Study area, forest types, locality, coordinates, slope, elevation and soil series in PNP.
\r\n\tWith a history of over 50 years since their introduction into therapy and formulation of medicinal products, hydrogels remain a challenge for researchers in the field.
\r\n\tVersatile, with high-water content, tunable properties, and mild processing conditions, hydrogels advanced from simple chemically or physically crosslinked networks to complex double network composites or even more sophisticated new developments as shape memory and self-healing hydrogels.
\r\n\tIncreasing knowledge in hybrid or composite hydrogel materials, controlled release of sensitive drugs, or several drugs from the same hydrogel matrix could be achieved. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed to maintain drug micro- or nanoparticle’s distinct three-dimensional structure, synergistic hybrid materials with more than one type of polymer was developed.
\r\n\tBut one of the most challenging tasks remains further and continues to improve the clinical translation of these innovative hydrogels. That is what this book intends to provide the reader: a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art, recent advances, new perspectives, and applications of the hydrogels as valuable platforms for targeted delivery. Driven by the need to ensure proper patient compliance, ease of administration, along with the possibility to modulate release and degradation profiles after administration, numerous non-topical hydrogel formulations had been reported. Smart and supramolecular hydrogels, stimuli-reactive materials, that quickly respond in mild conditions, represent today an attractive approach for minimally invasive treatments.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will also represent an invitation to discover “new” off-the-shelf hydrogels with highly tunable properties, with low complexity of formulation (environmentally friendly processing), but with adequate features to fulfill clinical requirements and provide desired delivery platforms for therapy.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-583-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-582-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-584-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"f1653eced91a8da966139960c059516c",bookSignature:"Prof. Lacramioara Popa, Dr. Mihaela Violeta Ghica and Prof. Cristina Dinu-Pirvu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11130.jpg",keywords:"Regenerative, Tissue, Environment, Biomimetic, Formulation, Characterization, Cells, Controlled, Biomedical, Characterization, Chitosan, Collagen",numberOfDownloads:213,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in response surface methodology applied to drug systems design and optimization. Professor POPA LĂCRĂMIOARA (h-index 14) received her Ph.D. in Pharmacy (2000). She has over 28 years of experience in physical pharmacy: Quality by Design (QbD) in the development, analysis, and optimization of pharmaceutical systems; characterization of the raw materials surfaces and pharmaceutical systems; polymeric materials with biomedical applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Taguchi's approach for the development and optimization of biomaterial-based drug delivery systems. Professor Mihaela Violeta Ghica (h-index 16) has over 19 years ‘experience in physical pharmacy: modern methods of experimental statistical design in the development of drug delivery systems and technological processes optimization; biomaterials for tissue regeneration: obtaining, physical-chemical, biopharmaceutical, structural and morphological characterization.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in nanostructures formulation in pharmaceutical sciences. Professor Cristina-Elena Dinu-Pîrvu (h-index 15) is a member of the Romanian National Council for the Attestation of University Titles, Diplomas, and Certificates–Commission Pharmacy. She has over 28 years of experience in physical pharmacy: development of smart, efficient, and safe biocompatible materials; development of bio- and nanostructures for diagnostic and therapy.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"228211",title:"Prof.",name:"Lacramioara",middleName:null,surname:"Popa",slug:"lacramioara-popa",fullName:"Lacramioara Popa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/228211/images/system/228211.jpeg",biography:"Professor POPA LĂCRĂMIOARA received her PhD in Pharmacy (2000). She is head of Physical and Colloidal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Bucharest, Romania and President of the Ethics and Quality Assurance Commission from the same faculty. She is PhD supervisor (Habilitation thesis, 2014). Professor Popa Lăcrămioara graduated several courses in Intellectual Property (WIPO Academy, Geneva). She has over 28 years’ experience in physical pharmacy: Quality by Design (QbD) in the development, analysis, and optimization of pharmaceutical systems; characterization of the raw materials surfaces and pharmaceutical systems; polymeric materials with biomedical applications. H-index=14.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"56579",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Ghica",slug:"mihaela-violeta-ghica",fullName:"Mihaela Violeta Ghica",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/56579/images/system/56579.png",biography:"Professor GHICA MIHAELA VIOLETA received her PhD in Pharmacy (2008).\nShe is professor at Physical and Colloidal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She holds a Master’s degree in Physical Chemistry and Applied Radiochemistry at the Faculty of Chemistry from University of Bucharest.\nShe has over 17 years of experience in: design, development, physico-chemical and biopharmaceutical evaluation of drug delivery systems with conventional/modified/ controlled/targeted release for topical application; use of statistic experimental design techniques combined with response surface methodology and Taguchi approach for the optimization of the pharmaceutical systems formulation and some technological processes; valorisation of the biopharmacological potential of the medicinal and aromatic plants. Professor Mihaela Violeta Ghica was project director and partner responsible for some national and international projects. H-index=11.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"193810",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinu-Pirvu",slug:"cristina-dinu-pirvu",fullName:"Cristina Dinu-Pirvu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193810/images/system/193810.png",biography:"Professor DINU-PÎRVU CRISTINA-ELENA received her PhD in Pharmacy (2004).\nShe is professor at Department of Physical and Colloidal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She holds a Master’s degree in Biotechnologies in Environmental Safety at the Faculty of Biotechnologies, from University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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A tree can absorb approximately 23 kg of carbon per year. Indeed, a tree can increase biomass as an effect of tree growth and loss biomass through mortality that is due to natural death or logging. Tree biomass can be divided into above (AGB) and below ground biomass (BGB) in which the AGB includes the stem, leaves and branch biomass whereas the BGB is the biomass of tree roots. Each component of the AGB varies in biomass density. The estimation of biomass is significantly important for the environment which is a critical aspect of studies of carbon stocks and the effects of carbon sequestration on the global carbon balance. In recent years, carbon dioxide (CO2) has received much attention from the world because its concentration in the atmosphere has risen to approximately 30% above natural background levels [1]. The need for biomass and carbon stocks estimation is critical and can be measured using destructive or non-destructive sampling method. That is why a field inventory is conducted where the measurement of tree diameter is recorded to estimate the biomass of tree and later the carbon stocks. According to Brown [2], for closed forest such as Pahang National Park (PNP), a minimum diameter of tree to be measured is greater than or equal to 10 cm. However, for open or secondary forest, a smaller minimum diameter should be chosen [2, 3].
Most of the researches focus on the estimation of the AGB rather than BGB because the process to estimate the AGB is easier and less complicated as compared to BGB. In addition, the above ground tree components are the largest contributor of biomass from the total tree biomass (TTB) whereas the BGB only constitutes a small portion of the TTB. Lajuni and Latiff [4] reported the BGB value in their study plots at Khao Chong forest was one tenth of the AGB. Besides, a study conducted by Mohamad [5] in Kenaboi Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan found that root biomass in his study plots was six times smaller than the AGB with values of 463.81 and 73.57 t/ha for AGB and BGB, respectively.
Tree biomass and carbon stocks also varied in accordance to forest types and geographical regions. As such, forest biomass and carbon stocks in tropical forest are higher than temperate forest. This might be due to the different in tree species and climatic condition between both forests. Furthermore, in any forest types, tree biomass and carbon stocks in primary forest are higher than secondary forest. Secondary forest is a forest that has been logged or naturally disturbed whereas primary forest is a forest that has never been logged and free from anthropogenic disturbance. In this case, PNP is considered as a primary forest since anthropogenic activities such as logging have never occurred in this forest. Therefore, it is expected that more carbon can be stored by forest biomass in PNP.
Despite the multi-functional roles of forest biomass, lack of research had been conducted with regards to the extent of AGB, BGB and carbon stocks in lowland dipterocarp (LDF), riparian (RF) and hill dipterocarp forests (HDF) in PNP. In addition, information on biomass estimation and carbon stocks from tree inventory data is currently unavailable for protected forest of PNP. Therefore, this study was conducted to provide the estimation of the AGB, BGB and carbon stocks with respect to different localities in PNP. Considering the fact that biomass represents the role of tree as a key indicator of carbon source and sink, the information from this study is expected to provide baseline information and an understanding on the role of trees in sequestrating carbon. This study aims to estimate the AGB and BGB as well as the TTB of LDF, RF, and HDF in PNP. This study also aims to estimate the carbon stocks of LDF, RF, and HDF in PNP, and to investigate the interaction between forest and five similar family and five similar species in the study areas.
This study was conducted in PNP in the state of Pahang. PNP has a tropical climate with an annual rainfall of about 2.260 mm and rich in forest vegetation such as trees, climbers, shrubs, epiphytes and palms. Average temperature throughout the year ranges from 20 to 35°C with more than 80% humidity [6]. There are differences in the soil series in the LDF, RF and HDF mainly due to the variations of parent material between localities [7].
This study was conducted in three types of forests of LDF, RF and HDF of PNP and the location of study area are shown in Figure 1. The description for each location is summarized in Table 1. A total of 60 plots were set up in which each forest contains 20 plots measuring at 20 × 20 m (0.04 ha). Study plots for LDF were located in Kuala Keniam while plots for RF were scattered; 10 plots were located along Keniam River while another 10 plots were located along Tembeling River near to Kampung Pagi. As for the HDF, data collection was conducted in the Teresek Hill at an elevation around 330 m above sea level.
