self-reported incidence and associated costs. Annals of Epidemiology. 2000;10(8):509-515'},{id:"B97",body:'Leekha S, Terrell CL, Edson RS. General principles of antimicrobial therapy. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2011;86(2):156-167. DOI: 10.4065/mcp.2010.0639'},{id:"B98",body:'Understanding urine tests.InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006. 2010 Jul 27 [Updated 2019 Oct 24].'},{id:"B99",body:'Schmiemann G, Kniehl E, Gebhardt K, Matejczyk MM, Hummers-Pradier E. The diagnosis of urinary tract infection: A systematic review. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 2010;107(21):361-367'},{id:"B100",body:'Fonseca FLA, Santos PM, Belardo TMG, Fonseca ALA, Caputto LZ, Alves BCA. Análise de leucócitos em urina de pacientes com uroculturas positivas. Revista Brasileira de Análises Clínicas. 2016;48(3):258-261'},{id:"B101",body:'de Oliveira LCA. Prevalência de infecção do trato urinário em pacientes ambulatoriais e sua relação com os valores de nitrito e leucócitos. Revista Brasileira de Análises Clínicas. 2018;50(3):237-243'},{id:"B102",body:'Bryant JK, Strand CL. Reliability of blood cultures collected from intravascular catheter versus venipuncture. American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 1987;88:113-116'},{id:"B103",body:'Wilson M. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Principles and Procedures for Blood Cultures: Approved Guideline. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2007'},{id:"B104",body:'Cockerill FR III, Wilson JW, Vetter EA, Goodman KM, Torgerson CA, Harmsen WS, et al. Optimal testing parameters for blood cultures. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2004;38(12):1724-1730'},{id:"B105",body:'Lee A, Mirrett S, Reller LB, Weinstein MP. Detection of bloodstream infections in adults: How many blood cultures are needed? Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2007;45(11):3546-3548'},{id:"B106",body:'Washington JA 2nd. Blood cultures: Principles and techniques. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 1975;50(2):91'},{id:"B107",body:'Gaur AH, Giannini MA, Flynn PM, Boudreaux, et al. Optimizing blood culture practices in pediatric immunocompromised patients: Evaluation of media types and blood culture volume. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 2003;22(6):545-552'},{id:"B108",body:'Kirn TJ, Weinstein MP. Update on blood cultures: How to obtain, process, report, and interpret. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2013;19(6):513-520'},{id:"B109",body:'Kalra OP, Raizada A. Approach to a patient with urosepsis. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases. 2009;1(1):57-63'},{id:"B110",body:'Ady J, Fong Y. Imaging for infection: From visualization of inflammation to visualization of microbes. Surgical Infections. 2014;15(6):700-707'},{id:"B111",body:'Jones MW, Ferguson T. Gallbladder Imaging. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2019'},{id:"B112",body:'Doust BD, Quiroz F, Stewart JM. Ultrasonic distinction of abscesses from other intra-abdominal fluid collections. Radiology. 1977;125:213-218'},{id:"B113",body:'Korobkin M, Callen PW, Filly RA, et al. Comparison of computed tomography, ultrasonography, and gallium-67 scanning in the evaluation of suspected abdominal abscess. Radiology. 1978;129:89-93'},{id:"B114",body:'Filly RA. Detection of fetal malformations with ultrasonic B-scans. Birth Defects Original Article Series. 1979;15:45-49'},{id:"B115",body:'Wolverson MK, Jagannadharao B, Sundaram M, et al. CT as a primary diagnostic method in evaluating intraabdominal abscess. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1979;133:1089-1095'},{id:"B116",body:'Haaga JR, Alfidi RJ, Havrilla TR, et al. CT detection and aspiration of abdominal abscesses. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1977;128:465-474'},{id:"B117",body:'Silverstein W, Isikoff MB, Hill MC, Barkin J. Diagnostic imaging of acute pancreatitis: Prospective study using CT and sonography. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1981;137:497-502'},{id:"B118",body:'Knochel JQ , Koehler PR, Lee TG, Welch DM. Diagnosis of abdominal abscesses with computed tomography, ultrasound, and 111In leukocyte scans. Radiology. 1980;137:425-432'},{id:"B119",body:'Roche J. Effectiveness of computed tomography in the diagnosis of intra-abdominal abscess: A review of 111 patients. The Medical Journal of Australia. 1981;2:85-88'},{id:"B120",body:'Glaudemans AW, Quintero AM, Signore A. PET/MRI in Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases: Will it be a Useful Improvement? 2012'},{id:"B121",body:'Otero RM, Nguyen HB, Huang DT, Gaieski DF, Goyal M, Gunnerson KJ, et al. Early goal directed therapy in severe sepsis and septic shock revisited: Concepts, controversies, and contemporary findings. Chest. 