Indices of microaggregate stability commonly applied to tropical soils
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9791",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Multiple Myeloma",title:"Multiple Myeloma",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book deals with the diagnosis and treatment of multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma is a plasma cell disorder, the prognosis of which has dramatically improved in the last years thanks to new immunomodulatory drugs, proteasome inhibitors, and monoclonal antibodies, in relapsed/refractory disease and a diagnosis. Chapters cover such topics as prognostic and predictive factors in newly diagnosed multiple myeloma, treatment approaches, antibody therapies, and three-dimensional (3D) models mimicking multiple myeloma bone marrow–microenvironment interactions.",isbn:"978-1-83968-621-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-620-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-622-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87599",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"multiple-myeloma",numberOfPages:126,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"91ae15c94c1c8b771c959a4cee4ed8ba",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9791.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1614,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 31st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 9th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 27th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",middleName:null,surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36468/images/system/36468.jpeg",biography:"Ota Fuchs graduated from the Chemical Technological University, Prague, Czech Republic, in 1971. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biochemistry from the Faculty of Natural Sciences, Charles University, Prague, in 1981. He is employed as a Senior Scientist at the Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, Prague. He undertook as visiting scientist short-term affiliations at the Beatson Institute for Cancer Research, Glasgow, UK; Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences in St Peterburg, Russia; and Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada. Dr. Fuchs was the principal investigator of five projects of the Internal Grant Agency of the Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic and one grant project of the Grant Agency of Czech Republic.",institutionString:"Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1082",title:"Hemato-Oncology",slug:"medicine-oncology-hemato-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"75812",title:"Introductory Chapter: Oral Selinexor, a Selective Inhibitor of Nuclear Export in the Treatment of Patients with Multiple Myeloma Refractory to Proteasome Inhibitors, Immunomodulatory Agents and Monoclonal Antibodies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96945",slug:"introductory-chapter-oral-selinexor-a-selective-inhibitor-of-nuclear-export-in-the-treatment-of-pati",totalDownloads:141,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ota Fuchs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75812",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75812",authors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],corrections:null},{id:"74998",title:"Prognostic and Predictive Factors in Newly Diagnosed Multiple Myeloma Patients with Early Mortality with Prediction Matrix and Three and Five-Year Overall Survival",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95819",slug:"prognostic-and-predictive-factors-in-newly-diagnosed-multiple-myeloma-patients-with-early-mortality-",totalDownloads:298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Survival rates for newly diagnosed multiple myeloma have increased to a remarkable 8–12 years. Novel agents, autologous stem cell transplantation, monoclonal antibodies, improvements in supportive care and attention to minimal residual disease negative all have aided this remarkable journey. With these treatments we are identifying tools to achieve complete remissions. Prognostic factors have an important role in selecting proper patient approaches for trial designs. Prognostic and predictive clinical biomarkers have shaped staging and treatment selections for newly diagnosed multiple myeloma. Here we review the Early Mortality Prediction Matrix to identify those at risk of an early death (<6 months) incorporating both disease biology with patient fitness. We also review current standards of care for multiple myeloma and provide a three and five-year overall survival prediction matrix. We review benefits for MRD negativity and Next-Gen Sequencing. These tools will help clinicians improve upon reducing early mortality in newly diagnosed multiple myeloma patients and provide further framework for improving survival by assessing clinical, biologic and individual multiple myeloma patients.",signatures:"Howard R. Terebelo and Leo Reap",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74998",authors:[{id:"330963",title:"Dr.",name:"Howard R.",surname:"Terebelo",slug:"howard-r.-terebelo",fullName:"Howard R. Terebelo"},{id:"330964",title:"Dr.",name:"Leo",surname:"Reap",slug:"leo-reap",fullName:"Leo Reap"}],corrections:null},{id:"76632",title:"Treatment Approaches of Multiple Myeloma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97390",slug:"treatment-approaches-of-multiple-myeloma",totalDownloads:252,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multiple Myeloma (MM) is the most common malignant neoplasm of plasma cells that accumulate in bone marrow, leading to bone destruction and marrow failure. Clinical investigation of MM requires the evaluation of bone marrow for plasma cell infiltration, and detection and quantification of monoclonal protein in the serum or urine, and evidence for end-organ damage (i.e., hypercalcemia, renal insufficiency, anemia, or bone lesions). The overall goal of treatment of MM is to improve survival. The treatment landscape and clinical outcome of MM have changed in the last two decades, with an improved median survival of 8–10 years. Management of MM involves induction, consolidation, and maintenance therapy. Currently, Autologous stem cell transplant (ASCT) is considered as the standard care of treatment for newly diagnosed fit MM patients. Multiple combinations of proteasome inhibitors (PIs) and immunomodulatory drugs (IMIDs) such as Thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide have been under evaluation in ASCT-eligible and ineligible settings, and studies are still ongoing. For patients with ASCT-eligible newly diagnosed MM, induction therapy with triple drugs should contain an IMiD, a PI, and a corticosteroid, usually lenalidomide-bortezomib-dexamethasone. For ASCT-ineligible patients on lenalidomide with dexamethasone (Rd), with addition of bortezomib or daratumumab can be considered.",signatures:"Minyahil Alebachew Woldu, Atalay Mulu Fentie and Tamrat Assefa Tadesse",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76632",authors:[{id:"340969",title:"MSc.",name:"Tamrat",surname:"Assefa Tadesse",slug:"tamrat-assefa-tadesse",fullName:"Tamrat Assefa Tadesse"},{id:"341687",title:"MSc.",name:"Atalay Mulu",surname:"Fentie",slug:"atalay-mulu-fentie",fullName:"Atalay Mulu Fentie"},{id:"345496",title:"Mr.",name:"Minyahil Alebachew",surname:"Woldu",slug:"minyahil-alebachew-woldu",fullName:"Minyahil Alebachew Woldu"}],corrections:null},{id:"77271",title:"Antibody Therapies for Multiple Myeloma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98656",slug:"antibody-therapies-for-multiple-myeloma",totalDownloads:167,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multiple Myeloma (MM) is characterized by the abberant proliferation and expansion of plasma cells in the Bone marrow. Despite the broad use of proteasome inhibitors and IMiDs, Multiple Myeloma remains an incurable disease. The introduction of Monoclonal antibodies, along with bi-specific antibodies and check point inhibitors, has significantly enhanced the armamentarium of available therapeutic options in the relapsed setting. The incorporation of the above-mentioned novel agents in triplet or quadruplet therapeutic regimens has led to significant prolongation of overall survival (OS) and progression free survival (PFS), without adding significant toxicity. Anti-CD38 monoclonal antibodies has become the cornerstone of antimyeloma therapy in both the newly diagnosed and relapsed setting.",signatures:"Nikolaos Kanellias, Maria Gavriatopoulou and Evangelos Terpos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77271",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77271",authors:[{id:"52484",title:"Prof.",name:"Evangelos",surname:"Terpos",slug:"evangelos-terpos",fullName:"Evangelos Terpos"},{id:"332827",title:"M.D.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Kanellias",slug:"nikolaos-kanellias",fullName:"Nikolaos Kanellias"},{id:"419708",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Gavriatopoulou",slug:"maria-gavriatopoulou",fullName:"Maria Gavriatopoulou"}],corrections:null},{id:"74833",title:"The Modern Age of Monoclonal Antibodies: The Revolution of Daratumumab",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95406",slug:"the-modern-age-of-monoclonal-antibodies-the-revolution-of-daratumumab",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"CD38 is a transmembrane glycoprotein expressed on the surface of different cell lines with several functions (receptor, adhesion molecule, ectoenzyme). Based on its high expression in multiple myeloma cells, CD38 is one of the main molecules used in the target therapy age. Daratumumab is the first fully human monoclonal antibody tested in clinical trials, showing efficacy in relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma patients, especially in combination with immunomodulants and/or proteasome inhibitors. The synergic effect concerns multiple myeloma cells as well as the microenvironment (NK cells, macrophage, regulatory B/T cells and CD8+ effector cells). Therefore, the anti-multiple myeloma activity of Daratumumab greatly depends on the immune system: this is the reason why several ongoing clinical trial are testing its efficacy in the naïve patients, with a more effective immune system.",signatures:"Gianfranco Lapietra, Francesca Fazio and Maria Teresa Petrucci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74833",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74833",authors:[{id:"74109",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Teresa",surname:"Petrucci",slug:"maria-teresa-petrucci",fullName:"Maria Teresa Petrucci"},{id:"331554",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianfranco",surname:"Lapietra",slug:"gianfranco-lapietra",fullName:"Gianfranco Lapietra"},{id:"331555",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Fazio",slug:"francesca-fazio",fullName:"Francesca Fazio"}],corrections:null},{id:"74929",title:"Pleural Effusion Secondary to Multiple Myeloma: Is Daratumumab an Effective Treatment? A Case Report",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95659",slug:"pleural-effusion-secondary-to-multiple-myeloma-is-daratumumab-an-effective-treatment-a-case-report",totalDownloads:225,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extramedullary (EM) plasmacytoma disease is an aggressive presentation at diagnosis and relapse for multiple myeloma (MM) patients. EM plasmacytoma is divided into two groups: the first group comprises tumors that extend directly from osteolytic bone lesions, while the second results from plasmacytoma infiltration into soft tissues, with no relation to the bone. Despite new therapies and monoclonal antibodies, the survival for patients with EM plasmacytoma is poor. The involvement of pleural effusion is uncommon in multiple myeloma.",signatures:"Giulia Palazzo, Lara Aprile, Giacomo Cecere, Vito Pier Gagliardi, Alessandro Maggi, Antonella Prudenzano and Patrizio Mazza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74929",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74929",authors:[{id:"330157",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Giulia",surname:"Palazzo",slug:"giulia-palazzo",fullName:"Giulia Palazzo"}],corrections:null},{id:"74539",title:"3D Models of Surrogate Multiple Myeloma Bone Marrow Microenvironments: Insights on Disease Pathophysiology and Patient-Specific Response to Drugs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95333",slug:"3d-models-of-surrogate-multiple-myeloma-bone-marrow-microenvironments-insights-on-disease-pathophysi",totalDownloads:305,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multiple Myeloma (MM) develops almost exclusively within the Bone Marrow (BM), highlighting the critical role of the microenvironment in conditioning disease progression and resistance to drugs. Indeed, while the therapeutic armamentarium for MM has significantly improved over the past 20 years, the disease remains ultimately incurable. This failure may depend on the high phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity of MM, but also on the paucity and inadequacy of two-dimensional (2D) conventional preclinical models in reproducing MM within the BM. In the present paper, we provide a brief updated overview on MM BM microenvironment. We then discuss newly developed preclinical models mimicking MM/microenvironment interactions, including three-dimensional (3D), gel-based, in vitro models and a novel ex vivo system of isolated tumor and stromal cells cultured in bioreactor. Potential applications of each model, relative to investigation of MM pathogenic mechanisms and prediction of the best drug/combination for each individual patient will be also evaluated.",signatures:"Marina Ferrarini, Magda Marcatti, Fabio Ciceri and Elisabetta Ferrero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74539",authors:[{id:"161213",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabetta",surname:"Ferrero",slug:"elisabetta-ferrero",fullName:"Elisabetta Ferrero"},{id:"167159",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Ferrarini",slug:"marina-ferrarini",fullName:"Marina Ferrarini"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5276",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31dbb51d4215f4c5ed2069686e46ec2b",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5276.