Study areas of LDF, RF and HDF in PNP.
Study | Forest types | Locality | Coordinates | Slope | Elevation | Soil series |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Lowland dipterocarp | Kuala Keniam | 04° 31.148’ N, 102° 28.100′ E to 0 4° 31.058’ N, 102° 27.934′ E | 0–56° | 133–139 m above sea level | Telemong |
2 | Riparian | Along Keniam and Tembeling River | 04° 31.507’ N, 102° 28.130′ E to 04°27.690’ N, 102° 29.196′ E | 0–40° | 102–115 m above sea level | Telemong and Pagi |
3 | Hill dipterocarp | Teresek Hill | 04°23.888’ N, 102° 24.469′ E to 04° 23.872’ N, 102° 24.534′ E | 30–79° | 292–340 m above sea level | Gol and Tahan |
Study area, forest types, locality, coordinates, slope, elevation and soil series in PNP.
For the field measurement, diameter at breast height (DBH) tape was used to measure the diameter of sampled trees with DBH ≥ 10 cm which is 1.3 m up from the ground [8]. In the case of big buttressed stems, the tree height was measured just above the upper end of plank buttress [9]. Each tree was permanently tagged using laminated label. Tree height was measured using a clinometer, a device that can be used to measure the slope to points on a tree, which can subsequently be used to determine the tree height. The sampled trees were identified to species level and for unknown species, the botanical specimens (e.g. leaves, flower or fruit) were collected for species identification at herbarium laboratories of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM).
Throughout this study, AGB was estimated using Kato et al.’s function [9] (Eqs. (1)–(4)) while BGB using a function from Niyama et al. [10] (Eq. (5)). According to reference [10], the total root biomass is the summation of coarse and fine roots in which fine root is defined as root with diameter less than 5 mm. The TTB is the summation of AGB and BGB. From the values of measured DBH and tree height; the dry mass of stem, branch and leaves of sample trees were estimated. The equations used to estimate these components are as follows:
Where, Ms, MB, ML were denoted as dry mass of stem, branch and leaves in kg, respectively (Eqs. (1)–(4)). The AGB was computed from the summation of these components as in Eq. (4). The biomass functions developed by Kato et al. [9] can be applied irrespective of tree species since these equations were developed without taking regards of tree species in the study area of Pasoh Forest Reserve [9, 11]. In this study, the dry mass of the tree biomass components was presented in t/ha. The dry mass (kg) for each component was converted into tonne by dividing the values with 1000 then divided with 0.04 ha which is the size of each plot. For an estimation of carbon storage, the biomass value was divided with 0.8 ha which is the total size for each study area. The carbon storage in the forests was calculated in accordance to method from Brown [2] whereby 50% of the biomass in the forest is assumed as carbon.
Means of AGB, BGB and TTB between LDF, RF and HDF of PNP were obtained and analyzed using 3 × 5 factorial two-way ANOVA. The PROC GLM was applied in Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) version 9.3 to study the interaction between forests and five similar family and species based on the highest AGB in LDF, RF and HDF of PNP. The normality of the dataset is test using frequency distribution or histogram. Based on the analysis, the data distribution is normal and the statistical tests are considered as parametric tests.
The total AGB, BGB and TTB for lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF are shown in Table 2. From the Table 2, it appears that HDF recorded the highest AGB, BGB and TTB among study areas. This is because HDF consists of higher trees (
Study area | AGB (t/ha) | BGB (t/ha) | TTB (t/ha) |
---|---|---|---|
Lowland dipterocarp forest (n = 419) | 354.01 | 61.10 | 415.11 |
Riparian forest (n = 285) | 276.13 | 47.21 | 323.33 |
Hill dipterocarp forest (n = 579) | 493.77 | 85.27 | 579.05 |
Total AGB, BGB and TTB in LDF, RF and HDF of PNP.
No. | Family | No. of individuals | No. of genera | No. of species |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Anacardiaceae | 25 | 6 | 8 |
2 | Annonaceae | 12 | 6 | 6 |
3 | Apocynaceae | 1 | 1 | 1 |
4 | Araucariaceae | 1 | 1 | 1 |
5 | Bombacaceae | 3 | 1 | 1 |
6 | Burseraceae | 43 | 3 | 9 |
7 | Celastraceae | 4 | 1 | 1 |
8 | Chrysobalanaceae | 1 | 1 | 1 |
9 | Dipterocarpaceae | 58 | 5 | 12 |
10 | Ebenaceae | 3 | 1 | 2 |
11 | Elaeocarpaceae | 34 | 1 | 2 |
12 | Euphorbiaceae | 72 | 7 | 11 |
13 | Fagaceae | 52 | 2 | 7 |
14 | Flacourtiaceae | 10 | 3 | 3 |
15 | Guttiferae | 29 | 5 | 9 |
16 | Ixonanthaceae | 3 | 1 | 1 |
17 | Lauraceae | 14 | 6 | 8 |
18 | Leguminosae | 6 | 4 | 5 |
19 | Loganiaceae | 2 | 1 | 1 |
20 | Melastomataceae | 9 | 2 | 4 |
21 | Meliaceae | 4 | 3 | 4 |
22 | Moraceae | 2 | 1 | 1 |
23 | Myristicaceae | 23 | 2 | 5 |
24 | Myrsinaceae | 16 | 2 | 2 |
25 | Myrtaceae | 64 | 2 | 19 |
26 | Olacaceae | 1 | 1 | 1 |
27 | Polygalaceae | 20 | 1 | 5 |
28 | Rhizophoraceae | 17 | 2 | 3 |
29 | Rubiaceae | 7 | 3 | 3 |
30 | Rutaceae | 2 | 1 | 1 |
31 | Sapindaceae | 4 | 2 | 4 |
32 | Sapotaceae | 14 | 2 | 2 |
33 | Sterculiaceae | 7 | 1 | 1 |
34 | Theaceae | 4 | 1 | 2 |
35 | Trigoniaceae | 1 | 1 | 1 |
36 | Ulmaceae | 1 | 1 | 1 |
37 | Verbenaceae | 10 | 1 | 1 |
Total | 579 | 85 | 149 |
Number of families, individuals, genera, and species of HDF in PNP.
As comparison with the previous studies, Cairns et al. [12] presented the AGB for 195 sampled trees with diameter of more than 10 cm in dry forest of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula with value of 191.5 t/ha. Hikmat [13] conducted a study in three virgin jungle reserves in Mata Ayer, Bukit Bauk and Gunung Pulai each in 2 ha plot. A total of 2341, 2702 and 2070 trees with diameter greater than 5 cm were enumerated in Mata Ayer, Bukit Bauk and Gunung Pulai, respectively. From this study, he found that the AGB of each forest was 402.6, 551 and 320.57 t/ha, respectively. The BGB in Hikmat’s [13] study was computed following method from [14] in which the root biomass was estimated to be one tenth of the AGB. In this case, the BGB values in Mata Ayer, Bukit Bauk and Gunung Pulai were 40.26, 55.12 and 32.06 t/ha, respectively. The summation of AGB and BGB in the three study areas resulted in total tree biomass of 415.11, 323.33 and 579.05 t/ha. A study at Bangi Permanent Forest Reserve by Lajuni and Latiff [4] revealed that the AGB in 1 ha study plot was 362.13 t/ha derived from 1018 trees of more than 5 cm diameter. Most of trees in their study were distributed in class 5.0–14.90 cm (65.71%) causing the biomass value to be quite low than other studies.
Table 4 shows results from the analysis of AGB, BGB and TTB (t/ha) of lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF of PNP. Values presented in Table 4 are mean values of AGB, BGB and TTB per plot. Result from ANOVA revealed that HDF recorded significantly higher mean of AGB, BGB and TTB than LDF and RF with the values of 499.97, 85.27 and 585.25 t/ha, respectively (p ≤ 0.05). This is because HDF comprises the highest number of tree and basal area compared to LDF and RF. Family Dipterocarpaceae contributed 10% from the total individuals in HDF. Mostly, dipterocarp trees in this forest especially
Biomass (t/ha) | Lowland dipterocarp forest (n = 20) | Riparian forest n = 20) | Hill dipterocarp forest (n = 20) |
---|---|---|---|
Above ground (AGB) (t/ha) | 356.79 ± 121.01b | 276.12 ± 35.59b | 499.97 ± 221.70a |
Below ground (BGB) (t/ha) | 61.19 ± 586.60b | 47.16 ± 24.58b | 85.27 ± 160.61a |
Total tree (TTB) (t/ha) | 417.98 ± 200.54b | 323.28 ± 35.89b | 585.25 ± 236.06a |
Analysis of AGB, BGB and TTB between LDF, RF and HDF of PNP.
Notes: Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Means with same letter indicate no significant different.
As for LDF, family Euphorbiaceae recorded the highest density (90 trees/ha), more than the highest family in HDF. However, the basal areas contributed only 3.10 m2/ha, considerably lower than family Dipterocarpaceae from HDF. Euphorbiaceae is known as a pioneer species and commonly have small diameter at the range of 10 to 30 cm in this forest. RF on the other hand, recorded the lowest number of trees compared to the other two forests (285 trees). Family Meliaceae recorded 26% (75 trees) from the total of 285 trees in RF and mostly composed of small trees with diameter 10 to 30 cm and seldom can exceed more than 40 cm, thus causing the tree biomass in RF to be lower than LDF and HDF.