2006;130:1579-1595'},{id:"B122",body:'Tamma PD, Cosgrove SE, Maragakis LL. Combination therapy for treatment of infections with gram-negative bacteria. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2012;25(3):450-470'},{id:"B123",body:'Leekha S, Terrell CL, Edson RS. General principles of antimicrobial therapy. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2011;86(2):156-167. DOI: 10.4065/mcp.2010.0639'},{id:"B124",body:'Salomão R, Diament D, Rigatto O, Gomes B, Silva E, Carvalho NB, et al. Diretrizes para tratamento da sepse grave/choque séptico: Abordagem do agente infeccioso-controle do foco infeccioso e tratamento antimicrobiano. Revista Brasileira de Terapia Intensiva. 2011;23(2):145-157'},{id:"B125",body:'Sheu CC, Chang YT, Lin SY, Chen YH, Hsueh PR. Infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae: An update on therapeutic options. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2019;10:80'},{id:"B126",body:'Sundaramoorthy NS, Suresh P, Ganesan SS, GaneshPrasad A, Nagarajan S. Restoring colistin sensitivity in colistin-resistant E. coli\ufeff: Combinatorial use of MarR inhibitor with efflux pump inhibitor. Scientific Reports. 2019;9(1):1-13'},{id:"B127",body:'Ezadi F, Ardebili A, Mirnejad R. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing for polymyxins: Challenges, issues, and recommendations. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2019;57(4)'},{id:"B128",body:'Hawkey Peter M, Livermore DM. Carbapenem antibiotics for serious infections. BMJ. 2012;344:e3236'},{id:"B129",body:'Shaikh S, Fatima J, Shakil S, Rizvi SM, Kamal MA. Antibiotic resistance and extended spectrum beta-lactamases: Types, epidemiology and treatment. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 2015;22(1):90-101'},{id:"B130",body:'Pitout JD. Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli: An update on antimicrobial resistance, laboratory diagnosis and treatment. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 2012;10:1165-1176'},{id:"B131",body:'Rossi F, Andreazzi D. Overview of tigecycline and its role in the era of antibiotic resistance. Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2006;10(3):203-216'},{id:"B132",body:'Krause KM, Serio AW, Kane TR, Connolly LE. Aminoglycosides: An overview. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 2016;6(6):a027029'},{id:"B133",body:'Falagas ME, Vouloumanou EK, Samonis G, Vardakas KZ. Fosfomycin. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2016;29(2):321-347'},{id:"B134",body:'Ku YH, Chen CC, Lee MF, Chuang YC, Tang HJ, Yu WL. Comparison of synergism between colistin, fosfomycin and tigecycline against extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates or with carbapenem resistance. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection. 2017;50(6):931-939'},{id:"B135",body:'Zhou YF, Liu P, Zhang CJ, Liao XP, Sun J, Liu YH. Colistin combined with tigecycline: A promising alternative strategy to combat Escherichia coli harboring blaNDM–5 and mcr-1. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2020;10:2957'},{id:"B136",body:'Hamza NS, Khalil A. Resistant Gram-negative urinary tract bacterial infections. In: Urinary Tract Infection—The Result of the Strength of the Pathogen, or the Weakness of the Host. IntechOpen; 2017'},{id:"B137",body:'Giamarellou H. Multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria: How to treat and for how long. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2010;36(Suppl 2):S50-S54'},{id:"B138",body:'Casqueiro J, Casqueiro J, Alves C. Infections in patients with diabetes mellitus: A review of pathogenesis. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2012;16(Suppl. 1):S27'},{id:"B139",body:'Geerlings SE. Urinary tract infections in patients with diabetes mellitus: Epidemiology, pathogenesis and treatment. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2008;31:54-57'},{id:"B140",body:'Fair WR, Crane DB, Peterson LJ, Dahmer C, Tague B, Amos W. Three-day treatment of urinary tract infections. The Journal of Urology. 1980;123:717-721'},{id:"B141",body:'Kavatha D, Giamarellou H, Alexiou Z, Vlachogiannis N, et al. Cefpodoxime-proxetil versus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for short-term therapy of uncomplicated acute cystitis in women. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2003;47:897-900'},{id:"B142",body:'Grigoryan L, Nash S, Zoorob R, et al. Qualitative analysis of primary care provider prescribing decisions for urinary tract infections. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland). 