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8798",title:"Cells of the Immune System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e8acf20a4e80bc7c97cb34d1672e53d",slug:"cells-of-the-immune-system",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs and Seyyed Shamsadin Athari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7138",title:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f25aae5d062706d31025b1b21bb1d072",slug:"recent-developments-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7138.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"209",title:"Cancer Stem Cells",subtitle:"The Cutting Edge",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"464a7be74679b09faeb4aef72c3cd3a6",slug:"cancer-stem-cells-the-cutting-edge",bookSignature:"Stanley Shostak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/209.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28104",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanley",surname:"Shostak",slug:"stanley-shostak",fullName:"Stanley Shostak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"50",title:"Cancer Stem Cells",subtitle:"Theories and Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3407f8f3a110b5e2b9e11628c3dcfb18",slug:"cancer-stem-cells-theories-and-practice",bookSignature:"Stanley Shostak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/50.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28104",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanley",surname:"Shostak",slug:"stanley-shostak",fullName:"Stanley Shostak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"826",title:"Tumor Angiogenesis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7623895df0aba62ffdeed2e9588df06",slug:"tumor-angiogenesis",bookSignature:"Sophia Ran",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/826.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79980",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophia",surname:"Ran",slug:"sophia-ran",fullName:"Sophia Ran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"737",title:"Myeloid Leukemia",subtitle:"Basic Mechanisms of Leukemogenesis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fc5c91128d07fcd5de3cf04211c6750",slug:"myeloid-leukemia-basic-mechanisms-of-leukemogenesis",bookSignature:"Steffen Koschmieder and Utz Krug",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/737.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72872",title:"Dr",name:"Steffen",surname:"Koschmieder",slug:"steffen-koschmieder",fullName:"Steffen Koschmieder"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"539",title:"Novel Aspects in Acute Lymphoblastic 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Manuel",surname:"Mejia-Arangure",slug:"juan-manuel-mejia-arangure",fullName:"Juan Manuel Mejia-Arangure"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"318",title:"Acute Leukemia",subtitle:"The Scientist's Perspective and Challenge",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e697a80aa41aec2dd86a911ddcd7be9",slug:"acute-leukemia-the-scientist-s-perspective-and-challenge",bookSignature:"Mariastefania Antica",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/318.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36211",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariastefania",surname:"Antica",slug:"mariastefania-antica",fullName:"Mariastefania Antica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"65667",slug:"erratum-the-roll-of-the-entrepreneur-in-the-establishment-of-economic-equilibria",title:"Erratum - The Roll of the Entrepreneur in the Establishment of Economic Equilibria",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65667.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65667",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65667",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65667",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65667",chapter:{id:"57461",slug:"the-roll-of-the-entrepreneur-in-the-establishment-of-economic-equilibria",signatures:"Er’el Granot",dateSubmitted:"April 7th 2017",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"January 24th 2018",book:{id:"6165",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship - Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",slug:"entrepreneurship-development-tendencies-and-empirical-approach",publishedDate:"January 24th 2018",bookSignature:"Ladislav Mura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6165.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85474",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Mura",slug:"ladislav-mura",fullName:"Ladislav Mura"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"181601",title:"Prof.",name:"Er'El",middleName:null,surname:"Granot",fullName:"Er'El Granot",slug:"er'el-granot",email:"erelgranot@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Ariel University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"57461",slug:"the-roll-of-the-entrepreneur-in-the-establishment-of-economic-equilibria",signatures:"Er’el Granot",dateSubmitted:"April 7th 2017",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"January 24th 2018",book:{id:"6165",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship - Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",slug:"entrepreneurship-development-tendencies-and-empirical-approach",publishedDate:"January 24th 2018",bookSignature:"Ladislav Mura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6165.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85474",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Mura",slug:"ladislav-mura",fullName:"Ladislav Mura"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"181601",title:"Prof.",name:"Er'El",middleName:null,surname:"Granot",fullName:"Er'El Granot",slug:"er'el-granot",email:"erelgranot@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Ariel University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}]},book:{id:"6165",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",fullTitle:"Entrepreneurship - Development Tendencies and Empirical Approach",slug:"entrepreneurship-development-tendencies-and-empirical-approach",publishedDate:"January 24th 2018",bookSignature:"Ladislav Mura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6165.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85474",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Mura",slug:"ladislav-mura",fullName:"Ladislav Mura"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11912",leadTitle:null,title:"Expert Systems With Recent Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tExpert systems are the branch of artificial intelligence dealing with utilizing human expertise for solving problems. They are defined as computer systems that are capable of solving problems in the same way as a human expert would do when they face the same problem. With the current stream of digital transportation and an enormous amount of interest in intelligent systems, they will be a potential area of research for providing better intelligence to systems. They will also motivate the researchers to generate systems with more and more expertise. In this book, a general introduction to expert systems will be provided after a brief introduction to Artificial Intelligence. Detailed information about Expert Systems will be defined concerning their basic features and architectures as well as main characteristics and basic differences from traditional computer systems. Various applications of expert systems will also be provided. Potential readers will find both theoretical progress as well as practical applications. They will find a great amount of information to ease their research and implementation of intelligent systems.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-422-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-421-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-423-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"514907388f7a2b291f71f9b93b58b795",bookSignature:"Prof. Ercan Oztemel",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11912.jpg",keywords:"Artificial Intelligence, Intelligent Systems, Smart Systems, Computational Intelligence, Knowledge Base, Knowledge Representation, Knowledge Management, Inference Engine, Manufacturing Applications, Finance Applications, Smart Factories, Health Applications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 28th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 16th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 15th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Dr. Oztemel graduated from the Istanbul Technical University and received his Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical, Electronics and Systems Engineering of the University of Wales, UK. He worked as a Chief Researcher at the Information Technologies Institute of Turkish Science and Technology Council (TUBITAK). He also served as the vice president of the Turkish Measurement and Placement Center of Turkey and as a member of the Executive Board in the TUBITAK Public Research Group.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"306974",title:"Prof.",name:"Ercan",middleName:null,surname:"Oztemel",slug:"ercan-oztemel",fullName:"Ercan Oztemel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/306974/images/system/306974.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Ercan Oztemel was born in 1962 in Elazig of Turkey. He graduated from the Department of Industrial Engineering, Sakarya Engineering Faculty of Istanbul Technical University in 1984. He completed his postgraduate studies at Boğaziçi University between 1985-1987, and his doctorate study at the Department of Electrical, Electronics and Systems Engineering of University of Wales between 1988-1992. Between 1993 and 2006, he worked as a lecturer at Sakarya University. In addition to his academic life, he worked as a Chief Researcher at Information Technologies Institute of Turkish Science and Technology Council (TUBITAK), between 1993 and 2011. In this institute, he conducted research on Artificial Intelligence applications, especially in the military domain. He carried out projects that were the first of their kind, such as placing simulation systems on military training aircraft (flying simulator), Artificial combat Pilot, nurse robots, war fare exercises in the virtual world. Between 1997 and 2010, he carried out research in the Western European Union Armament Group, as well as a Member of the Executive Board in the 11th and 15th Groups, and a member of the System Analysis and Simulation (SAS) Panel within NATO between 2001-2006. On the other hand, he supported the creation and execution of many sub-projects as a Member of the Executive Board in the IPROMS (Intelligent Production and Mechanization Systems) Center of Excellence project opened within the scope of the European Union 6th Framework Program. He served as the vice president of Turkish Measurement and Placement Center of Turkey between 2011 and 2015, and as the member of the Executive Board in the TUBITAK Public Research Group between 2012 and 2017. He conducts research in areas such as artificial intelligence, intelligent manufacturing systems, management information systems, simulation and modeling, strategic planning, quality management. He has many articles, papers and books on these subjects. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors, and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The relative preponderance of aggregates of various sizes in the soil and their stability to external forces are, therefore, an issue of major concern to soil scientists. By definition, an aggregate is a composite body or granule of loosely bound mineral particles within a soil, the binding of which is characteristically mediated by a relatively minor amount of organic matter [Encyclopedia of Soil Science, ESS 2008]. The mineral and organic particles involved in such a natural conglomeration, otherwise known as aggregation, cohere to each other more than to the neighbouring particles and/or aggregates [ESS 2008]. Soil aggregates are therefore soil structural units of which classical soil research recognizes two major size-based categories, macroaggregates and microaggregates. Collapse of macroaggregates yields microaggregates. Thus, macroaggregates may be viewed as having microaggregates as their building blocks. Sometimes, external forces acting on a soil can also foster formation of aggregates from dispersed materials. It is the interplay of aggregate formation and breakdown that results in soil structure [54]. Although extremities in either of these structure-promoting processes are undesirable, they are considered an agronomic and environmental problem only in the case of breakdown. This is because it is much easier to break down over-sized aggregates into favourably sized ones than to achieve aggregation in structurally dilapidated soils. Consequently, studies on the responses of soil aggregates to natural and anthropogenic forces appear to tilt more towards stability or otherwise of soil aggregates than to their coalescence by these forces. Soil aggregation includes the processes of formation and stabilization, both of which occur continuously and concurrently [3]. Soil aggregate/structural stability may be defined as a measure of the ability of the soil structural units to resist change or the extent to which they remain intact when mechanically stressed by environmental factors [ESS 2008]. The environmental factors that become important in this regard generally depend on climate and soil characteristics related to the nature of the parent materials and age of the soil. Another important factor is the intensity of disturbance related to land use and management [1]. To understand the importance of climate, it will be good to first state that water is such an indispensable entity in the discussion of soil aggregate stability that the subject is sometimes referred to aggregate stability to water. Climate sets the limit of change in the state of water in the soil, whether the soil’s response to the major climatic variables (rainfall and temperature) would be limited to mere wetting and drying or would also include freezing and thawing. In the tropical climate, soils are subject to frequent wetting and drying cycles in the short term during the rainy season and in the long term between the distinct rainy and dry seasons. Although freezing and thawing constitutes a greater stressor to soil aggregates, it rarely occurs in the tropics and therefore should be de-emphasized here for the sake of the scope of this chapter. In terms of inherent soil characteristics, tropicals soils generally show a higher aggregate stability compared to temperate soils [55], and this is due mainly to mineralogy of the former being characterized by dominance of oxides and kaolin clays [54]. Nevertheless, aggregate stability remains a valid topic in the tropics, especially in the broad area of environmental management, because many soils in the region are regarded as structurally fragile and unstable. This is due to other soil-related and certain climatic peculiarities of the region.The soil-related factors militating against the aggregate stability of the majority of tropical soils include the sandy nature of their parent materials, which often reflects in the texture of the soils. It has been reported that the resistance of soil aggregates to raindrop impact decreases with a decrease in clay content of the soil [40]. Most other soils occurring in areas with heavy rainfall, even when not originally sandy, have been so intensively washed by runoff and leaching that their texture tends toward coarseness [33]. It is perhaps because of the vast area occupied by soils in these categories, commonly referred to as \'tropical sandy soils\' in the literature, and the effect of the sandy texture on their aggregate stability that considerable research goes into their management [FAO 2007]. The coarse texture of the soils, coupled with the low concentration and high mineralization rates of organic matter (the typical aggregating agent) in them, implies impaired aggregation. Again, most tropical soils have long weathering history as is often evident in their low silt content [33], and this also contributes to frustrating aggregation processes in the soils. Indiscriminate deforestation, inappropriate land use and non-sustainable soil management options are also a common feature of agriculture in the region. In terms of climate, the aforementioned long-term wetting and drying cycles in most of the tropical region can have important implications for the aggregate stability of the soils. Also, the characteristic rainstorms and the associated heavy raindrops in especially the humid tropics can have considerable splash effect [38] and, therefore, are a force to reckon with in soil aggregate destabilization. It is thus clear that most tropical soils are structurally fragile and susceptible to many forms of erosion including accelerated and catastrophic erosion. [3] noted that good soil structure, known by the presence of well formed and stable aggregates, is the most desirable of all soil attributes for sustaining agricultural productivity and for preserving environmental quality. In the above context, a good understanding of the aggregate stability of tropical soils and its relationship with their erodibility is needed to guide the management of these soils against erosive and similar degradative forces. In spite of the generally higher aggregate stability of tropicals soils compared to temperate soils [55], soil erosion remains a major threat to agricultural productivity in the tropical region. Proper management is necessary to position these soil resources for continued support of agricultural and allied activities while not compromising environmental quality. Soil aggregate stability has been shown to give some guide on the relative stability of Ultisols from sub-tropical China to externally imposed destructive forces and, hence, to be an appropriate indicator of the relative susceptibility of the soils to detachment, runoff and interrill erosion [63, 53]. Our focus here is on microaggregation and the relationship between microaggregate stability and erodibility of tropical soils.
\n\t\tThe derivation of many aggregate stability indices involves all aggregate-size classes and, as a result, such indices provide information on the overall stability of the soil. A typical example and, perhaps, the mostly widely used of such indices is the mean-weight diameter (MWD) of aggregates. However, the MWD is often regarded as index of macroaggregate stability of soils, probably because of the preponderance of macroaggregate-size classes over microaggregate-size classes in its computation. Where authors of the papers reviewed in this chapter fail to specify which of macro- and microaggregate stability their indices represent, we regard the indices as representing macroaggregate stability rather than microaggregate stability, provided their determination did not involve dispersion. The MWD and indeed all such aggregate stability indices which integrate aggregate-size classes into one number are regarded as macroaggregate stability indices in this chapter. The use of such indices to assess erodibility may prove suitable in temperate soils, but may not in highly weathered tropical soils known for their oxyhydroxidic mineralogy and very stable microgranular structure [17]. The question remains which of macro- and microaggregate stability more closely relates to erodibility of the majority of tropical soils. To answer this question, we need to first understand the mechanisms that are generally responsible for the breakdown of macro- and microaggregates. The main mechanisms of aggregate breakdown for macro- and microaggregates are slaking and dispersion, respectively. Slaking is the initial break-up of macroaggregates into microaggregates when immersed in water, caused by pressure due to entrapped air [38] and/or by differential swelling [ESS 2008]. Unlike slaking, dispersion liberates the soil colloidal particles that are more transportable during erosion. Hence, microaggregate stability is often referred to as colloidal stability. This suggests that microaggregate stability may be a better indicator of potential soil erosion hazards. Some studies have related potential soil loss or, more specifically, the erodibility of tropical soils to their aggregate stability at both the macro and micro levels. These studies tend to support the view that erosion in the soils is related more to microaggregate stability than to macroaggregate stability. For instance, Igwe et al. [19] compared the predictability of soil loss by selected macro- and microaggregate stability indices for some soils from southeastern Nigeria. They found that all microaggregate stability indices predicted soil loss better than their macroaggregate stability counterparts. Some other researchers reported weak correlations between soil erodibility and macroaggregate stability indices for some Nigerian soils [30, 31]. The soils in question are by virtue of their parent materials dominated by quartz and, as is the case with many tropical soils, are at an advanced stage of weathering. Hence, such other minerals as Fe-oxyhydroxides and kaolinite abound in them, and these are the minerals that are known to cause highly stable aggregation [54]. Since these predominant minerals do not expand rapidly when immersed in water, slaking proceeds rather slowly in the soils. The implication is that the soils show fairly high macroaggregate stability which is a misrepresentation of their high erodibility and erosion status [33]. Considering the widely accepted role of soil organic matter in aggregate formation and stabilization/destabilization, the choice of microaggregate stability for the prediction of potential eroson hazards in tropical soils would also be explained by the relative influence of organic matter on macro- and microaggregate stability. Macroaggregates are generally considered more sensitive to soil organic matter concentrations–and hence are less stable–than microaggregates [58]. Whereas the theory of macroaggregates being less stable than microaggregates may hold true for tropical soils, that of macroaggregates being more sensitive to soil organic matter concentrations than microaggregates remains a controversial topic. It has been shown that the relationships between aggregate stability indices and organic matter concentrations in tropical soils are generally characterized by weak correlations [55], and these are thought to be due mainly to the relatively lower organic matter status of the soils. However, inconsistencies characterize the response of macro- and microaggregation to organic matter concentrations in tropical soils. The relationship between macroaggregate stability and soil organic matter concentration has been reported to be non-significant [17, 31, 64] or postively significant [7, 18, 26] or negatively significant [23]. There are indications that these relationships may depend on method of assessment of macroaggregate stability as well as on location. Soil clay content is another factor that may dictate the nature of organic matter effect on macroaggregate stability of tropical soils [61]. Similarly, the relationship between microaggregate stability and organic matter concentration in tropical soils has been reported to be non-significant [23] or positively significant [12, 42, 64, 51] or negatively significant [30, 33, 34]. There are indications that these relationships may depend on microaggregate stability index adopted by the authors as well as on the contents of organic matter in the soil relative to other microaggregating agents.
\n\t\tThere are a lot of inconsistencies in the literature regarding the appropriate size boundary between macro- and microaggregates. The placement of size boundary for the classification of aggregates into macro- and microaggregates and the delineation of their upper and lower limits, respectively appear to depend on the researcher’s orientation and location. We adopt here the categorization scheme proposed by Oades and Waters [46], which specifies the boundary between macro- and microaggregates as 0.25 mm, and this is consistent with the use of 0.25 mm as the boundary between water-stable and water-unstable aggregates in aggregate stability studies. In the hierarchy of aggregate size order, the lower boundary of microaggregates is taken to be 0.02 mm [46]. However, these upper and lower boundaries may be exceeded in highly weathered tropical soils where the association between microaggregates and clay-sized granules often form a kind of continuum of very stable aggregates [59, 49]. The stable microgranular structure is often manifested in form of pseudo-sands composed of clay particles that are strongly cemented together by Fe oxides [31].