Kueh and Lim [16] estimated lower AGB value in comparison with this study. The study was conducted in the logged-over Air Hitam Forest Reserve where the pioneer species such as
The total AGB of a study from Shanmughavel et al. [18] was 352.5 t/ha while root biomass was 69.9 t/ha. In contrast, Laurance et al. [9] estimated slightly higher AGB at lowland forest of Pasoh Forest Reserve which is 475 t/ha. A review by Malhi et al. [3] on carbon balance of different forest types i.e. Amazonian tropical rainforest, North American deciduous temperate forest and Canadian boreal forest revealed a variation in the AGB value between forests. The AGB value for tropical, temperate and boreal forests were 330–370 t/ha, 155–170 t/ha and 50–60 t/ha, respectively. The heterogeneity in the AGB values between forests was attributed to the climatic factors that affected the soil nutrients in the forest. In this case, due to the seasonality and temperature of boreal forest, nutrient availability is limited by slow decomposition in cold and water-freeze soil. Tropical forest on the other hand, even though has all year warm temperature but have poor soil nutrient and water availability as a result from high soil porosity and heavily leach soil. In general, higher tree biomass is expected on fertile soil simply because there are more resources available for tree growth. According to Laurance et al. [19] a high fraction of forest biomass could be associated with the most fertile soils as well as the tree size. Castilho et al. [20] claimed that texture was strongly associated with the variation in AGB value in their study area at Amazon Forest rather than soil nutrients. Soil texture influences the soil moisture, nutrient availability and nutrient cycling as well.
Figure 2 shows the above ground, below ground and total tree biomass in LDF, RF and HDF of PNP, respectively. Based on Figure 2, the total tree biomass in the study areas were not uniformly increased according to diameter class. HDF attained the highest total tree biomass for most diameter class except for diameter class 40.0–69.9 cm. RF achieved the lowest total tree biomass except for diameter class 50.0–69.9 cm whereas LDF only obtained the highest total tree biomass for diameter class 40.0–49.9 cm. With respect to Figure 2, lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF acquire highest biomass for diameter class of more than 70 cm with biomass value of 83.39, 70.58 and 202.72 t/ha, respectively. The biomass value for class >70 cm dominated 34, 38 and 35% of the total tree biomass in lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF, respectively. This indicates that tree diameter is a deciding factor for producing high biomass value in a forest.
TTB by diameter classes in LDF, RF and HDF of PNP.
As comparison between diameter class, sample trees at class 10.0–19.9 cm recorded the highest number of trees which is 256, 157 and 344 trees in lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF, respectively. However, this diameter class recorded lower biomass even though the number of trees was high. Diameter class >70.0 cm recorded the highest biomass though the number of trees was lower which are 5, 6 and 14 sample trees in lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF, respectively. Higher biomass value in diameter class >70.0 cm in HDF was due to large trees from family Dipterocarpaceae that constitute 11 trees of the total 14 trees from this diameter class.
A comparison with other studies indicated a similar result whereby a larger diameter class achieved a higher biomass in the study area. For example, a study from Kusin [21] at Jengka Forest Reserve found that trees at diameter class >65 cm dominated 36.64% of the total tree biomass in the study area with the biomass value of 247.12 t/ha. This diameter class comprised of 36 large trees from family Dipterocarpaceae. A study by [13] also obtained a result where large diameter class (≥75 cm) contained higher proportion of AGB in three virgin jungle reserves (VJR) in Peninsular Malaysia. The AGB values for diameter class ≥75 cm in Mata Ayer VJR, Bukit Bauk VJR and Gunung Pulai VJR were 143.21, 184.32 and 24.74 t/ha, respectively. Most of AGB values from his study were higher than the present study because trees with diameter ≥ 75 cm in his study areas were higher of which more than 20 trees.
In contrast, Ewel et al. [22] reported a different result in hill forest of Ibam Forest Reserve, Pahang. The highest AGB value was recorded by diameter class 30.1–35.0 cm (30.51 t/ha), slightly lower than diameter class >70 cm (30.17 t/ha) in his study. The lower AGB value than the present study might be due to the lower number of trees in >70 cm diameter class. Similarly, Kueh and Lim [16] revealed that diameter class of 30.0–39.9 cm recorded the highest TTB in Air Hitam Forest Reserve. The TTB value of diameter class 30.0–39.9 cm was 232.73 t/ha whereas for diameter class >70 cm was 151.54 t/ha. The differences of TTB values between diameter classes in their study were due to the different in tree density. Furthermore, the TTB value in their study for five compartments was higher than LDF and RF from the present study because higher number of trees at diameter > 70 cm (15 trees) compared to this study (five trees). A study by [18] at tropical seasonal rainforest in Xishuangbanna, China found that TTB value for diameter class >70 cm was 115.01 t/ha. This value was higher than LDF and RF but lower than HDF in this study. This might be attributed to the different forest type and environmental factor that cause the biomass to be higher.
In factorial ANOVA experiment, forest and families are considered as two types of treatments. In each treatment, forest for example, consist of three levels; lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF while family has five levels; Anacardiaceae, Burseraceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Leguminosae. Therefore, in this study, the factorial design is 3 × 5 factorial.
Table 5 presents a result of comparison of five similar families based on AGB between lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF of PNP. From analysis of variance, there are no significant differences in the mean of AGB values among the forest types (p > 0.05) but statistically significant in the mean of AGB among families (p ≤ 0.05). This result indicated that there were no significant main effects of forest types on the values of AGB. There were, however, significant main effects of families on the AGB values, suggesting that families influence the AGB in any forest type in this study.
Forest (t/ha) | Anacardiaceae | Burseraceae | Dipterocarpaceae | Euphorbiaceae | Leguminosae |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lowland dipterocarp | 1.90 ± 2.98 (n = 11) | 1.04 ± 1.63 (n = 28) | 2.572 ± 5.76 (n = 17) | 0.56 ± 0.99 (n = 78) | 0.73 ± 0.92 (n = 22) |
Riparian | 2.51 ± 2.16 (n = 3) | 1.83 ± 1.49 (n = 2) | 2.96 ± 3.31 (n = 6) | 0.60 ± 0.90 (n = 47) | 1.15 ± 2.26 (n = 30) |
Hill dipterocarp | 1.20 ± 2.55 (n = 25) | 0.64 ± 0.98 (n = 43) | 3.61 ± 4.81 (n = 58) | 0.37 ± 0.69 (n = 72) | 0.3823 ± 0.33 (n = 6) |
Means AGB of similar families in LDF, RF and HDF of PNP.
The non-significant interaction between forest types and tree families is shown graphically in Figure 3 which indicated by parallel line trend of mean of AGB distribution among families in each forest (P > 0.05). This indicates that the five families in the forest types in this study respond similarly towards the forest types.
Action between forest types and similar tree families in LDF, RF and HDF of PNP.
From Table 5, the significantly different value of AGB between families (p ≤ 0.05) might due to the unbalanced sample trees in each family. Euphorbiaceae dominated the AGB among the five families in lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF. This is in agreement with the study by Ewel et al. [23] whereby Euphorbiaceae was the dominant species in alluvium, upland poor soil and intermediate quality soil forests in three young second growth forests in Sarawak. Since Euphorbiaceae was a fast-growing pioneer species, therefore most of the biomass in their study was recorded by species in this family.
Zani and Suratman [24] attained a similar result in which there was no significant different detected in the mean of AGB between five transect lines (20 × 100 m) in LDF of Kuala Keniam at PNP. In another study, Rayachhetry et al. [25] observed a similar result in a study to quantify the dry weight of the above ground components of
The result of comparison of five similar species between forests namely
Interaction between forest types and similar tree species in LDF, RF and HDF of PNP.
Forest | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lowland dipterocarp | 2.4779 ± 3.05 (n = 5) | 0.9387 ± 1.51 (n = 26) | 1.6559 ± 1.84 (n = 7) | 0.6214 ± 2.15 (n = 4) | 0.6894 ± 0.85 (n = 11) |
Riparian | 0.7770 (n = 1) | 1.6045 ± 1.08 (n = 3) | 5.2016(n = 1) | 0.0908 (n = 1) | 7.1628 ± 0.2 (n = 2) |
Hill dipterocarp | 1.6048 ± 2.52 (n = 3) | 0.2989 ± 0.42 (n = 25) | 0.1998 (n = 1) | 1.1029 ± 1.72 (n = 8) | 2.6389 ± 1.87 (n = 6) |
Biomass and carbon stocks of LDF, RF and HDF of PNP.
Based on Figure 4, there was significant interaction between forest and species (p ≤ 0.05). This indicates that there is a variation in the AGB value among species. That is to say, species behaves differently in different forest types.
Based on Table 6,
Among the five species,
The AGB values and tree density varies among five similar species between lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF might be due to the environmental factors in the study areas (e.g., soil nutrient, topography, water, light). Each species adapts and respond differently to the limiting factors in the area Shono et al. [26]. For example,
These five-similar species that can be found in all forests in this study were due to the adaptability of these species to the environmental factors in the areas. For example,
Global climate change is the current major threat to the earth. Due to the rapid deforestation and land clearing and conversion that have been actively taking place since 1850 [3] the emission of CO2 keeps increasing. Referring to the report from National Research Council [30], these activities contribute 17% from the total CO2 released to the atmosphere. However, it was reported that forests can remove twice the amount that is lost by deforestation. It was estimated that the total carbon pool in the forest ecosystems approximately 1150 Gt, of which 14% in temperate forests, 37% in tropical forests and 49% is in the boreal forests [3].