2019;8(2)'},{id:"B143",body:'Kang CI, Kim J, Park DW, Kim BN, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the antibiotic treatment of community-acquired urinary tract infections. Infection & Chemotherapy. 2018;50(1):67-100'},{id:"B144",body:'Bass PF 3rd, Jarvis JA, Mitchell CK. Urinary tract infections. Primary Care. 2003;30:41-61'},{id:"B145",body:'Stamm WE, Hooton TM. Management of urinary tract infections in adults. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1993;329:1328-1334'},{id:"B146",body:'Hooton TM, Stamm WE. Diagnosis and treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infection. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 1997;11:551-581'},{id:"B147",body:'Ramakrishnan K, Scheid DC. Diagnosis and management of acute pyelonephritis in adults. American Family Physician. 2005;71(5):933-942'},{id:"B148",body:'Johnson JR. Treatment and prevention of urinary tract infections. In: Mobley HLT, Warren JW, editors. Urinary Tract Infections: Molecular Pathogenesis and Clinical Management. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press; 1996. pp. 95-118'},{id:"B149",body:'Hooton TM, Stamm WE. Diagnosis and treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infection. In: Moellering RC Jr, Andriole VT, eds. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 1997;11:551-581'},{id:"B150",body:'McMurray BR, Wrenn KD, Wright SW. Usefulness of blood cultures in pyelonephritis. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1997;15:137-140'},{id:"B151",body:'Velasco M, Martinez JA, Moreno-Martinez A, Horcajada JP, Ruiz J, Barranco M, et al. Blood cultures for women with uncomplicated acute pyelonephritis: Are they necessary? Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2003;37:1127-1130'},{id:"B152",body:'Zahar JR, Lortholary O, Martin C, Potel G, Plesiat P, Nordmann P. Addressing the challenge of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases. Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs. 2009;10(2):172-180'},{id:"B153",body:'Colgan R, Williams M, Johnson JR. Diagnosis and treatment of acute pyelonephritis in women. American Family Physician. 2011;84(5):519-526'},{id:"B154",body:'Ramakrishnan K, Scheid DC. Diagnosis and management of acute pyelonephritis in adults. American Family Physician. 2005;71(5):933-942'},{id:"B155",body:'Delzell JEJR, Fitzsimmons A. Urinary tract infection. In: Reference Guide. 7th ed. The American Board of Family Practice; 2001'},{id:"B156",body:'Ubee SS, McGlynn L, Fordham M. Emphysematous pyelonephritis. BJU International. 2011;107(9):1474-1478'},{id:"B157",body:'Wan YL, Lee TY, Bullard MJ, Tsai CC. Acute gas-producing bacterial renal infection: Correlation between imaging findings and clinical outcome. Radiology. 1996;198:433-438'},{id:"B158",body:'Falagas ME, Alexiou VG, Giannopoulou KP, Siempos II. Risk factors for mortality in patients with emphysematous pyelonephritis: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Urology. 2007;178:880-885'},{id:"B159",body:'Michaeli J, Mogle S, Perlberg S, Heiman S, Caine M. Emphysematous pyelonephritis. The Journal of Urology. 1984;131:203-207'},{id:"B160",body:'Godec CJ, Cass AS, Berkseth R. Emphysematous pyelonephritis in a solitary kidney. The Journal of Urology. 1980;124:119-121'},{id:"B161",body:'Khaira A, Gupta A, Rana DS, Gupta A, Bhalla A, Khullar D. Retrospective analysis of clinical profile, prognostic factors and outcomes of 19 patients of emphysematous pyelonephritis. International Urology and Nephrology. 2009;41:959-966'},{id:"B162",body:'Narlawar RS, Raut AA, Nagar A, Hira P, Hanchate V, Asrani A. Imaging features and guided drainage in emphysematous pyelonephritis: A study of 11 cases. Clinical Radiology. 2004;59:192-197'},{id:"B163",body:'Somani BK, Nabi G, Thorpe P, et al. Is percutaneous drainage the new gold standard in the management of emphysematous pyelonephritis? Evidence from a systematic review. The Journal of Urology. 2008;179:1844-1849'},{id:"B164",body:'Laufer J, Grisaru-Soen G, Portnoy O, Mor Y. Bilateral renal abscesses in a healthy child. The Israel Medical Association Journal. 2002;4(12):1150-1151'},{id:"B165",body:'Bhat YR. Renal subcapsular abscess. Indian Pediatrics. 2001;44:546-547'},{id:"B166",body:'Paul B, Agrawal A, Goyal RK. Renal abscess: A case of missed diagnosis. Journal of Indian Academy of Clinical Medicine. 2001;2(1):91-92'},{id:"B167",body:'Rai RS, Karan SC, Kayastha A. Renal & perinephric abscesses revisited. Medical Journal, Armed Forces India. 2007;63(3):223-225'},{id:"B168",body:'Baradkar VP, Mathur M, Kumar S. Renal abscess due to Escherichia coli in a child. Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation. 2011;22(6):1215'},{id:"B169",body:'Chen CY, Kuo HT, Chang YJ, Wu KH, Yang WC, Wu HP. Clinical assessment of children with renal abscesses presenting to the pediatric emergency department. BMC Pediatrics. 