\n\t\t\tMicroaggregates are formed in a number of ways, each influenced by a number of factors. The process of microaggregation combines break-up of aggregates due to slaking and aggregates due to subsequent attrition [14]. Factors that influence microaggregation may differ between the temperate and tropical regions. Some researchers working in a German temperate soil reported that microaggregation depended strongly on the size distribution of primary particles rather on land use [39]. Conversely, an assessment of microaggregate stability under different land use types in a Nigerian tropical soil revealed a strong dependence of the soil microaggregation on land use [51]. This implies that the agents of stabilization of microaggregates in tropical soils are sensitive to land use.
\n\t\t\tThe high aggregate stability for which tropical soils are reputed is not limited to macroaggregates. As already noted, microaggregates formed in tropical soils at advanced stages of weathering are also of very high stability [59, 46, 28]. In spite of this, microaggregate stability may still be a good indicator of the erodibility of tropical soils because of its direct link with silt and clay dispersion. Mineralogy appears to have a great influence on microaggregate stability of soils [45]. In this regard, the major microaggregating agents in tropical soils are Fe and Al oxides [17, 64, 31, 2, 28, 57]. However, in hardsetting lowland soils with low organic matter concentration and which are prone to seasonal flooding, microaggregation may be achieved through practices that enhance the organic matter concentration in them, since the roles of Fe and Al oxides in such soils may be dispersive rather than microaggregating [27]. Also, the microaggregating effect of Fe2O3 has been reported to be masked in some soils with relatively high concentrations of organic matter (1.39-6.79%) while that of exchangeable Ca and Mg became evident due to the tie-up of these elements with organic matter and hence their minimal leaching [Opara 2009]. Closely related to the effect of Fe and Al oxyhydroxides on the microaggregate stability of tropical soils is that of the non-expanding clay types, which dominate the clay mineralogy of the soils [30, 2006, 61, 57].
\n\t\t\tIn tropical soils, soil organic matter may act as a dispersing/deflocculating agent [31], as a microaggregating agent [26, 51] or as a facilitator to the microaggregating effect of Fe-Al oxides [28], depending on its relative abundance in the soils. By contrast, the effect of soil organic matter concentration on microaggregate stability of temperate soils appears not to be prounounced [39]. Apart from protecting the surface against raindrop impact, organic matter may impart hydrophobic characteristics to the soil, thereby reducing the slaking that usually precedes dispersion [38]. In some Fe-Al oxidic tropical soils from Malaysia, it was polysaccharide constituent of soil organic matter rather than total organic matter that influenced microaggregate stability [57]. Notably, the soil content of Fe and Al oxyhydroxides is not easy to manipulate by regular soil management practices [5]. The inference that can be drawn here is that the view that organic matter is not the main aggregating agent in tropical soils rich in Fe-Al oxyhydroxides [5] may not always apply to microaggregation, but the exact role of organic matter may depend on its concentration in the soil and on its chemical composition as may be determined by the prevailing land use and soil management.
\n\t\tSome tropical soils occuring in high-intensity rainfall zones have the tendency to slake and form seals, thereby resulting in considerable runoff and soil erosion [50, 13]. Although rainfall impact and slaking cause much greater breakdown of macroaggregates than microaggregates, these two factors can also be important for microaggregate stability and soil erodibility in at least two ways. First, slaking precedes dispersion. And this is the reason why, even though slakability is different from dispersibility, soils with high slaking potential are at high risk of interill erosion [41]. Second, sealing and crusting often accompany slaking. Seal is defined as the orientation and packing, at the very surface of the soil, particles dispersed from soil aggregates due to the impact of rain drops, thereby rendering the soil relatively impermeable to water [44]. This is the first stage of seal formation. As the ponded water infiltrates or evaporates, the soil particles suspended in it get deposited on the soil surface, thereby increasing the thickness of the seal. This is the second stage of seal formation. The entire seal eventually dries out to become crust, a thin but much more compact and hard layer than the material directly beneath [44, 60]. Both seals and crusts are therefore formed in the same way and occur commonly in the semi-arid regions [44, 60]. Crusts formed due to the first and second stages of seal formation are called structural crusts and depositional or sedimentary crusts, respectively [44, 38].
\n\t\t\tMost tropical soils are highly weathered and lacking in expanding clay types. Where they occur, the associated shrink-swell hazard is mostly concentrated in the subsoil where there is increased content of clay particles due to translocation and illuivation or residual accumulation of clay [33]. Because of this, slaking is due more to compression of air entrapped inside aggregates during wetting than to swelling. In the absence of swelling, the intense rainstorms experienced in the tropical region may result in sedimentary sealing and crusting especially in soils with reasonably high clay content but with disproportionately low concentration of organic matter [62]. Surface sealing and crust formation are an important factor in erosion processes, for they influence detachability of soil particles from aggregates, as well as infiltration rate and surface roughness which determine runoff volume and speed, respectively [38].
\n\t\t\tFor soil erosion in interrill areas, three generally recognized sub-processes completely define soil erosion; and they include detachment, transport and sedimentation [38]. Some researchers working with sandy-loam soils in the semi-arid tropics have obtained results which suggest that the erodibility of a soil depends on the relative proportion of aggregates in the soil, being higher when the aggregate size distribution shows a greater proportion of large-sized aggregates [35]. Others working with low-activity-clay tropical soils reported that the saturated hydraulic conductivity increased with an increase in structural stability of the soils [61, 48]. Increased saturated hydraulic conductivity implies reduced weakening and dispersion of the soil aggregates following rainfall and/or irrigation and, hence, less susceptibility to erosion. It appears therefore that, with respect to erosion, the predominance of large-sized aggregates in soils is not always an indicator of good soil structure, but the stability of the soil pore system is.
\n\t\t\tIt has been shown that, in tropical soils, disruption of macroaggregates leaves them as microaggregates rather than as primary particles [17]. Disintegration of soil macroaggregates into microaggregates following rainfall, slaking, dispersion and sealing can decrease infiltration and saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil [36, 37]. These effects which ultimately increase soil loss can be more severe in soils of low organic matter concentration [37], as those occuring in the tropical region. The main mechanism of microaggregate breakdown is dispersion into primary particles, and this is influenced by the electrolyte concentration of the soil solution and the applied water, exchangeable sodium percentage and mechanical disturbance [38]. Electrolyte concentration and the dispersion it induces can lead to a situation whereby re-deposition of the dispersed particles cause clogging of water-conducting pores in the soil, in which case the hydraulic conductivity becomes drastically reduced [10]. The roles of exchangeable sodium percentage and electrolyte concentration in microaggregate stability are also evident in tropical soils [31, 32], probably due to the effect of ions on the amount of aggregates cemented by Fe-Al oxyhydroxides.
\n\t\t\tGenerally, polyvalent cations cause flocculation whereas the monovalent cations cause dispersion [38]. It appears, however, that in hardsetting tropical soils with low organic matter concentration and that are prone to seasonal flooding, the flocculating role of polyvalent cations and the dispersive role of monovalent cations are usually not evident [27]. On the other hand, polyvalent cations (Ca2+ and Mg2+) are good microaggregating agents under upland soil conditions, provided there is sufficient organic matter in the soil to retain these cations against leaching [51]. For a range of tropical soils all from Nigeria, factors that have been identified to influence soil dispersion include presence and concentration of monovalent cations (mostly K+) in prospective irrigation water [27], soil reaction (pH), sodium adsorption ratio, and soil properties related to cation exchange [32, 23, 26] In the same region, elemental contents in silt fraction were reported to influence microaggregate stability [24].
\n\t\tMicroaggregate stability is normally assessed by the extent of dispersion of microaggregates into granules and/or primary particles. This is difficult to do under field conditions where the dynamic nature of this soil property may not permit attainment of reliable data. Consequently, most methods of assessment of microaggregate stability are based either on conceptual model of microaggregation involving the finer and colloidal particles or on the response of isolated microaggregates to simulated dispersive force in the laboratory. Although the disintegration forces applied in the laboratory may attempt to simulate those found in the field, they do not fully duplicate field conditions [3]. Forces applied to achieve dispersion during microaggregate stability tests may even be bigger and too sudden compared to the ones that cause dispersion under field conditions. Results of such tests are, however, still useful for they allow for a discrimination between soils in accordance with field observations [3], thereby providing information that can guide management decisions. Some of the methods that have been applied to tropical soils are summarized (Table 1). The information presented in this table shows that all the indices have to do with clay and/or silt dispersion in water. Although either of the water-dispersible clay (WDC) and water-dispersible silt (WDS) can be used to do the assessment of microaggregate stability, most researchers prefer using indices that include both.
\n\t\t\tOne observation that is noteworthy is the seemingly lack of agreement among the soil microaggregate stability indices included in this review. This lack of agreement is evident in the inconsistent pattern in which these indices relate to other soil properties, including soil contents of oxides and organic matter, both of which have been shown to be very important in microaggregation. For instance, WDC and clay dispersion ratio (CDR), both of which are indices of colloidal stability, have been reported to correlate with soil organic matter concentration in a contrasting manner [30]. It appears thus that, under certain conditions, some colloidal stability indices serve better, but under some other conditions, the same colloidal stability indices may not be suitable.