Table 7 exhibits the carbon storage of lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF in PNP. The estimation of carbon storage within each forest was not greatly varies between different species or tree components. The carbon storage in HDF at 289.52 t/ha was higher than LDF and RF. LDF was 207.88 t/ha whereas the lowest was RF at 161.67 t/ha. Meanwhile, above ground carbon in HDF was 246.89 t/ha, in LDF was 177.29 t/ha while RF was 138.07 t/ha, respectively (see Table 7).
Lowland dipterocarp | Riparian | Hill dipterocarp | |
---|---|---|---|
Carbon (t/ha) | Carbon (t/ha) | Carbon (t/ha) | |
Above | 177.29 | 138.07 | 246.88 |
Below | 30.59 | 23.61 | 42.64 |
Total | 207.88 | 161.67 | 289.52 |
Biomass and carbon stocks of LDF, RF and HDF of PNP.
The carbon storage in HDF was the highest due to the higher biomass in this forest. This is because the tree density in HDF was higher compared to the other two forests types (
As comparison to other study, Hikmat [13] found nearly the same result in three virgin jungle reserves (VJR) in Peninsular Malaysia. Carbon storage in Mata Ayer VJR, Bukit Bauk VJR and Gunung Pulai VJR recorded 221.43, 303.16 and 176.33 t/ha, respectively. In another study, [16] estimated carbon storage in Air Hitam Forest Reserve was 89.57 t/ha. This value was considerably lower than the present study because Air Hitam Forest Reserve was recovering from the past disturbances. Therefore, most of the sample trees were composed of small diameter trees with average diameter of 24.0 cm.
The differences of estimated carbon storage among tropical forests might be due to some limiting factors such as species composition, soil fertility, disturbance history, successional stage and climate Kang et al. [31]. The AGB in the secondary forest would not be the same as the primary forest. Primary forest contains old-growth and large trees since this forest have never been disturbed whereas secondary forest that had been logged or naturally disturbed contains trees with smaller diameter. Therefore, the tree biomass in secondary forest is less than the primary forest. This was supported by Kang et al. [31] who conducted a study to quantify carbon stocks in primary and secondary forests of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve in Singapore. The result from their study revealed that primary forest obtained higher carbon stock than secondary forest with value of 337 and 274 t/ha, respectively. The values in their study were lower than LDF and HDF but higher than RF from this study.
In this chapter, the AGB, BGB and TTB of lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF have been estimated. Analysis of AGB, BGB and TTB between forests showed that means of AGB, BGB and TTB values in HDF were significantly higher than LDF and riparian (p ≤ 0.05). The distribution of AGB, BGB and TTB according to diameter class revealed higher AGB, BGB and TTB values in >70 cm class for all forests. HDF was highest in most diameter class except for 40.0–69.9 cm. LDF obtained highest biomass in 40.0–49.9 cm whereas RF for 50.0–69.9 cm. There was no significant interaction between lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF and five similar families (i.e. Anacardiaceae, Burseraceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Leguminosae) with (p > 0.05). However, the interaction between lowland dipterocarp, riparian and HDF and five similar species (i.e.
A regulated diet with all the constituents consumed in appropriate way maintains cell homeostasis and keeps the body under physiological state that are essential for cellular demands. A number of factor contribute to body function such as biomolecules, vitamins, minerals, and hormones etc.….of these minerals gain utmost importance due to availability inside the cell is low but shows a major effects even small change in concentration. Minerals perform wide variety of functions, which are essential for existence of organism. Some of them form integral components, some as cofactors, and some as essential components of enzymes. The existence of these minerals as part of enzymes helps to play a role in metabolism of molecules consumed through diet and maintain cell homeostasis. Some of the minerals acts in concert with aid of hormones according to their need in specific organelle. Minerals either in part or in combination with vitamins shows major functions required for the cell and their deficiencies shows adverse side effects although not hereditary. Minerals classified according to the need includes major (phosphorous (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulphur (S)), minor/trace/rare (Boron (B), chlorine (Cl), chromium (Cr), fluoride (F), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), sodium (Na), vanadium (V) and zinc (Zn)). In this chapter a detailed explanation of selected minerals about their importance as a source requirement, uptake and transport mechanism, toxicity and tolerance mechanism, taken as means of measurement for determining their beneficial effects to study in detail about the specific role in metabolism their mechanism of action and deficiency diseases associated with reduced life span had described.
Decline of physiological functions leading to senescence of cells with arrest at G1 phase is characteristic feature of ageing [1]. At cellular level senescence was caused due to several factors such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, autophagy deregulation, telomere shortening [2, 3]. Cells senesce either due to continuous replication or due to stress induction thereby activating p16, p53 pathways and phosphorylation of Rb protein [4] leading to inflammatory condition with high lysosomal β-galactosidase activity [5, 6, 7]. As cells continuously, divide chromosomes containing telomere with repeated nucleotides region gets shortened [8] leads to replicative senescence [9] and result in ageing. In humans, the repeated sequence at telomere region is TTAGGG [10]. Cells capable of replicating continuously express telomerase for replication of telomere ends of chromosome, which had tendency to reverse ageing process and used as targeted approach [2]. Increased ROS production due to stress apart from normal cellular homeostasis as a compensatory mechanism aggravates ageing phenomenon. Free-radical theory proposes ROS leads to oxidative damage and contributes to plays a role in the ageing process [11]. First call to increased ROS levels inside the cells is activation of survival pathways, which further leads to apoptosis due to failure of antioxidant system to defence against ROS that ultimately leads to cell death [12, 13]. Several factors were responsible for production of ROS that disturbs balance between cell survival and cell death through increased redox potential towards pro-inflammatory state and connects oxidative stress, inflammation and ageing [14, 15, 16]. The release of pro-inflammatory agents inside the senescent cells include TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β [17] regulated by transcription factors such as AP-1, NFκB [18]. The activation of AP-1, NFκB requires kinases such as ERK, JNK, p38MAPK, PI3K [19] and leads to expression of target proteins such as MMP9, ICAM-1, iNOS, COX-2 [20, 21, 22]. Mitochondria apart from playing a role in oxidative phosphorylation system it also plays a role in apoptosis, metabolism, innate immunity and ageing [23, 24, 25]. Mitochondrial regulation occurs through PGC-1 (α & β) that responds to NAD+ levels inside the cell [26, 27] and in response to SIRT1 regulation occurs by HIF-1α independent of PGC-1 [28]. In ageing NAD+ levels decreases without loss of SIRT1 but downregulates it [29]. One of the contributing factor for cell survival under stress conditions is autophagy [30]. Autophagy is downregulated under nutrient rich conditions through mTOR protein [31] and stimulated through AMPK by phosphorylating mTOR (inactivation) ultimately activating ULK-1 [32]. Reports reveal autophagy deregulates due to overexpression of mTOR [33, 34] in ageing. Several Genetic events (mTOR, TGFβ), Molecular events (oxidative stress, autophagy) also contribute to ageing phenomenon. A summary of factors responsible for cellular ageing were shown in Figure 1.
Factors responsible for aging: Different factors enhances process of aging includes autophagy, oxidative stress, shortening of telomere, caloric restriction, proteostasis, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage.
Phosphorous is mostly present in meat, fish, eggs, and milk and dietary intake is 0.8-1.0 g/day. Phosphorus is essential for the formation of healthy bones, part of buffer system and component of DNA and RNA. Functions of phosphorous include formation of high-energy phosphates, nucleic acids, nucleotide coenzymes. Activation of enzymes require phosphate moiety and found in cell walls. Phosphorus deficiency include rickets, osteomalacia observed mostly in cases of malnutrition, anorexic individuals, or alcoholics. Symptoms are poor appetite, anxiety, and irritability. Phosphate absorption occurs in jejunum calcitriol, low pH favours their absorption while phytate reduces its absorption. Serum phosphate level is about 3-4 mg/dl and reduced in renal rickets, vitamin D deficient rickets and in diabetes mellitus. Phosphate excreted by kidney in the form of urine. Phosphate is mainly involved in mineralisation of the bone from chondrocytes and osteoblast. The process of mineralisation begins with hydroxyapatite formation from calcium (Ca + 2) and inorganic phosphate. Calcium incorporated through annexin calcium channel here as inorganic phosphate from type III sodium inorganic phosphate transporter and from PHOSPHO1. Hydroxyapatite penetrate the matrix vesicle and elongate due to tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) and deposit in collagen fibre spaces [35]. The role of phosphorous in bone mineralisation shown in Figure 2a. Osteomalacia resulting from hypophosphatemia occurs through fibroblast growth factor signalling (FGF) [36] that links with ageing process [37]. Reduced phosphate levels inside the cell leads to increased FGF 23 levels in the serum and acts by inhibiting calcitriol, PTH, 1α-hydroxylase and stimulating 24-hydroxylase [38]. The signalling pathway connecting phosphorous deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
Role of mineral elements in disease prevention. a: Role of phosphorous in bone mineralisation, b: Potassium involvement in muscle contraction, c: Calcium in bone calcification, d: Magnesium in protection of neuron degeneration, e: Sulphur in prevention of muscle pains and joint pains, f: Fluorine in preventation of dental caries, g: Iodine in thyroid hormones, h: Iron in haemoglobin synthesis, i: Sodium in heart function, j: Zinc in immunity.