2016;16(1):189'},{id:"B170",body:'Okafor CN, Onyeaso EE. Perinephric abscess. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2020'},{id:"B171",body:'Liu XQ , Wang CC, Liu YB, Liu K. Renal and perinephric abscesses in West China hospital: 10-year retrospective-descriptive study. World Journal of Nephrology. 2016;5(1):108-114'},{id:"B172",body:'Tsukagoshi D, Dinkovski B, Dasan S, Jethwa J. Perinephric abscess secondary to a staghorn calculus presenting as a subcutaneous abscess. Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2006;8(4):285-288'},{id:"B173",body:'Geller SA, de Campos F. Renal papillary necrosis. Autopsy & Case Reports. 2013;3(4):69-71'},{id:"B174",body:'Sutariya HC, Pandya VK. Renal papillary necrosis: Role of radiology. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2016;10(1):TD10-TD12'},{id:"B175",body:'Reddivari AKR, Mehta P. Prostate abscess. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2020'},{id:"B176",body:'Brede CM, Shoskes DA. The etiology and management of acute prostatitis. Nature Reviews. Urology. 2011;8(4):207-212'},{id:"B177",body:'Ganz T, Nemeth E. Regulation of iron acquisition and iron distribution in mammals. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 2006;1763:690-699'},{id:"B178",body:'Ganz T, Nemeth E. Iron homeostasis in host defence and inflammation. Nature Reviews. Immunology. 2015;15:500-510'},{id:"B179",body:'Stefanova D, Raychev A, Deville J, Humphries R, Campeau S, Ruchala P, et al. Hepcidin protects against lethal Escherichia coli sepsis in mice inoculated with isolates from septic patients. Infection and Immunity. 2018;86(7):e00253-18'},{id:"B180",body:'Rodriguez R, Jung CL, Gabayan V, Deng JC, Ganz T, Nemeth E, et al. Hepcidin induction by pathogens and pathogen-derived molecules is strongly dependent on interleukin-6. Infection and Immunity. 2014;82:745-752'},{id:"B181",body:'Stefanova D, Raychev A, Deville J, Humphries R, Campeau S, Ruchala P, et al. Hepcidin protects against lethal Escherichia coli sepsis in mice inoculated with isolates from septic patients. Infection and Immunity. 2018;86(7):e00253-18'},{id:"B182",body:'Bulut Y. Abstract PCCLB-21: HEPCIDIN DEFICIENCY AND IRON OVERLOAD POTENTLY PROMOTE E. COLI SEPSIS IN MOUSE MODELS BUT THE HEPCIDIN AGONIST PR-73 IS PROTECTIVE. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine. 2018;19(6S):249'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Akshay Kumar",address:"drakshay82@gmail.com",affiliation:'
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, United States
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8722",title:"E. Coli Infections",subtitle:"Importance of Early Diagnosis and Efficient Treatment",fullTitle:"E. Coli Infections - Importance of Early Diagnosis and Efficient Treatment",slug:"e-coli-infections-importance-of-early-diagnosis-and-efficient-treatment",publishedDate:"September 30th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8722.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"128476",title:"Dr.",name:"Ai",middleName:null,surname:"Kotani",email:"ka102009@tsc.u-tokai.ac.jp",fullName:"Ai Kotani",slug:"ai-kotani",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Epstein-Barr Virus-Encoded miRNAs in Epstein-Barr Virus-Related Malignancy",slug:"ebv-encoded-mirnas-in-ebv-related-malignancy",abstract:null,signatures:"Jun Lu, Bidisha Chanda and Ai Kotani",authors:[{id:"128476",title:"Dr.",name:"Ai",surname:"Kotani",fullName:"Ai Kotani",slug:"ai-kotani",email:"ka102009@tsc.u-tokai.ac.jp"},{id:"130134",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Lu",fullName:"Jun Lu",slug:"jun-lu",email:"yeagun@tokai-u.jp"},{id:"130135",title:"Dr.",name:"Bidisha",surname:"Chanda",fullName:"Bidisha Chanda",slug:"bidisha-chanda",email:"bidisha.chanda@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Hematology",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"96911",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornelia",surname:"Brunner",slug:"cornelia-brunner",fullName:"Cornelia Brunner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ulm",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"97390",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Velazquez",slug:"laura-velazquez",fullName:"Laura Velazquez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 13 University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"98238",title:"Dr.",name:"Matilde",surname:"Canelles",slug:"matilde-canelles",fullName:"Matilde Canelles",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"-Senior Research Scientist at the Cell Biology and Immunology Department, Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine, Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Granada, Spain.