\n\t\tThe more widespread forms of erosion are rill and interrill erosion. Soil erosion can have both on-site and off-site effects which are the lowering of soil productivity and deposition of sediments, respectively. Crop yields are usually used as a proxy measure of soil productivity loss to erosion. Deposition of sediments, mostly colloidal particles detached from the soil by agents of erosion, occurs after they are transported by surface runoffs generated during rainfall (in the case of water erosion) and turbulent winds (in the case of wind erosion). Water erosion also results in the transport of runoff-laden solutes and dissolved contaminants and is thus a major source of land and water pollution. The problem is experienced more in the humid and sub-humid tropics where the rains often come as rainstorms. Here, soil loss to water erosion can be over 50 tons ha–1yr–1 [50, 15]. In contrast, the impact of wind erosion is felt more in the semi-arid and arid tropical climates, with soil loss rate that often surpasses that due to water erosion. In the West African Sahel, for instance, soil loss to wind erosion can be in the range of 58-80 tons ha–1yr–1 [34].
\n\t\t\tIn those areas where water erosion is the bigger problem, taxonomically different soils can respond differently to erosion under similar conditions. For instance, Inceptisols and Entisols have been reported to be more erodible than Ultisols, due to higher Fe and Al contents of the latter [23]. With respect to crop yields, the productivity of adversely eroded soils can be restored through careful selection of appropriate soil management practices. However, except in a few cases where materials deposited by runoff are properly harnessed, the off-site effect of soil erosion always constitutes environmental problems. In contemporary agriculture where the emphasis is on not just achieving high yields but also on making agricultural enterprise environment-friendly, such environmental problems arising from soil erosion should be viewed as undermining agricultural productivity.
\n\t\t\tThe problem of soil erosion and the associated negative impacts on agriculture and the environment is particularly severe in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, where it is a major cause of declining and stagnating soil productivity [48]. When considering appropriate soil conservation as an option, the first step is to try to understand the roles of microaggregate stability in checkmating soil erosion and in predicting soil erosion hazards. Prediction of soil erosion hazards involves a quantitative assessment of potential soil erosion in a land resource of an area. Such quantitative information is used in soil erosion hazard mapping for both short-term and long-term planning against erosion and associated deleterious effects, and this can have many agricultural and environmental benefits. Many atimes, erosion hazard maps are viewed as a tool for detailed farm planning and management [30]. Information on potential erosion hazards can also be used to embark on precautionary soil and water conservation measures. For instance, conservation specialists can use such information to select appropriate engineering designs and structures aimed at forestalling the occurrence of erosion in the first place, or controlling erosion in already eroded areas. Once started, rill and interill erosion need to be timely arrested, otherwise they may escalate into gully erosion, which is the more spectacular form of erosion that often threatens the integrity of the environment.
\n\t\tVirtually all known methods of assessing microaggregate stability, discussed earlier, employ the extent of dispersion into primary particles. The relevance of microaggregate stability for assessing potential erosion hazards lies, therefore, on the effects of dispersion on soil hydrophysical processes. Dispersion generally induces processes that are related to soil erodibility such as very fast crusting, slow infiltrability, and great mobility of particles in water [38]. Soil erodibility may be defined as the degree or intensity of a soil’s state or condition of being susceptible to erosion [56]. It is just one of the main parameters needed for erosion hazard prediction. The most commonly used index of erodibility is the erodibility factor (K-factor) of the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE). Although fragments/sediments detached by raindrops can be finer than the original soil, the detachment is often accompanied by mere displacement (splash effect); the actual transport and sedimentation involve silt- and clay-sized particles [38]. Therefore, microaggregates dispersion is a pre-condition for soil erosion to be complete. There is evidence from the United States that WDC and CDR can be good estimators of erodibility of some soils in Ohio [4].
\n\t\t\tMicroaggregate stability, when used as a tool for predicting soil erosion hazards, takes into account only the aspect of such hazards that are due to the soil inherent erodibility. One would therefore expect researchers to relate microaggregate stability to only soil erodibility when assessing potential erosion hazards. However, because soil erodibility is a dynamic soil property, its accurate determination can sometimes be difficult. Acquisition of data for soil erodibility is particularly difficult in the case of the K-factor of the RUSLE, as this requires some basic land-use information as well as pre-measurement soil management specifications, actual practice of which is often tedious and time-consuming. Consequently, not all researchers relate microaggregate stability to soil erodibility; some often relate it directly to soil loss to natural or simulated erosion, while keeping constant such other factors that affect erosion as rainfall, topography, vegetation, and soil management and conservation practices. We reason that, unless the relationship between microaggregate stability indices and erodibility/soil loss are not established by statistical correlations, the effects of such methodological differences may be negligible.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Clay ratio, CR | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMbagwu (1986) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Degree of aggregation, DOA† | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang and Horn (2001) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Water dispersible clay, WDC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tClay after particle-size analysis with deionized water only | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMbagwu and Auerswald (1999); Igwe (2005) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Water dispersible silt, WDS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSilt after particle-size analysis with deionized water only | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIgwe and Nkemakosi (2007) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Aggregated clay, AC or Clay aggregation, CA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tTotal clay – WDC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMbagwu and Auerswald (1999); Igwe (2003) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Aggregated silt + clay, ASC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tTotal silt and clay – WDS and WDC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIgwe et al. (1999a) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Clay dispersion ratio, CDR or Clay dispersion index, CDI | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIgwe and Nkemakosi (2007); Opara (2009) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Clay flocculation index, CFI | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tTotal clay – WDC/total clay | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIgwe and Nkemakosi (2007) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Dispersion ratio, DR or Water dispersible clay and silt, WDCS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMbagwu (1986); Igwe (2005); Igwe and Nkemakosi (2007); Sung (2012) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Indices of microaggregate stability commonly applied to tropical soils
†wa and wb stand for the proportion of particles between 0.25 and 0.05 mm obtained by microaggregate size analysis and by particle size analysis, respectively.
A – The smaller the value, the more stable the microaggregates are.
B – The bigger the value, the more stable the microaggregates are.
Although a good number of studies have been conducted on aggregate stability of tropical soils, our survey of the literature reveals that not many of these studies related the erodibility of the soils or potential soil loss to aggregate stability. Soil aggregate stability or instability is such a critical factor in erosion processes that erosion is often the first thing that comes to the mind when pondering over usefulness of information on aggregate stability. It is thus surprising that the majority of studies on aggregate stability of tropical soils failed to describe its relationship with soil erosion. Again, among the few studies that did otherwise, only a small proportion used microaggregate aggregate stability indices in spite of the fact that, as we have been able to show earlier in this review, microaggregate stability more than macroaggregate stability corresponds to the dispersion and erodibility of tropical soils. We review in the preceding paragraph only those studies that related soil erodibility or potential soil loss to microaggregate stability in the tropical region.
\n\t\t\tIn southeastern Nigeria, clay ratio (CR) and dispersion ratio (DR) were reported as being close substitutes to the K-factor in the prediction of soil loss [40]. Also in this region, Igwe et al. [29] related the K-factor to selected indices of microaggregate stability for soils from diverse geological formations. Their results showed a good correlation (
All the indices of microaggregate stability included in this review were developed based on silt and/or clay dispersion which occurs only in wet or submerged soils, and this limits their applicability to erodibility assessment to the case of water erosion [9]. In the semi-arid and arid tropics, wind erosion is a major source of soil and nutrient loss in agricultural soils. An index of microaggregate stability is therefore needed for such soils to also enable the assessment of potential erosion hazards in them. Similarly, there are indications that removal of gravels and stones from tropical soils characterized by high gravel content can confer higher erodibility to such soils [43, 25]. This implies that, for this category of soils, the use microaggregate stability indices determined from routine laboratory measurements as indicators of soil erodibility may be misleading. It may therefore be necessary to correct microaggregate stability results for gravel content, especially when they are intended for use in the assessment of soil erodibility. Research is needed on the best method of doing such a correction as may be confirmed by a good agreement between the ensuing results and field-measured erodibility of the soil. Also, some researchers have reported good correlations between their microaggregate stability indices and soil contents of silt [57] or clay [26, 51], just as others have reported that elemental contents in silt fraction affected microaggregation [24]. Silt is known to be the soil particle that is most suspectible to loss during erosion [52], and the data presented by Igwe and Ejiofor [2005] for a severely gullied tropical soil support this assertion. This suggests that paying attention to soil texture, especially variations in silt content, may benefit microaggregate stability studies in relation to erodibility.
\n\t\t\tIt is known that oxides which abound in many tropical soils are a major promoter of their colloidal stability. The role of particularly Fe oxides in microaggregate stability may not be limited to the promotion of microaggregate formation. A study conducted in a mediterranean environment revealed that Fe oxides also acted to decrease dispersion of clay [6]. The possibility of this phenomenon and the factors promoting it in Fe-oxide-rich soils in the core tropics need to be explored. This review reveals that there are conflicting reports on the effect of organic matter concentration on soil microaggregation and microaggregate stability of tropical soils. Forms of oxides in the soil can influence not only their aggregating potential but also that of organic matter [11], and this has been demonstrated specifically for microaggregation of tropical soils [28]. On the other hand, the chemical composition of organic matter and its distribution in the aggregate-size classes (whether it is physically protected within microaggregates or not) may also contribute to determining how it influences microaggregation in the soil. More studies are therefore suggested on the role of organic matter in microaggregate stability of tropical soils, with emphasis on soils differing in both contents and forms of oxides.
\n\t\t\tIn erosion processes, field capacity is expected to be an important factor because of its direct link with infiltration and runoff. It has been shown that slaking potential of a soil decreases with an increase in its field capacity [8], suggesting that the tendency for dispersion may also decrease with an increase in field capacity. However, in severely gullied soils in eastern Nigeria showing silt content of not more than 1% and mean organic matter concentration of 0.18% (both on weight basis), CDR was shown to increase (i.e. decrease in colloidal stability) with an increase in field capacity [23]. Recently, Abrishamkesh et al. [1] reported higher field capacity under a condition of higher structural stability than lower structural stability in a temperate environment. Similarly, Obalum et al. [48] reported that the lower the structural stability of some coarse-textured tropical soils, the higher the pressure at which they attain field capacity. They attributed the observation to reduced dispersion and hence increased internal drainage of the soils as their stability increased. It appears therefore that the field capacity represents a structural index related to both dispersability and stability of soil aggregates. Research is needed to fully explore the relationships among field capacity, microaggregate stability and erodibility of tropical soils differing in degree of past erosion.