Deficiency disease leads to aging through disturbed signalling pathway. Mineral deficiencies were shown in parenthesis. Ca: Calcium, I: Iodine, Mg: Magnesium, P: Phosphorous, Na: Sodium, S: Sulphur, Zn: Zinc, F: Fluorine, K: potassium, Fe: Iron. TSH: Thyroid stimulating hormone, Nrf 2-nucleoid erythroid receptor factor 2. FGF-fibroblast growth factor, SIRT1; Sirtuins 1, mTORC1: mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1, NFκB: Natural factor kappa beta, IL-6: interleukin 6, TGF-tumor growth factor, MAPK-mitogen activated protein kinase, Wnt-Wingless-related integration site.
Potassium is principal intracellular cation required daily about 3-4 g that is present majorly in banana, orange, potato, chicken, and liver. It helps regulate fluid balance, nerve signals and muscle contractions and beneficial aspects include reduction in blood pressure, water retention; prevention of kidney stones, osteoporosis, and protection against strokes. It functions to maintain intracellular osmotic balance, regulation of acid–base balance, required for transmission of nerve impulse, and necessary for biosynthesis of proteins. Plasma levels are 3.4-5 mEq/L absorbed through intestine excreted in form of urine. Deficiency diseases include muscle weakness, mental confusion. Potassium ion present on the cells as potassium ion channels and various types of potassium ion channels include ATP-sensitive K channels (KATP), voltage-dependent K channels (Kv), Ca2+ − and voltage-dependent K channels (BKCa), inward rectifier K channels (Kir), and tandem two-pore K channels (K2P) their activity varies in different types of diseases [39]. Potassium as known to play a role in Na + -K+ ATPase for effective muscle contraction [40] and motor regulation is by ATP driven potassium channels [41]. ATP driven potassium channel deficiency affected resting tension of skeletal muscle [42] deficiency of potassium ions alters sodium potassium pump of skeletal muscle and augments its contraction in ageing [43]. According to previous reports, high potassium levels depolarizes smooth muscle cells that opens up voltage gated calcium channels resulting in entry of calcium ions inside the cells thereby leading to activation of smooth muscle contraction [44] The role of potassium in muscle contraction shown in Figure 2b. It had reported that activation of mTORC1 signalling correlated with decline in muscle mass [45, 46] activated mTORC1induces oxidative stress that leads to protein degradation, autophagy and necrosis showing an aged phenotype [47]. The signalling pathway connecting potassium deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
Biological availability of calcium is green leafy vegetables, nuts, seafood, cereals etc. Cow’s milk is rich source of calcium and required daily about 0.8-1.0 g/day. Calcium plays an important role in development of bones, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, nerve transmission, membrane integrity, activation of enzymes, intracellular messenger, contact inhibition, nerve excitability, skeletal muscle integrity and maintenance, and cardiac tone. Factors promoting calcium absorption include low pH, parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, lactose. Most of blood calcium is in plasma and ranges about 9-11 mg/dl. Factors regulating plasma calcium include calcitriol, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin. Calcium excreted mostly through intestine and partly by kidneys. Deficiency of calcium leads to hypocalcemia and shown signs such as fragility of bone, muscle cramping, and dry skin. Deficiency diseases include rickets osteomalacia, osteoporosis. Evidences reveal that calcium is involved in bone calcification where osteoblasts secrete collagen as ground substance and polymerises it then osteoblast entrap osteoid and calcium salts precipitates as non-crystalline amorphous substance. Reabsorption and reprecipitation of hydroxyapatite crystals makes bone calcified. Existing reports evidence that stimulation of PGC-1α signalling regulate osteoporosis and ageing [48]. The role of calcium in osteoblast calcification shown in Figure 2c. Recent reports reveal that Wnt, MAPK, oestrogen pathways are targets for osteoporosis and ageing, it had shown that Wnt pathway responsible for production of sclerotin is dysregulated and MAPK pathway altered in osteoporosis [49]. The signalling pathway connecting calcium deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
Sources of this mineral include milk, meat, fruits, and cereals. Biochemical functions include formation of bone, teeth, neuromuscular irritability, and cofactor for enzymes (kinases). Daily intake is 300-350 mg, serum concentration is 2-3 mg/dl and deficiency leads to convulsions, neuromuscular irritation, uraemia, and rickets. Magnesium absorption occurs in intestine alcohol inhibits it whereas parathormone enhances it. Causes of magnesium deficiency include alcohol abuse, poorly controlled diabetes, excessive or chronic vomiting and/or diarrhoea. Research on neurodegenerative diseases reveal magnesium had neuroprotective role by inhibiting influx of amyloid β from blood and promote its clearance [50] furthermore it attenuates impairment in long-term potentiation and impaired recruitment of synaptic proteins through activation of PI3K/Akt and inhibition of GSK3 β thereby reducing neuronal damage [51]. To date several reports indicate that Nrf-2 an antioxidant responsive protein plays a role in protection of cells from oxidative stress and essential for optimal activity inside the cell [52]. The role of magnesium in neuro degeneration shown in Figure 2d. Dysregulated Nrf-2 activity in neurodegenerative diseases linked to ageing [53, 54]. The signalling pathway connecting magnesium deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
2.5 Sulphur (S): Egg white, chicken, fish, beef are major sources of sulphur. Daily intake is 14 mg for healthy adult and distributed in nails, hair, and skin. Sulphur plays a role as antioxidant, anti-inflammation, metal transport, free radical scavenging, protein stabilisation, xenobiotic detoxification, metabolism of lipids. Sulphur resides inside the body in organic form as methionine, cysteine, and cysteine functions as part of vitamins such as thiamine, biotin, and coenzyme A and excreted through oxidised form as taurine and cholic acid. Deficiency diseases are almost unknown. Although reports revealed that, sulphur containing amino acids in the form of methionine and cysteine forms creatinine, carnitine and coenzyme. Sulphur in the form of methylsulfonylmethane (MSM) acts to prevent muscle pains and joint pains through reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (NFkB, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α) [55, 56, 57] and decreased infiltration of immune cells by reducing inflamed synovial membrane [58, 59]. The role of sulphur in muscle pains and joint pains shown in Figure 2e. An essential for muscle functioning and deficiency leads to muscle impairment and aged phenotype. Aged muscle has altered Redox signalling [60, 61, 62] and exercised individuals in their lifetime had preserved enough muscle fitness comparable to younger ones [63] whereas NAD+ treatment [28] reverse these effects. Strenuous exercise result in muscle damage [64] and dysregulated redox response within the muscle increase in transient ROS/RNS. This clearly explains redox mechanisms operate with ageing and contraction of skeletal muscle can activate a number of transcription factors thereby affecting gene expression of specific cellular pathways. The signalling pathway connecting sulphur deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
It occurs mostly in soil and water; dietary sources include leafy vegetables, pineapple, dry fruits, lemon, nuts, and berries and daily intake is <20 mg. It is ingested through diet and found higher quantities in hair, nails, bone whereas fat tissue being low [65]. It is absorbed into the intestine through boric acid and stored in tissues. The toxic effects of boron include DNA damage and repair and has effect on protein folding and stability. In infants, excess of boron leads to anaemia, seizures, erythema, dermatitis, cardiac problems [66, 67, 68]. Chronic exposure leads to disorders of brain, kidney, and testis (88). Boron determination utilises spectrophotometry [69], spectrofluorimetry [70], potentiometry [71], inductive coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy [72], and inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry techniques [73]. Beneficial effects include reduction in sterility, osteoporosis, inflammation, coagulation, and cancer. Its application widely relays on food and medicinal sector.