\n\n-Head, Microscopy Unit, Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine, Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Granada, Spain.\n\n-Editor, Journal of Stem Cell Research and Therapy, OMICS Publishing Group, Sunnyvale, CA, USA.\n\nPREVIOUS RESEARCH EXPERIENCE:\n\n-Master of Science in Biology from Moscow State University (Russia) in 1993, \nPhD in Molecular Biology from University of Cantabria, (Spain) in 1997. \n\n-Postdoctoral Fellow at UC Berkeley (USA) from 1997 to 2000 and National Institutes of Health (USA) from 2000 to 2004.\n\n-Ramon y Cajal Investigator at the Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine, Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Granada, Spain, 2004-2007.\n\n-Tenured Research Scientist at the Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine, Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Granada, Spain, 2007-2010.\n\n-Fellows Award for Research Excellence, National Institutes of Health (USA) in 2004.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:'Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine "López-Neyra"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"100594",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladan",surname:"Cokic",slug:"vladan-cokic",fullName:"Vladan Cokic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/100594/images/455_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},{id:"101739",title:"Prof.",name:"Jody",surname:"Haigh",slug:"jody-haigh",fullName:"Jody Haigh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ghent University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}},{id:"101743",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"Goossens",slug:"steven-goossens",fullName:"Steven Goossens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ghent University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}},{id:"105939",title:"Ms.",name:"Katja",surname:"Fiedler",slug:"katja-fiedler",fullName:"Katja Fiedler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ulm",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"105976",title:"MSc.",name:"Bojana",surname:"Beleslin-Cokic",slug:"bojana-beleslin-cokic",fullName:"Bojana Beleslin-Cokic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Endocrinology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}},{id:"113523",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Jimenez-Teja",slug:"daniel-jimenez-teja",fullName:"Daniel Jimenez-Teja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Spanish National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"113524",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadia",surname:"Martin-Blanco",slug:"nadia-martin-blanco",fullName:"Nadia Martin-Blanco",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Yale University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
",metaTitle:"List of Funders by Country",metaDescription:"If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-funding-funders-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15790}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"53",title:"Genomics",slug:"genomics",parent:{title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"},numberOfBooks:14,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:301,numberOfWosCitations:99,numberOfCrossrefCitations:73,numberOfDimensionsCitations:170,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"genomics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9394",title:"Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Test Methods",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9ee7e597358dbbfb5e33d0beb76e6fff",slug:"genotoxicity-and-mutagenicity-mechanisms-and-test-methods",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9394.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8992",title:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88ec966a7a8eecaf5cdbdc8b20295737",slug:"gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9377",title:"Non-Coding RNAs",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff4f15e339216fa9426d2b9fdf3b5901",slug:"non-coding-rnas",bookSignature:"Lütfi Tutar, Sümer Aras and Esen Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9377.