\n\n\t\tThe majority of tropical soils show high microaggregate stability irrespective of their low organic matter concentration. This is due mainly to their high contents of Fe and Al oxides which are known to promote microaggregation in soils of low organic matter concentration. However, there are some conflicting reports on the effects of the various players, especially oxides and organic matter, on microaggregation in tropical soils. So many natural and anthropogenic factors can lead to dispersion of the soils, but the factors tend to vary from study to study. A number of agricultural and environmental problems can arise from the dispersion of clay especially in sandy soils characterized by low concentration of organic matter [9], like the ones predominants in the tropics. The most important of these problems is soil erosion. Although only few studies have related soil erosion hazard (assessed either by soil erodibility or by soil loss) to selected indices microaggregate stability, these studies show that microaggregate stability is a useful tool for predicting erosion hazards in tropical soils. However, comparisons of results of erosion hazard prediction would be meaningful only when the same index of microaggregate stability is used. We suggest some areas for further research on microaggregation in tropical soils and the relationship between colloidal stability and soil erodibility.
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\n\t\t\t\tResearchers and engineering practitioners are attentive to understanding the behavior of structures under the effects of various loading patterns and conditions, to enhance their lifetime performance. Wind forces can threaten the safety of structures if their effects are underestimated; therefore, it is crucial to properly simulate and assess wind effects on civil engineering structures in order to achieve optimal and resilient designs that can maintain accessibility and functionality after natural disasters. Due to climate change and its consequences, the patterns of extreme winds and hurricane occurrence have been altered [1, 2, 3]. As a result, wind loads are becoming important in the analysis and design of buildings, especially in hurricane active regions. To put it into perspective, in most parts of the United States, especially in the east coast and the southern region, hurricanes and severe windstorms hit and bring widespread damage to buildings and other types of structures. The associated losses are estimated in billion dollars. The normalized hurricane-induced damage in the United States, between 1900 and 2005 (106 years of record), was estimated at about $10 billion (normalized to 2005 USD) [4]. Damage records totaling $265 billion were set by hurricanes Maria, Harvey, and Irma [5].
Due to the population growth, coastal zones are being more and more concentrated with residential buildings. These buildings are mostly light and low-rise, constructed from wooden materials, with different aerodynamic performance compared to high-rise buildings and residential homes. The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) design standard defines a low-rise building to have an average roof height that is less than its lateral dimension; however the building should not exceed 18.3 m [6]. The majority of failures in low-rise buildings are reported because of strong wind effects on their envelope and specifically on roof panels [7]. Figure 1(a) shows a total failure of a low-rise building induced by hurricane Sandy in New York in 2012 [8]. The building envelope experienced significant loads from hurricane winds and lost its load path connections. In other scenarios, once part of a roof is breached during high winds, it facilitates the penetration of rainwater which can be harmful to interior properties and may cause serious problems to the building and loss of contents. Figure 1(b) shows severe roof damage during Hurricane Katrina in Lake Charles, New Orleans, in 2005 [9].
Hurricane-induced damage: (a) complete collapse of a residential home induced by hurricane Sandy, New York, 2012 [
Examination of post-disaster surveys indicates initiation of damage through failure of roof components under extreme wind events. Earlier studies confirm the presence of extreme negative pressures at corners, ridges, and leading edges of roofs. The performance of roofs in low-rise buildings can differ significantly during a windstorm according to the shape of roof and its dimension. For instance, large roofs in industrial buildings may behave differently, compared to those of small roofs in a single-family low-rise building which can lead to different damage patterns to the building envelope [10, 11, 12]. In large roofs, the correlations among pressures acting at different roof locations are usually low [13]. In large roofs of light metal industrial buildings, leading edge failure usually occurs due to poor attachment of metal sheathing in areas that are exposed to uplift wind forces. This weakness eventuates to progressive peeling of the roof membrane causing further damage to the whole integrity of the building envelope.
The components and claddings in small roofs are usually exposed to damage during windstorms, due to local fluctuating negative pressures (uplift effects) due to flow separation, especially at roof edges and corners. Figure 2 represents wind flow around a residential building [13]. The flow separates at sharp edges and re-attaches again in a fluctuating manner within the separation zones at a distance that is called separation bubble length, leading to uplift forces on the roof surface. The stagnation point is also specified in the windward wall, where the along-wind velocity is zero. Figure 3 shows homes damaged by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 as a result of low pressures on the roof; and as a result, the shingles and sheathings were blown off due to high uplift forces. Referring to Figure 2, now it is shown that the separation bubble effects and the flow detachment are the main causes of these damage patterns of roof coverings which are a representation of roof areas under uplift forces. To fully understand windstorm effects on low-rise and residential buildings, it is essential to replicate the physics by experimental and computational methods. There are two important requirements: (1) correct reproduction of the main characteristic in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) and (2) aerodynamic testing at proper scales.
Fluctuating flow separation and re-attachment (adapted from Ref. [
Homes damaged by hurricane Andrew in 1992 [
The variation of the mean velocity profile with height can be different over different terrain conditions depending on the friction effects from the earth’s surface and the value of roughness length. Figure 4 shows a schematic of different mean wind profiles over various topographical conditions of a dense urban area, suburban terrain, and over sea surfaces. In Figure 4, higher velocity is anticipated in lower altitudes on sea surfaces than the gradient wind in a dense city center.
Mean wind speed profiles over different terrains according to Davenport’s power law profiles (adapted from Ref. [
After recording time series of wind velocity in the lab or in the field, the turbulence spectrum can be obtained accordingly. For the validation of the turbulence spectrum, theoretical spectra are usually used. The Kaimal spectrum is one of the widely used spectra, which is defined as follows [17]:
in which
The Engineering Science Data Unit (ESDU) spectrum is proposed based on a new von Karman spectrum, covering the full frequency range, as follows [19]:
For more details regarding the ESDU spectrum and definition of different terms, readers are referred to Ref. [19]. The nondimensional cross-spectrum of u-component is defined in Ref. [20]:
where
Davenport:
Maeda and Makino:
where
The integral length scale of turbulence,
where
And Counihan formulation used by Refs. [24, 25]:
Bluff body aerodynamics, and in particular fluctuating pressures on low-rise buildings immersed in turbulent flows, are associated with the complex spatial and temporal nature of winds [26]. This complexity mainly comes from the transient nature of incident turbulent winds, and the fluctuating flow pattern in the separation bubble. The flow in the separated shear layer is associated with fluctuations in the velocity field leading to the evolution of instabilities. The flow physics are dependent on upstream turbulence intensity, integral length scale, as well as Reynolds number. The later makes it difficult to scale up loads based on pressure and force coefficients as the process can be highly nonlinear, which is the case, for example, when full-scale pressure coefficients do not meet those from small-scale aerodynamic testing (Figure 5). Not only free stream turbulence impacts the flow pattern around bluff bodies, but also it can impact the thickness and length of the wake, hence significantly altering aerodynamic pressures.
Minimum pressures at building corner (adapted from Ref. [
In order to propose mitigation alternatives to minimize damages induced by windstorms to low-rise buildings, it is vital to understand how peak loads and spatial correlation of pressures are developed. As a first step to understand this mechanism, a true simulation of flow characteristics in accordance to real full-scale winds is necessary. There are common and valuable resources for the physical investigation of wind effects on structures, including small-scale wind tunnel testing, large-scale testing an open-jet laboratory, and full-scale field measurements.
According to Ref. [27], at relatively large-scale wind tunnel models, it is very difficult to model the full turbulence spectrum, and only the high-frequency end is matched [28]. For instance, as described in Ref. [29], more than 50% discrepancies in wind tunnel aerodynamic measurements are realized from six reputable centers for roof corner pressure coefficients and peak wind-induced bending moment in structural frames of low-rise building models. Therefore, selecting an appropriate testing protocol, including model scale ratio, for physical testing to minimize discrepancies in aerodynamic loads is essential. This can be achieved by considering constraints on laboratory testing that limits producing the large-scale turbulence and the inherent issues with limited integral length scale [30].
The literature raises questions regarding the adequacy of predicting full-scale pressures on low-rise buildings tested in flows that lack the large-scale turbulence. For instance, although a good agreement was observed between a wind tunnel testing on a generic low-rise building and full-scale data, discrepancies were shown in reproducing the largest of peak pressure near roof edges [31]. Figure 5 shows minimum pressure coefficients at a building corner and eave level for the full-scale Texas Tech University (TTU) experimental building, along with wind tunnel measurements [14]. The local peak pressures are weaker in wind tunnel testing than those at full-scale. For instance, at 65° wind direction angle, the wind tunnel reproduced minimum pressure coefficient of −4.3, while the full-scale field measurement is −6.8, and at 250° wind direction angle, wind tunnel shows −2.2, while the full-scale data shows −5.3. Therefore, there would be a major doubt on estimating the correct wind loads for design purposes based on wind tunnel testing. To describe this mismatch, first we need to define the concept of the energy cascade in a flow.