Fluoride levels abundantly found in barley, rice, cassava, canned fruits and least in food grain, breast milk, beverages and daily intake is about 2 ppm. Fluoride levels in the environment is taken up either by food, water or inhaled by air, drugs and reach the digestive tract for metabolism and distributed inside the body bone, soft tissue, milk, tooth. The factors that influence the fluoride metabolism inside the body include acid–base disorders, hormones, physical activity, cardiac rhythm, and diet. Fluorine functions as prevention of dental caries, necessary for development of bones. The mechanism of action of fluoride inside the body involves inhibition of demineralisation of enamel. A small amount may substantially contribute to health benefits that include dental caries, decreases acid production. High levels leads to alterations in cell architecture, abnormalities in hepatic and renal systems. Fluoride poisoning inside the cells diagnosed by contraction of muscle, stiffness of body, failure of respiratory and cardiac systems. The methods for removing excess of fluorine done using coagulation-precipitation, electro coagulation, adsorption etc. Excreted through faeces, urine. Deficiency diseases include dental caries, osteoporosis. Fluoride helps in remineralisation, crystallisation and Fluoroapatite formation through enhancement of tooth and improves against acid resistance thereby preventing dental caries [74]. The role of fluorine in dental caries shown in Figure 2f. Reports reveal that klotho/KLF4 protein is involved in secretion of saliva from salivary gland and attenuation of KLF4 pathway thereby inactivating mTOR, AMPK, cyclin D1 that leads to dental caries [75]. The signalling pathway connecting fluoride deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
It is abundant in seafood, iodised salt and daily intake is about 150-200 ug. It is component of thyroid hormones stored in the form of thyroglobulin and toxicity symptoms include thyrotoxicosis, goitre. Iodine is mainly absorbed through small intestine but also occurs through skin and lungs. Plasma level is 4-10 mg/dl. Iodine mainly excreted through kidney but also through skin, milk saliva and bile. Deficiency causes cretinism, goitre, and myxoedema. It is evident from existing reports that iodine uptake by thyroid cells occurs with the help of sodium iodine symporter and translocates to apical membrane fuses with thyroglobulin with the help of thyroperoxidase to form monoiododthyronine (MIT), diiodothyronine (DIT) in thyroid follicle cells. Coupling of MIT & DIT results in triiodothyronine (T3) & tetra iodothyronine (T4) which is internalised through endocytosis that releases free T3, T4 into the blood stream. Iodine deficiency leads to uptake of more thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) into thyroid cells for production of thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) which results in enlargement of thyroid gland to form goitre [76]. Age associated abnormality of thyroid gland is not consequence of ageing but result of thyroid autoantibodies that leads to age associated diseases [77]. The role of iodine in goitre shown in Figure 2g. Disturbed TSH signalling found in ageing individuals due to reduced release of TRH and less production of TSH thereby lowering the thyroid gland response to TSH with concomitant release of T3 and T4 [78] and enhances Ras activity that leads to increase of thyroid gland cell proliferation [79]. The signalling pathway connecting iodine deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
Iron (non-heme) abundantly found in cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables whereas heme is from poultry, fish and daily requirement is about 10-15 mg. Iron present in the form of heme transports oxygen, involved in electron transport chain, required for phagocytosis in form of peroxidase. Iron is absorbed in stomach and duodenum low pH, vitamin C enhances its absorption whereas phytate and oxalate interfere its absorption. Enterocytes absorb iron through metal transporter 1 protein and gets metabolised (heme) through heme oxygenase-1 [80, 81]. Inhibitors of iron absorption includes phytic acid [82], polyphenols [83], and calcium [84] whereas ascorbic acid is enhancer [85]. Iron is transported inside the body through circulating proteins namely transferrin, lactoferrin, ferritin, heme proteins [86]. Iron regulation inside the cells occurs by 2 mechanisms one is by binding of iron responsive elements (IRE) [87] to iron responsive proteins (IRP) and other by Hepcidin. Gene mutations of transferrin receptor 2, haemochromatosis, haemochromatosis type 2, hepcidin antimicrobial peptide (HAMP) [88] for impaired expression had observed. Iron storage inside the body is by ferritin [89] in liver, spleen, bone marrow [90]. Bodily iron is mostly excreted in form of blood through menstrual release and other forms includes skin and gastro intestinal tract [91] but not through urine. Iron deficiency results in depletion of iron and primary cause is low bioavailability of iron. It also occurs through pregnancy, menstruation, and pathologic conditions [92, 93]. Anaemia is the sign of iron deficiency [94]. Iron deficiency overcome by improvement in iron uptake and bioavailability, supplementation of iron with food and its fortification. Deficiency diseases include hypochromic microcytic anaemia. Reports evidence that iron (Fe+2) is absorbed by duodenal cells and binds with apoferritin to form ferritin which then binds to heme carrier protein (HCP) to form ferroportion (FPN). Ferroprotein is either stored in liver or transported in the blood, combines with transferrin in blood and reach erythrocytes that then binds to transferrin receptor and internalised into the cell and gets dissociated with the help of divalent metal carrier transporter 1 and performs functions such as erythropoiesis, cell metabolism, myoglobin production in muscles. Heme combines with myoglobin to form haemoglobin [59]. Recent reports reveal that PR domain zinc finger protein 8 (PRDM8) gene had a role in premature ageing of haematopoietic cells through DNA methylation that leads from aplastic anaemia (AA) patients independent of telomere attrition a haemoglobin disorder [95]. The role of iron in haemoglobin synthesis shown in Figure 2h. Reports also state that anaemia resulting from erythropoiesis of haematopoietic ageing of intrinsic altered microenvironment had upregulated IL-6, TGF-β signalling [96]. The signalling pathway connecting iron deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
The daily intake of molybdenum was 75-250 ug and toxicity characterised by gout and joint pains. Molybdenum is present as cofactor for nitrate reductase, Xanthine oxidase and sulphite oxidase enzymes. Molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis occurs in steps formation of precursor Z from GTP, synthesis of molybbdeoprotein from precursor Z, addition of adenyl group to molybdoprotein and its insertion [97]. Molybdenum uptake inside the cells occurs with the help of ATP binding cassette transporters [98]. Molybdenum deficiency results in improper functioning of enzymes responsible for specific metabolic pathways in which they were involved and leads to metabolic diseases such as Xanthinuria, Hyperuricemia, and neurodegeneration. Deficiency diseases are almost unknown but some reports reveal its deficiency leads to chrons disease.
Abundantly found in common salt and other sources include leafy vegetables, milk, eggs, and nuts and daily intake is about 5-10 g. Absorbed as sodium ions and circulates inside the body in plasma and plasma levels were 135-145 mEq/L. It is cheif extra cellular cation regulates acid–base balance and involved in osmotic pressure. It is involved in activation & transmission of nerve impulse, absorption of biomolecules and aldosterone. High levels were observed in cushions disease and low levels were observed in addisons disease. Excreted from kidney in the form of sodium chloride through urine or as phosphate and other routes is by sweat. Deficiency diseases are almost unknown but reports reveal that higher risk of cardiovascular disease with low sodium intake [99]. Sodium inside the cells were present as sodium channels as (sodium-potassium ATPase, sodium-proton antiporter) the role of sodium in heart function is mostly presented by stimuation of aldosterone which enhaces its influx into the cell and activates inositol 1,4,5 tri phosphate (IP3) [100, 101]. Activated IP3 releases stored calcium from endoplasmic reticulum and makes excitation coupled to contraction for effective heart function [102]. The role of sodium in heart function shown in Figure 2i. SIRT1, mTORC1 regulate cell balance between cell growth and survival. Activation of SIRT1 along with PGC-1α, AMPK and inhibition of mTORC1 along with Akt act to prolong cell longevity and retard cardiac ageing. Autophagy underlies the activation of SIRT1/PGC-1 α/AMPK and inhibition of Akt/mTORC1 responsible for cardiac ageing. Chronic heart failure involves deficient autophagy phenomenon through hyperactivation of Akt/mTORC1 and suppression of SIRT1/PGC-1 α/AMPK pathway that finally leads to cardiac ageing [103, 104]. The signalling pathway connecting sodium deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
Zinc mostly found in meat, cabbage, dates, mushrooms etc. and daily intake is 10-15 mg. Exposure of zinc is mainly by three ways inhalation, dermal exposure, oral exposure [105] and excess zinc shows symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, anaemia, gastrointestinal effects. Zinc plays an essential role as structural, catalytic, mild deficiency causes oligospermia, hyperammonemia [106]. Zinc is absorbed in duodenum phytate inhibits absorption whereas amino acids enhances its absorption. Oral uptake of zinc absorbs through small intestine and distributed in serum by binding to albumin, α-microglobulin, and transferrin [107]. Zinc homeostasis occurs mainly with the help of transport proteins namely Zinc importer (ZIP) and zinc transporter (ZnT) [108] which then binds to metallothionin, and sequester to other cell organelle. Beneficial aspects of zinc were antioxidant [109], antidepressant, antidiabetic [110], delayed wound healing, and anticancer [111]. Toxic effects of zinc observed when it crosses more than 100-300 mg/day typical symptoms include reduction of HDL and cholesterol levels, vomiting, lethargy, and fatigue. Serum zinc levels is about 100 mg/dl. Excretion of zinc occurs mainly by kidney, skin, and intestine. The role of zinc as immune protector well studied as anti-inflammatory and performs its action through reducing intracellular ROS by activating superoxide dismutase (SOD), NADPH oxidoreductase (NOX), metallothionin (MT) thereby suppressing inflammatory pathway (NFkB) and reduces it [112]. The role of zinc in immunity shown in Figure 2j. Zinc deficiency induces oxidative stress activates transcription factors NFkB, AP 1 through NFkB signalling in ageing process [113, 114]. The signalling pathway connecting zinc deficiency and ageing shown in Figure 3.