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158530",title:"Dr.",name:"Lütfi",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"lutfi-tutar",fullName:"Lütfi Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6582",title:"Chromatin and Epigenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"afa23decc7c15bdf48cfeebb5f0c38fb",slug:"chromatin-and-epigenetics",bookSignature:"Colin Logie and Tobias Aurelius Knoch",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212809",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Colin",middleName:null,surname:"Logie",slug:"colin-logie",fullName:"Colin Logie"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"68430",title:"Dr.",name:"Tobias Aurelius",middleName:null,surname:"Knoch",slug:"tobias-aurelius-knoch",fullName:"Tobias Aurelius Knoch",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68430/images/system/68430.png",biography:"Born in the Rhein-Neckar region Mannheim/Heidelberg, Germany, Dr. Knoch studied Physics, Mathematics, and Biology at the University of Heidelberg. In 1998, he graduated in (bio-)physics with 'Three-Dimensional Organization of Chromosomes domains in Simulation and Experiment”, followed by his dissertation 'Approaching the Three-Dimensional Organization of the Human Genome' both at the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, in 2002. In 2002/2004 Dr. Knoch founded his group Biophysical Genomics located at the Kirchhoff Institute for Physics, University of Heidelberg, and until today at the Cell Biology Department, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. His work is focusing on the determination and understanding of genome organization from the DNA sequence level to the entire nuclear morphology. Therefore, approaches from theoretical physics have been combined with molecular biology in highly interdisciplinary projects ranging from advanced DNA sequence analyses, parallel high-performance computer modelling of genomic architectures, and new image analysis methods, to advanced fluorescence in situ hybridization and high-resolution chromatin conformation interaction genome mapping. Major achievements have been: an artefact-free in vivo labelling method of nuclear chromatin, the first system-biological genome browser (GLOBE 3D Genome Browser), the set-up of one of the largest desktop computing grids, and last but not least the final determination of the general structural organization of higher mammalian genomes leading to a consistent systems genomics view of genomes from genotype to phenotype. All this has resulted in patents, publications, the foundation/coordination of international interdisciplinary cooperative networks, and consortia. He also (co-)founded many initiatives improving institutional/university study and management performance including the science outreach to the public and industry. Besides, he also conducts environmental and human ecology research, has achieved law-changing contributions in the human-rights sector, is an increasingly recognized artist in the fine arts, and last but not least has founded and is running two companies in the renewable energy production and development sector. His achievements have resulted in prestigious scholarships, awards, and prices as early as 1983.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Erasmus University Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Netherlands"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6987",title:"Antisense Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d60550dc1e3afbb083fe61925b33caa",slug:"antisense-therapy",bookSignature:"Shashwat Sharad and Suman Kapur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6987.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80113",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashwat",middleName:null,surname:"Sharad",slug:"shashwat-sharad",fullName:"Shashwat Sharad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8029",title:"Transcriptome Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"19e7bd55dd90a5187ee806a307ef112d",slug:"transcriptome-analysis",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7995",title:"Epigenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33c1f5868ce0c29fbde6eafdc50af702",slug:"epigenetics",bookSignature:"Rosaria Meccariello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7995.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143980",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosaria",middleName:null,surname:"Meccariello",slug:"rosaria-meccariello",fullName:"Rosaria Meccariello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8605",title:"DNA Repair",subtitle:"An Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f32305a1299fabc5119b721f69cc97cb",slug:"dna-repair-an-update",bookSignature:"Maddalena Mognato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8605.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41691",title:"Dr.",name:"Maddalena",middleName:null,surname:"Mognato",slug:"maddalena-mognato",fullName:"Maddalena Mognato"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8891",title:"Gene Editing",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25f0d7de56709fc0558c0bb8212a0d03",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8891.