As depicted in Figure 6, the structure of a turbulent wind flow is constituted from a combination of large eddies and small eddies. In physical space, the large eddies are broken into smaller and smaller eddies with different spectral energy contents in various frequency ranges. In conventional wind tunnel testing, it can be challenging to appropriately reproduce low-frequency turbulence, which overwhelmingly contributes to the integral length scale and intensity of fluctuations. This leads to significant disparity among the wind tunnel flows and the target full-scale field flow conditions. As observed in Figure 5, this mismatch affected the local vorticity at edges and corners of a low-rise building model tested in a wind tunnel and resulted in local pressures weaker than those at full-scale. To alleviate these issues and to replicate the ABL flow characteristics for aerodynamics of buildings, advanced research in computational and experimental methods is essential.
Energy cascade in a turbulent flow (adapted from Ref. [
In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations have witnessed a spread use and applications as a potential tool in aerodynamic investigations of buildings. However, by considering the constraints of experimental testing in wind tunnels that limit producing the low-frequency large-scale turbulence and the inherent issues with limited integral length scale, implementing appropriate turbulence closure in CFD and developing a proper inlet transient velocity may alleviate the issues with experimental measurements in wind engineering. In CFD, the scale is not an immediate issue, as a full-scale model of the structure can be modeled and tested under various extreme wind scenarios. The simulation can be repeated to yield the same results any time. Even large-scale problems, such as simulating an urban area with condensed high-rise buildings for pollutant dispersion studies can be performed in CFD [33]; this can be challenging in laboratory testing due to scale issues.
CFD is gaining popularity within the wind engineering community along with the rise of computational power. Nowadays, CFD is commonly used to address wind engineering problems such as pollutant dispersion, wind comfort for pedestrians, aerodynamic loads on structures, or effects of bridge scour [34, 35, 36, 37]. CFD-based numerical simulations will eventually complement the existing experimental practices for a number of wind engineering applications [38, 39, 40]. In most cases, numerical approaches are less time-consuming than experiments, and detailed information at higher resolution can be retrieved for scaled models from numerical simulations. In few earlier studies, the accuracy of analyzing bluff bodies with CFD has been questioned [41, 42, 43]. The reason behind inaccuracies was detachment of shear layer at sharp edges of bluff bodies. Detachment of shear layer makes the overall flow in the domain more responsive to local behaviors. The local effects are influenced by turbulence intensity and turbulence length scales of the incoming flow [36, 44]. Inaccurate replication of incoming turbulence properties in earlier studies was considered a reason for discrepancies in results. In Ref. [45], careful replication of horizontal turbulence properties at roof height of low-rise buildings was declared important. Few earlier studies focused on comparing surface pressures from numerical simulations with experiments and full-scale measurements. Good agreement was found among different data sources for mean pressure coefficient, while differences were found for fluctuating pressure coefficient [46].
Large eddy simulation (LES) can yield better results than turbulence closures that are based on Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS), however, for higher cost of computations. The accuracy of solution of any wind engineering problem with CFD depends on the precise simulation of wind flow. A number of studies have indicated better performance of LES turbulence model for predicting mean and instantaneous flow field around bluff bodies [42, 47]. The concept of LES involves resolving the large scales in fluid flow and modeling the small scales. This approach is theoretically suitable for wind engineering applications as normally large scales are responsible for forces of interest [42]. Earlier applications of LES involving treatment of flows at low-Reynolds number yielded satisfactory results. Simply, the use of LES does not guarantee meaningful and accurate results. For flows with higher turbulence, results become more sensitive to the quality of the model [42]. Modeling of small-scale turbulence has gone through stages of improvement over the years. Sub-grid scale modeling remains the commonly used modeling technique. To yield accurate results, maintaining proper inflow boundary condition (IBC) is fundamental. Three methods are identified for generating IBC, and they are [48] (a) precursor database, (b) recycling method, and (c) turbulence synthesizing. The first two methods are computationally demanding; the third method is promising [49].
Maintaining horizontal homogeneity in the computational domain is another challenge in CFD simulations. Horizontally homogeneous boundary layer refers to the absence of artificial acceleration near the ground or stream-wise gradients in vertical profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity [50]. One may run steady-state simulation until it reaches convergence and monitors the vertical profiles of velocity and turbulence intensity at different locations in the domain. In case of LES, the mean value should be taken from the velocity time history for monitoring the vertical profiles. Achieving horizontal homogeneity ensures that the inlet, approach and incident flow are the same and eventually provide results with higher accuracy [50]. In several previously conducted studies, maintaining a consistent profile of mean wind speed and turbulent kinetic energy was an issue with different turbulence closure models. Significant near wall flow acceleration was found to cause unwanted change in mean wind speed and turbulent kinetic energy in simulation conducted in [51]. Additionally, issues in maintaining a consistent profile for turbulent kinetic energy were observed in [52, 53]. For accurate CFD results, maintaining consistent vertical profiles throughout the domain is important. Minor change in the profiles can create significant changes in the flow field. For flow around buildings, the importance of retaining the vertical flow profiles was stressed in Refs. [50, 54].
In Section 2, the main characteristics of ABL wind were presented. One of the main parts of any wind engineering study is to appropriately reproduce the wind characteristics in a controlled manner, to examine the response of a structure in the scope of a certain wind event. This means that first the wind flow characteristics should be simulated following an acceptable protocol and following that wind-induced pressures and loads on the surfaces of a building can be obtained by aerodynamic testing, according to the laws of similitude [55]. In order to satisfy these requirements, there are some tools used for ABL processes, including wind tunnels and open-jet facilities [56].
For several decades, wind tunnel modeling has been widely used as a technique to estimate wind-induced pressures and loads on buildings. Figure 7 shows a view of a wind tunnel at the University of Western Ontario and a 1:100 scale low-rise building model. The arrangement and height of passive roughness elements are designed to reproduce wind flow over an open-terrain exposure with
A view of a wind tunnel at the University of Western Ontario: (a) 1:100 low-rise building model and the roughness element arrangement for an open-terrain exposure simulating
The gap between small and large wavelengths of velocity fluctuations (frequency domain), for real atmospheric flows, is larger than that in wind tunnel flows. It is challenging to duplicate both small and large scales of turbulence in wind tunnels due to the absence of Reynolds number equality [59]. Moreover, the neutral atmospheric boundary layer is scaled down in the order of 1:100 to 1:500 in wind tunnels. If low-rise buildings are scaled down in a similar proportion, additional problems may be encountered. The issues with too small test models are (a) inability to modeling structural details accurately, (b) lack of aerodynamic surface pressures at higher resolution, and (c) interference effects of measuring devices [59, 60]. In practice, larger test models with scales in the order of 1:50 are used to minimize these issues. This leads to mismatch in scaling ratio of the model and the generated boundary layer, which is responsible for difference in turbulence spectra in experiments and full-scale situation. The difference in turbulence spectra is considered to be a primary reason for the large variation in aerodynamic pressures on low-rise buildings for different wind tunnel experiments [60].
Several experiments have been conducted on scaled low-rise building models and heliostats over the past few decades. Large variation in tests has been attributed to difference in Reynolds number, turbulence spectrum, geometric scaling ratio, etc. While studying the influence of turbulence characteristics on peak wind loads on heliostats, wind tunnel tests were performed, the turbulence intensity and size of the largest vortices had a noticeable effect on peak pressures, compared to other parameters Reynolds number [61]. For solar panels, peak pressures in the wind tunnel were underestimated compared to full-scale data [62]. Geometric scaling is found to be a primary source of inconsistent results in wind tunnels with similar mean flow condition [60]. It was recommended to correctly model the high-frequency end of spectrum in order to obtain acceptable mean pressure coefficients. However, for accurate mean and peak pressures, the importance of replicating the entire turbulence spectra in large-scale testing was highlighted [27]. The size of the wind tunnel was held responsible for mismatch in the low-frequency end of the spectrum. High-frequency vortices are responsible for creating the flow pattern around bluff bodies, whereas low-frequency large eddies have higher influence on aerodynamic peak loads [63]. To conclude, in the case of low-rise buildings, it has been always a challenge, in wind tunnel testing, to properly simulate wind effects due to the lack of capability in turbulence modeling [56]. As a result, other concepts and tools such as open-jet testing were devised in recent years.
As part of developing ABL simulation capabilities, a small open-jet facility was built at the Windstorm Impact, Science and Engineering (WISE) research lab, Louisiana State University (LSU) (Figure 8). The concept of open-jet testing is that unlike wind tunnels, the flow has no physical boundaries which has two main advantages: (i) larger eddies can be produced, leading to higher peak pressure coefficients, similar to those at full scale, and (ii) minimum blockage can be achieved. The aim was to physically simulate hurricane wind flows with similar characteristics to those of open and suburban terrain. Small-scale models of low-rise buildings were tested to examine how the turbulence structure of the approaching flow, scale issue, and open-jet exit proximity effect can influence the flow pattern on low-rise buildings and alter the separation bubble length on the roof surface. Specifically, the aim was to understand how these parameters affect the values of peak fluctuating external pressures on the roof surface [58, 64]. With an adjustable turbulence producing mechanism, different wind profiles are physically simulated. In addition, this lab has cobra probes, load cells, laser displacement sensors, and a 256-channel pressure scanning system (Figure 9).
The concept of open-jet testing: (a) test model located at an optimal distance from the blowers’ exit and (b) 15-fan small open jet at LSU.
LSU WISE small open-jet hurricane simulator (with adjustable turbulence and profile production mechanism): (1) general view of testing setup, (2) section model test specimen, (3) cobra probes for measuring 3-component wind velocities, (4) ZOC23b miniature pressure scanner, and (5) lap top computer with software for data collection and processing.