Minerals play an important role in daily life ranging from nuts to leafy vegetables. Minerals mainly function as cofactors along with enzymes to show their metabolic effect. Minerals form holoenzymes in metabolism of biomolecules and help in cellular vital process for cell survival. In their absence, the show some deficient metabolic effects and required in small amounts to function effectively. Intake varies from infants to adults, gender excess amounts shows hyper forms, and low amounts leads to hypo effects. Mineral deficiencies mostly show aged phenotype and age related diseases have mineral deficiencies. In their absence cell, survival pathways are mostly non-functional and leads to decreased metabolic function that is characterised by aged phenotype. Minerals classified mostly upon their requirement as major (phosphorous (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulphur (S)), minor/trace/rare (Boron (B), chlorine (Cl), chromium (Cr), fluoride (F), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), sodium (Na), vanadium (V) and zinc (Zn)). A selected mineral with their function importance in mammals have been described in detail in which Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur (S), Fluoride (F−), Iodide (I−), Iron (Fe), Sodium (Na), Zinc (Zn) along with mechanism of action and its diseased mechanism associated with ageing. Phosphorous is involved in bone mineralisation from osteocyte through hydroxyl apatite formation and deficiency leads to osteomalacia that related to ageing through increased fibroblast growth factor signalling. Potassium is involved in muscle contraction and its deficiency leads to muscle weakness and shows aged phenotype through enhanced mTORC1 signalling. Calcium is involved in bone calcification through hydroxyl apatite crystals its deficiency leads to bone disorders shows aged phenotype through dysregulated Wnt, MAPK pathway. Magnesium is involved in protection of neuron from degeneration through inhibition of GSK3β signalling and hyper activation of PI3K, Akt signalling and shows aged phenotype through dysregulated Nrf 2 pathway. Sulphur is involved in prevention of muscle pains and joint pains by reducing inflammation by scavenging free radicals its deficiency leads to muscle fatigue shows aged phenotype through reduced redox signalling. Fluorine is involved protection of enamel layer by remineralisation, crystallisation of dentine and enhancement in acid resistance its deficiency leads to dental caries which is also an aged phenotype due to disturbed KLF4pathway. Iodine is necessary for thyroid gland for production of thyroid hormones deficiency of it leads to goitre that is characterised by thyroid gland enlargement seen mostly in aged people or people taking iodine deficient diets that occurs through reduced TSH signalling. Iron is necessary for body for haemoglobin synthesis for oxygen transport and its deficiency leads to anaemia an aged phenotype occurs through enhancement in IL-6, TGFβ signalling. Sodium shows its effect by action of aldosterone on muscle cells and helps in heart function deficiency leads to heart diseases an aged phenotype occurs through increased SIRT1, mTORC1 signalling. Zinc well known for immune defence through inhibition of NFκB signalling deficiency leads to reduced immunity through enhancement of this signalling. A summary of different minerals and their mechanism of action along with their associated signalling pathway with ageing had described in Table 1.
Mineral | Physiological function | Mechanism of action | Deficiency disease | Signalling pathway associated with ageing |
---|---|---|---|---|
Phosphorous (P) | Formation of high energy phosphates, nucleic acids, nucleotide coenzymes | Bone mineralisation through hydroxyapatite formation [35] | Osteomalacia | FGF signalling [36, 37] |
Potassium (K) | Chief cation of intracellular fluid, osmotic balance, muscle function | Contraction of smooth muscle cell [44] | Muscle weakness, mental retardation | mTORC1 signalling [47] |
Calcium (Ca) | Development of bones, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, nerve transmission, intracellular messenger etc. | Bone calcification through formation of hydroxyl apatite crystals | Rickets, Osteoporosis, Osteopetrosis (marble bone disease) | Wnt, MAPK pathway [49] |
Magnesium (Mg) | Constituent of bones, cofactor for kinases | Protects neuronal cell death by activating PI3K/Akt signalling [51] | Neuromuscular weakness, muscle irritation | Nrf 2 pathway [53, 54] |
Sulphur (S) | Constituent of vitamins, heparin, chondroitin sulphate | Reduces muscle pain and body pain [55, 56, 57] | Muscle fatigue, convulsions | Redox signalling [60, 61, 62] |
Fluorine (F) | Formation of bones and teeth | Prevents dental caries by remineralisation of enamel and improving acid resistance [74] | Dental caries | KLF 4 pathway [75] |
Iodine (I) | Constituent of thyroxine, triiodothyronine | Prevents thyroid enlargement through T3 &T4 [76] | Goitre, Myxoedema | TSH signalling [78] |
Iron (Fe) | Transports oxygen in constituent of heme | Haemoglobin formation through erythropoiesis [59] | Hypochromic microcytic anaemia | TGF-β signalling [96] |
Sodium (Na) | Chief cation of extracellular fluid, osmotic balance, acid–base balance, nerve function | Regulates heart function through IP3signaling by aldosterone [100, 101, 102] | Heart disease | SIRT1, mTORC1 signalling [103, 104] |
Zinc (Zn) | Cofactor for alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase, lactate dehydrogenase | Reduces intracellular ROS by activating SOD, NOX, MT [112] | Growth retardation, hypogonadism, decreased immunity | NFkB signalling [113, 114] |
Summary of mineral elements mechanism of action and association with longevity.
Abbreviations: FGF-fibroblast growth factor, SOD-superoxide dismutase, NOX-NADPH oxidase, MT-metallothionin, T3-tri iodothyronine, T4-tetra iodothyronine, PI3K-Phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase, MAPK-mitogen activated protein kinase, Wnt-Wingless-related integration site, Nrf 2-nucleoid erythroid receptor factor 2, TSH-thyroid stimulating hormone, TGF-tumour growth factor, SIRT 1-sirutin1, mTORC1-mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1, NFkB-natural factor kappa beta.
calcium iodine magnesium phosphorous sodium sulphur zinc Fluorine potassium iron thyroid stimulating hormone nucleoid erythroid receptor factor fibroblast growth factor sirtuins mammalian target of rapamycin complex natural factor kappa beta interleukin tumour growth factor mitogen activated protein kinase Wingless-related integration site fibroblast growth factor superoxide dismutase NADPH oxidase metallothionin tri iodothyronine tetra iodothyronine phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase zinc importer zinc transporter glycogen synthase kinase 3β reactive oxygen species reactive nitrogen species high density lipoprotein peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator inositol 1,4,5 tri phosphate adenosine tri phosphatase guanosine triphosphate PR domain zinc finger protein 8 aplastic anaemia heme carrier protein ferroportion iron responsive proteins iron responsive elements hepcidin antimicrobial peptide monoiododthyronine diiodothyronine thyroid-stimulating hormone adenosine monophosphate kinase deoxyribose nucleic acid ribose nucleic acid nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide tumour necrosis factor methylsulfonylmethane fibroblast growth factor signalling parathormone tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase (ULK1/2) matrix metallo proteinase inter cellular adhesion molecule induced nitric oxide synthase cyclooxygenase recommended dietary allowance
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"839",title:"Oceanography",slug:"oceanography",parent:{id:"125",title:"Earth Science",slug:"earth-science"},numberOfBooks:7,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:111,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:64,numberOfDimensionsCitations:106,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"839",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",middleName:null,surname:"Lousada",slug:"sergio-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio Lousada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8007",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",subtitle:"Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec140486c42d62e69ef428e6cf71b6d7",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",bookSignature:"Jiayi Pan and Adam Devlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179303",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7606",title:"Coastal and Marine Environments",subtitle:"Physical Processes and Numerical Modelling",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd1227726856d58b88116129b0de8384",slug:"coastal-and-marine-environments-physical-processes-and-numerical-modelling",bookSignature:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7606.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67904",title:"Prof.",name:"José Simão",middleName:null,surname:"Antunes Do Carmo",slug:"jose-simao-antunes-do-carmo",fullName:"José Simão Antunes Do Carmo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6012",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79ce8dc1cde58947a61fe4aea725d437",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6012.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"8669",title:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure",subtitle:"A Case Study of China's Coastline",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52abc534177a147ffd3154db2f4f4ba1",slug:"coastal-environment-disaster-and-infrastructure-a-case-study-of-china-s-coastline",bookSignature:"X. San Liang and Yuanzhi Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210315",title:"Prof.",name:"X. San",middleName:null,surname:"Liang",slug:"x.-san-liang",fullName:"X. San Liang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"6195",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4eb2fa7c0bf9d4a493375ee47276aa38",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang, Yijun Hou and Xiaomei Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2221",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",subtitle:"From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7ce45cda9743300d394136417028a84",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",bookSignature:"Gloria I. Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2221.