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7331",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",subtitle:"Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"436fdc4857ca5c7f496e439de1034b6b",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",bookSignature:"Aditi Singh and Mohammad W. Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7331.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240724",title:"Dr.",name:"Aditi",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"aditi-singh",fullName:"Aditi Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6788",title:"In Vivo and Ex Vivo Gene Therapy for Inherited and Non-Inherited Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cc5d9c7226ec72dfaf15a41133b3d46",slug:"in-vivo-and-ex-vivo-gene-therapy-for-inherited-and-non-inherited-disorders",bookSignature:"Houria Bachtarzi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6788.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178430",title:"Dr.",name:"Houria",middleName:null,surname:"Bachtarzi",slug:"houria-bachtarzi",fullName:"Houria Bachtarzi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1719",title:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein",subtitle:"Examples from Current Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"204480b394b0ba9a43580a1e04d53c50",slug:"genetic-manipulation-of-dna-and-protein-examples-from-current-research",bookSignature:"David Figurski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1719.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104812",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Figurski",slug:"david-figurski",fullName:"David Figurski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:14,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32799",doi:"10.5772/33525",title:"GC3 Biology in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes",slug:"gc3-biology-in-eukaryotes-and-prokaryotes",totalDownloads:1495,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"dna-methylation-from-genomics-to-technology",title:"DNA Methylation",fullTitle:"DNA Methylation - From Genomics to Technology"},signatures:"Eran Elhaik and Tatiana Tatarinova",authors:[{id:"95992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:"Valerievna",surname:"Tatarinova",slug:"tatiana-tatarinova",fullName:"Tatiana Tatarinova"},{id:"105570",title:"Dr.",name:"Eran",middleName:null,surname:"Elhaik",slug:"eran-elhaik",fullName:"Eran Elhaik"}]},{id:"64396",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81847",title:"MiRNA-Based Therapeutics in Oncology, Realities, and Challenges",slug:"mirna-based-therapeutics-in-oncology-realities-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1087,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Ovidiu Balacescu, Simona Visan, Oana Baldasici, Loredana Balacescu, Catalin Vlad and Patriciu Achimas-Cadariu",authors:[{id:"195763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ovidiu",middleName:null,surname:"Balacescu",slug:"ovidiu-balacescu",fullName:"Ovidiu Balacescu"},{id:"196758",title:"Dr.",name:"Loreadana",middleName:null,surname:"Balacescu",slug:"loreadana-balacescu",fullName:"Loreadana Balacescu"},{id:"196770",title:"Prof.",name:"Patriciu",middleName:null,surname:"Achimas",slug:"patriciu-achimas",fullName:"Patriciu Achimas"},{id:"269553",title:"MSc.",name:"Oana",middleName:null,surname:"Baldasici",slug:"oana-baldasici",fullName:"Oana Baldasici"},{id:"269554",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Visan",slug:"simona-visan",fullName:"Simona Visan"},{id:"279298",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin",middleName:null,surname:"Vlad",slug:"catalin-vlad",fullName:"Catalin Vlad"}]},{id:"42536",doi:"10.5772/35029",title:"Studying Cell Signal Transduction with Biomimetic Point Mutations",slug:"studying-cell-signal-transduction-with-biomimetic-point-mutations",totalDownloads:1918,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"genetic-manipulation-of-dna-and-protein-examples-from-current-research",title:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein",fullTitle:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein - Examples from Current Research"},signatures:"Nathan A. Sieracki and Yulia A. Komarova",authors:[{id:"102665",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Komarova",slug:"yulia-komarova",fullName:"Yulia Komarova"},{id:"109090",title:"Dr.",name:"Nathan",middleName:"A.",surname:"Sieracki",slug:"nathan-sieracki",fullName:"Nathan Sieracki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66606",title:"Introductory Chapter: Transcriptome Analysis",slug:"introductory-chapter-transcriptome-analysis",totalDownloads:1744,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"transcriptome-analysis",title:"Transcriptome