A facility capable of testing low-rise buildings at full-scale would be ideal, if the artificial flow is also at full scale, which is difficult to achieve. A 1:1 scale flow that mimics real hurricane characteristics at full-scale would need giant blowers located at a distance that is significantly far than what a feasible facility can afford. Artificial wind contains significant high-frequency turbulence with limitations on the large-size vortices that make scaling buildings unavoidable, if we were to replicate correct physics. There are some testing capabilities that can engulf full-scale residential homes; however, the flow characteristics raises important questions about their similarity to those at full scale. This said, scaling residential homes is essential to maintain correct physics, and at the same time large-scale testing (not full-scale) will lead to improved Reynolds number. Large-scale wind testing went through several phases before reaching the present stage [63]. A multidisciplinary LSU research team from Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Coast and Environment, Louisiana Sea Grant, Geography and Anthropology, Construction Management, and Sociology collaborated on a project titled “Hurricane Flow Generation at High Reynolds Number for Testing Energy and Coastal Infrastructure” that was awarded by the Louisiana Board of Regents to build Phase 1 of a large wind and rain testing facility (Figure 10). Phase 1 permits generating wind flows at a relatively high Reynolds number over a test section of 4 m × 4 m. These capabilities enable executing wind engineering experiments at relatively large scales. Moreover, the large open-jet facility has a potential for conducting destructive testing on models built from true construction materials. Blockage is minim, as per the concept of open-jet testing [65]. This state-of-the-art facility can generate realistic hurricane wind turbulence by replicating the entire frequency range of the velocity spectrum.
LSU WISE large testing facility (with a test section of 4 m × 4 m).
The large LSU WISE open-jet facility enables researchers to test their research ideas; to expand knowledge leading to innovations and discovery in science, hurricane engineering, and materials and structure disciplines; and to build the more resilient and sustainable infrastructure. The facility will enable scientists and researchers to test potential mitigation and restoration solutions, both natural (e.g., vegetation) and artificial. Potential applications include, but are not limited to, wind turbines, solar panels, residential homes, large roofs, high-rise buildings, transportation infrastructure, power transmission lines, etc. Testing at this facility can provide knowledge useful for homeowners and insurance companies to deal more effectively with windstorms, for example, to fine tune design codes and give coastal residents options for making their dwellings more storm-resistant. The goal is to build new structures and retrofit existing ones in innovative ways to balance resilience with sustainability, to better protect people, to enhance safety, and to reduce the huge cost of rebuilding after windstorms. In addition, the facility offers tremendous education value to k-12, undergraduate, and graduate students at a flagship state university, designated as a land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant institution. This will broadly impact the wind/structural engineering research and education field and facilitate effective investments in the infrastructure industry that will result in more resilient and sustainable communities and contribute to economic growth and improve the quality of life.
The LSU research team aspires to match the spectral content of real wind using large-scale open-jet testing and CFD simulations in their quest of accurate estimation of peak pressures on building surfaces under wind. The goal is precise estimation of peak pressures on buildings through the generation of large- and small-scale turbulence via open-jet testing as well as advanced CFD simulations. Extreme negative pressures near ridges, corners, and leading edges of roofs are governed dominantly by wind turbulence and Reynolds number, among other factors. Both small- and large-scale turbulence vortices are responsible for peak pressures and can influence separation in the shear layer. This demands for precise replication of wind speed profile, turbulence intensity profiles, and spectral characteristics. Replication of the true physics requires higher Reynolds number which is difficult to achieve in wind tunnels. In traditional wind testing, it is challenging to create large-scale turbulence. An increase in large-scale turbulence content in incident flow allows vortices to attain maturity, and as a result higher peak pressures can be reproduced. A fundamental research objective, however, is to address the challenge of replicating real wind turbulence experimentally and computationally. Resolving the scaling issue by investigating larger test models at higher Reynolds number is another highlight of our research at the LSU WISE lab.
The velocity was measured at different heights in the open-jet facility with cobra probes to obtain the mean velocity and turbulence intensity profiles. Figure 11(i) shows the comparison of experimental mean velocity profiles from LSU open jet and TPU wind tunnel with theoretical wind profiles measured for open terrain condition (
Flow characteristics: (i) mean velocity and (ii) turbulence intensity.
The vertical profile plot for turbulence intensities shows that the LSU open-jet facility has approximately 20% turbulence intensity at reference height. Both mean velocity and turbulence intensity profiles in Figure 11 shows that LSU open-jet facility is capable of replicating open terrain near-ground ABL flow.
A scaled (1:13) cubic building model was tested at the LSU WISE large open-jet facility. The primary objective of this task was to compare surface pressure coefficients those obtained by wind tunnel testing on a smaller scale (1:100) model. Wind tunnel measurements are obtained from the published dataset of Tokyo Polytechnic University (TPU). The building model was instrumented with several pressure taps to capture surface pressures. A total of 64 taps were distributed on roof, same as the TPU wind tunnel model. Pressure taps were connected to Scanivalve pressure scanners through appropriate tubing. Two cobra probes were used to monitor upstream velocity at roof height [58]. The following equation was used to compute the pressure coefficient.
The time history of pressure coefficients,
Sample of the findings of the experiment and comparison with TPU results is shown in Figure 12. The distribution of pressure coefficients obtained by open jet testing is symmetric like what is observed in the TPU wind tunnel testing. Since the model in open jet was tested at a higher Reynolds number, higher values of peak pressure coefficients are realized. Higher suction was observed near the zone of flow separation on the roof. Stronger suction for open-jet testing was found due to higher Reynolds number in open-jet and the presence of larger-scale turbulence compared to the wind tunnel. This difference in Reynolds number leads to difference in formation of flow separation zone, stagnation point on windward face, and the reattachment length. The difference between full-scale and reduced-scale wind tunnel tests is owed to similar reasons.
Minimum pressure coefficients on roof: (a) LSU open-jet (b) TPU wind tunnel (wind from bottom left corner).
On the computational side, the k- SST turbulence model was employed for improved mean pressure prediction near the flow separated region. An advanced approach is ongoing that employs large eddy simulation (LES) to generate accurate mean and peak pressures. Figure 13 shows a sample of high-quality mesh and CFD simulations in OpenFOAM.
With high-quality mesh and potential turbulence closure, CFD can provide continuous flow information: (a) 3D view of the computational grid, (b) meshing arrangement along the longitudinal section over a cube, and (c) velocity contour, after simulations in OpenFOAM.
In order to alleviate the challenges and shortcomings involved within the experimental tests in boundary-layer wind tunnels, in recent years, CFD was considered as an effective tool for the simulation of wind effects on civil engineering structures. However, it is necessary that the numerical CFD model would be capable of generating turbulence in a flow with certain spectral contents and eventually to reproduce peak pressures on building surfaces. The objective of this research is therefore to provide a basis for the development of recommendations and guidelines on using a CFD LES model that enables appropriate simulation of turbulence spectra of ABL inflow and reproducing the peak wind pressures on the roof of low-rise buildings. Figure 14 represents a schematic of the tools used by Aly and Gol Zaroudi [49] to simulate peak wind loads on a benchmark full-scale building from the Texas Tech University (TTU) in an open-terrain field. The details, advantages, and disadvantages of each tool are discussed in Aly and Gol Zaroudi [49].
The research tools employed to reproduce peak wind pressures on the roof of a benchmark low-rise building from the Texas Tech University (TTU) in an open-terrain field.
Considering the current rapid improvements in developing high-speed processors that can run in parallel on high-performance computing (HPC) clusters and devising new digital storage devices with huge capacities, CFD is becoming a promising tool in wind engineering applications. However, it is still a challenge for proper simulation of turbulence according to ABL wind characteristics and accurately reproducing peak pressures on low-rise buildings, even with supercomputers [40]. Aly and Gol Zaroudi [49], therefore, attempt to address some of the challenges in experimental and numerical simulations for aerodynamic testing of low-rise buildings, to reproduce realistic peak pressures. The study focused on wind flow processes in CFD with an objective to mimic full-scale pressures on low-rise building. The study implemented CFD with LES on a scale of 1:1 building. After a proximity experiment was executed in CFD-LES, a location of the test building from the inflow boundary was recommended, different from existing guidelines (RANS-based, e.g., COST and AIJ). The inflow boundary proximity showed significant influence on pressure correlation and the reproduction of peak pressures. The CFD LES turbulence closure showed its capabilities to reproduce peak loads that can mimic field data owing to the ability of creating inflow with enhanced spectral contents at 1:1 scale [49].
This chapter described the main characteristics of ABL winds, as well as some available tools for aerodynamic testing. Earlier studies confirm the presence of extreme negative pressures near ridges, corners, and leading edges of roofs in wind events. Turbulence (small- and large-scale) is responsible for large peak negative pressures and separation in the shear layer. This demands for precise replication of wind speed profile, turbulence intensity profiles, and spectral characteristics. Replication of true physics requires equality of Reynolds number which is not possible in wind tunnels. In traditional wind tunnels, only small-scale turbulence can be generated. An increase in large-scale turbulence content in incident flow allows vortices to attain maturity, and as a result higher peak pressures are obtained. The challenge of properly simulating wind effects on low-rise buildings is related to the lack of capability in turbulence modeling at a reasonably large scale and its limitation in reproducing the low-frequency part of the ABL turbulence spectrum. As a result, advances in aerodynamic testing employing modern tools such as open-jet testing for large- and full-scale testing were devised in recent years. Resolving the scaling issue by studying larger models at higher Reynolds number is another highlight of recent advances in aerodynamic testing. A large-scale cubic building model was tested in LSU open-jet facility at higher Reynolds number, and pressure coefficients were compared with those from wind tunnel testing. The results reveal the importance of large-scale testing at higher Reynolds numbers to obtain realistic peak pressures. Furthermore, CFD with appropriate turbulence closure was widely implemented recently for full-scale studies of wind effects on civil engineering structures. However, adopting proper inlet transient velocity is very crucial to correctly simulate ABL wind characteristics.
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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"