Analysis",fullTitle:"Transcriptome Analysis"},signatures:"Miroslav Blumenberg",authors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}]},{id:"42537",title:"Recombineering and Conjugation as Tools for Targeted Genomic Cloning",slug:"recombineering-and-conjugation-as-tools-for-targeted-genomic-cloning",totalDownloads:1438,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"genetic-manipulation-of-dna-and-protein-examples-from-current-research",title:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein",fullTitle:"Genetic Manipulation of DNA and Protein - Examples from Current Research"},signatures:"James W. Wilson, Clayton P. Santiago, Jacquelyn Serfecz and Laura N. Quick",authors:[{id:"124557",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"james-wilson",fullName:"James Wilson"}]},{id:"67830",title:"Antisense Therapy: An Overview",slug:"antisense-therapy-an-overview",totalDownloads:996,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Shashwat Sharad",authors:[{id:"80113",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashwat",middleName:null,surname:"Sharad",slug:"shashwat-sharad",fullName:"Shashwat Sharad"}]},{id:"67086",title:"Application and Development of CRISPR/Cas9 Technology in Pig Research",slug:"application-and-development-of-crispr-cas9-technology-in-pig-research",totalDownloads:1109,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Huafeng Lin, Qiudi Deng, Lili Li and Lei Shi",authors:null},{id:"38875",title:"How RNA Interference Combat Viruses in Plants",slug:"how-rna-interference-combat-viruses-in-plants",totalDownloads:3569,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"functional-genomics",title:"Functional Genomics",fullTitle:"Functional Genomics"},signatures:"Bushra Tabassum, Idrees Ahmad Nasir, Usman Aslam and Tayyab Husnain",authors:[{id:"147560",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyab",middleName:null,surname:"Husnain",slug:"tayyab-husnain",fullName:"Tayyab Husnain"}]},{id:"64492",title:"Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy",slug:"antisense-oligonucleotides-a-novel-developing-targeting-therapy",totalDownloads:2255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Sara Karaki, Clément Paris and Palma Rocchi",authors:[{id:"273516",title:"Dr.",name:"Palma",middleName:null,surname:"Rocchi",slug:"palma-rocchi",fullName:"Palma Rocchi"},{id:"275051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Karaki",slug:"sara-karaki",fullName:"Sara Karaki"},{id:"282578",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"clement-paris",fullName:"Clement Paris"}]},{id:"65601",title:"Epigenetic Modifications in Plants under Abiotic Stress",slug:"epigenetic-modifications-in-plants-under-abiotic-stress",totalDownloads:915,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"epigenetics",title:"Epigenetics",fullTitle:"Epigenetics"},signatures:"Garima Singroha and Pradeep Sharma",authors:[{id:"142882",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradeep",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"pradeep-sharma",fullName:"Pradeep Sharma"},{id:"281215",title:"Dr.",name:"Garima",middleName:null,surname:"Singroha",slug:"garima-singroha",fullName:"Garima Singroha"}]},{id:"63505",title:"Resetting Cell Fate by Epigenetic Reprogramming",slug:"resetting-cell-fate-by-epigenetic-reprogramming",totalDownloads:588,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"chromatin-and-epigenetics",title:"Chromatin and Epigenetics",fullTitle:"Chromatin and Epigenetics"},signatures:"Molly Pui Man Wong and Ray Kit Ng",authors:[{id:"243618",title:"Dr.",name:"Ray Kit",middleName:null,surname:"Ng",slug:"ray-kit-ng",fullName:"Ray Kit Ng"},{id:"257535",title:"Dr.",name:"Molly Pui Man",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"molly-pui-man-wong",fullName:"Molly Pui Man Wong"}]},{id:"62990",title:"CRISPR-ERA for Switching Off (Onco) Genes",slug:"crispr-era-for-switching-off-onco-genes",totalDownloads:582,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Ignacio García-Tuñon, Elena Vuelta, Sandra Pérez-Ramos, Jesús M\nHernández-Rivas, Lucía Méndez, María Herrero and Manuel\nSanchez-Martin",authors:null},{id:"69649",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",totalDownloads:372,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",title:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",fullTitle:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits"},signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"genomics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/128476/ai-kotani",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"128476",slug:"ai-kotani"},fullPath:"/profiles/128476/ai-kotani",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()