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146976",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria",middleName:"I.",surname:"López",slug:"gloria-lopez",fullName:"Gloria López"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"64510",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82320",title:"Introductory Chapter: Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold’s Concept and Its Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and",totalDownloads:879,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"6012",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications"},signatures:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",authors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}]},{id:"67923",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87843",title:"Structure and Dynamics of Plumes Generated by Small Rivers",slug:"structure-and-dynamics-of-plumes-generated-by-small-rivers",totalDownloads:830,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The total share of small rivers in the influxes of fluvial water and suspended matter to the world ocean is estimated at between 25 and 40%. On a regional scale, this contribution can be even more significant for many coastal regions. In this chapter, we show that dynamics of small river plumes is significantly different from that of plumes generated by large rivers. Spatial structure of small plumes is generally characterized by sharper horizontal and vertical gradients. As a result, small plumes exhibit more energetic temporal variability in response to external forcing. In this chapter, we address several dynamical features typical for small plumes. We describe and discuss the response of small plumes to wind forcing and river discharge variability, the interaction between neighboring small plumes, and the generation of high-frequency internal waves in coastal ocean by small rivers. We also substantiate the Lagrangian approach to numerical modeling of small river plumes.",book:{id:"8007",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",fullTitle:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes"},signatures:"Alexander Osadchiev and Peter Zavialov",authors:[{id:"296909",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Zavialov",slug:"peter-zavialov",fullName:"Peter Zavialov"},{id:"296910",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Osadchiev",slug:"alexander-osadchiev",fullName:"Alexander Osadchiev"}]},{id:"41072",doi:"10.5772/51864",title:"The November, 1st, 1755 Tsunami in Morocco: Can Numerical Modeling Clarify the Uncertainties of Historical Reports?",slug:"the-november-1st-1755-tsunami-in-morocco-can-numerical-modeling-clarify-the-uncertainties-of-histori",totalDownloads:2396,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2221",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard - From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact"},signatures:"R. Omira, M.A. Baptista, S. Mellas, F. Leone, N. Meschinet de Richemond, B. Zourarah and J-P. Cherel",authors:[{id:"16693",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"maria-ana-baptista",fullName:"Maria Ana Baptista"},{id:"16695",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachid",middleName:null,surname:"Omira",slug:"rachid-omira",fullName:"Rachid Omira"},{id:"92702",title:"Prof.",name:"Frederic",middleName:null,surname:"Leone",slug:"frederic-leone",fullName:"Frederic Leone"},{id:"148352",title:"MSc.",name:"Samira",middleName:null,surname:"Mellas",slug:"samira-mellas",fullName:"Samira Mellas"},{id:"148353",title:"Prof.",name:"Bendahou",middleName:null,surname:"Zourarah",slug:"bendahou-zourarah",fullName:"Bendahou Zourarah"},{id:"148356",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Cherel",slug:"jean-philippe-cherel",fullName:"Jean-Philippe Cherel"},{id:"157593",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Meschinet De Richemond",slug:"nancy-meschinet-de-richemond",fullName:"Nancy Meschinet De Richemond"}]},{id:"58729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73217",title:"Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Sea Surface Temperature in the East China Sea Using TERRA/MODIS Products Data",slug:"spatio-temporal-analysis-of-sea-surface-temperature-in-the-east-china-sea-using-terra-modis-products",totalDownloads:1037,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Sea surface temperature (SST) is an important parameter in determining the atmospheric and oceanic circulations, and satellite thermal infrared remote sensing can obtain the SST with very high spatio-temporal resolutions. The study first validated the accuracy of TERRA MODIS SST daytime and nighttime products with the timing SST measurements from the ships in the East China Sea (ECS) in February, May, August and November, 2001, and then the daily variation of daytime and nighttime SST difference was analyzed. Using 16-year MODIS SST monthly products data from February 2000 to January 2016, when all SST monthly products in February, May, August and November were averaged respectively, the seasonal spatial distribution pattern of SST in the ECS was discovered. After monthly sea surface temperature anomaly was finally processed by the empirical orthogonal function (EOF), the interannual variability of SST in the ECS was discussed. The results show that the MODIS SST daily products have a good accuracy with a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) below 5%. The SST difference between day and night is the largest in winter, followed by spring, then for autumn and the smallest in summer, while the diurnal SST difference is very low for the same season in the different seas. The SST in the ECS displays the obvious seasonal spatial distribution pattern, in which the SST of winter is gradually increasing from north to south, while local temperature difference is the largest for 26.5°C in a year. In comparison, the SST in summer tends uniform and the difference is not more than 5°C in the whole sea. From the EOF analysis of SST anomaly, the interannual variability of SST in the ECS is affected by the East Asian monsoon, the latitudinal difference of solar radiation, the offshore circulation and the submarine terrain.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Shaoqi Gong and Kapo Wong",authors:[{id:"219135",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaoqi",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"shaoqi-gong",fullName:"Shaoqi Gong"},{id:"219138",title:"Mr.",name:"Wong",middleName:null,surname:"Kapo",slug:"wong-kapo",fullName:"Wong Kapo"}]},{id:"63609",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80903",title:"Saltwater Intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary",slug:"saltwater-intrusion-in-the-changjiang-estuary",totalDownloads:1436,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Saltwater intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary and the impacts of river discharge, tide, wind, sea level rise, river basin, and major estuary projects on saltwater intrusion are studied in this chapter. There is a net landward flow in the NB (North Branch) when river discharge is low during spring tide, resulting in a type of saltwater intrusion known as the SSO (saltwater-spilling-over from the NB into the SB (South Branch)), which is the most striking characteristic of saltwater intrusion in the estuary. A three-dimension numerical model with HSIMT-TVD advection scheme was developed to study the hydrodynamic processes and saltwater intrusion in the Changjiang Estuary. Saltwater intrusion in the estuary is controlled mainly by river discharge and tide, but is also influenced by wind, sea level rise, river basin, and estuary projects. Saltwater intrusion is enhanced when river discharge decreases. There is more time for the reservoir to take freshwater from the river when river discharge is larger. The fortnightly spring tide generates greater saltwater intrusion than the neap tide. The saltwater intrusion in the SP (South Passage) is stronger than that in the NP (North Passage), and the intrusion in the NP is stronger than that in the NC (North Channel). The northerly wind produces southward currents along the Subei coast as well as the landward Ekman transport, which enhances the saltwater intrusion in the NC and NB and weakens the saltwater intrusion in the NP and SP. Saltwater intrusion becomes stronger as the sea level rises and is much stronger when river discharge is much small. The DWP (Deep Waterway Project) alleviates the saltwater intrusion in the NC and the lower reaches of the NP and enhances the saltwater intrusion in the SP and in the upper reaches of the NP. The Three Gorges Dam (TGD) increases river discharge in winter, which weakens saltwater intrusion, and is favorable for reducing the burden of freshwater supplement in the highly populated estuarine region. The Water Diversion South to the North Project (WDP) decreases river discharge, enhances saltwater intrusion, and is unfavorable for freshwater supply in the estuary.",book:{id:"8669",slug:"coastal-environment-disaster-and-infrastructure-a-case-study-of-china-s-coastline",title:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Coastal Environment, Disaster, and Infrastructure - A Case Study of China's Coastline"},signatures:"Jianrong Zhu, Hui Wu, Lu Li and Cheng Qiu",authors:[{id:"266207",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"jianrong-zhu",fullName:"Jianrong Zhu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70994",title:"Circulations in the Pearl River Estuary: Observation and Modeling",slug:"circulations-in-the-pearl-river-estuary-observation-and-modeling",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter reports a cruise survey on the Pearl River Estuary (PRE) and adjacent costal water in the period between May 3, 2014 and May 11, 2014. The circulation and salinity structure were sampled for different tidal phases. With the cruise data, a “sandwich” structure of the lateral salinity distribution and a two-layer structure of longitudinal circulation were identified, together with high variations influenced by wind and tide. Furthermore, longitudinally orientated convergence or divergence of the lateral velocity close to the channel location for certain tidal conditions was observed. The finite volume community ocean model (FVCOM) is configured and run with high spatial resolution of 100 m in the PRE. An atmospheric model, the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model, is also run to provide high spatial and temporal resolution of atmospheric forcing for the FVCOM. The FVCOM modeling skill assessment is conducted using the cruise salinity and velocity data, as well as water levels, showing that the model can well simulate the velocity and salinity structures. The numerical model reveals that there is a strong neap-spring cycle for the PRE de-tided circulation with 0.37 m s−1 during the neap tide about 42% stronger than that (0.26 m s−1) during the spring tide in the surface layer.",book:{id:"8007",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",fullTitle:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes"},signatures:"Jiayi Pan, Wenfeng Lai and Adam Thomas Devlin",authors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"},{id:"302219",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"},{id:"309888",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"wenfeng-lai",fullName:"Wenfeng Lai"}]},{id:"41072",title:"The November, 1st, 1755 Tsunami in Morocco: Can Numerical Modeling Clarify the Uncertainties of Historical Reports?",slug:"the-november-1st-1755-tsunami-in-morocco-can-numerical-modeling-clarify-the-uncertainties-of-histori",totalDownloads:2396,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2221",slug:"tsunami-analysis-of-a-hazard-from-physical-interpretation-to-human-impact",title:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Analysis of a Hazard - From Physical Interpretation to Human Impact"},signatures:"R. Omira, M.A. Baptista, S. Mellas, F. Leone, N. Meschinet de Richemond, B. Zourarah and J-P. Cherel",authors:[{id:"16693",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"maria-ana-baptista",fullName:"Maria Ana Baptista"},{id:"16695",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachid",middleName:null,surname:"Omira",slug:"rachid-omira",fullName:"Rachid Omira"},{id:"92702",title:"Prof.",name:"Frederic",middleName:null,surname:"Leone",slug:"frederic-leone",fullName:"Frederic Leone"},{id:"148352",title:"MSc.",name:"Samira",middleName:null,surname:"Mellas",slug:"samira-mellas",fullName:"Samira Mellas"},{id:"148353",title:"Prof.",name:"Bendahou",middleName:null,surname:"Zourarah",slug:"bendahou-zourarah",fullName:"Bendahou Zourarah"},{id:"148356",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Cherel",slug:"jean-philippe-cherel",fullName:"Jean-Philippe Cherel"},{id:"157593",title:"Prof.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Meschinet De Richemond",slug:"nancy-meschinet-de-richemond",fullName:"Nancy Meschinet De Richemond"}]},{id:"63921",title:"Eight Types of BG Models and Discretization",slug:"eight-types-of-bg-models-and-discretization",totalDownloads:921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Eight types of the BG models are introduced in this chapter. The Type 1 is a model using wave parameters at the breaking point. In the Type 2, the effect of longshore sand transport due to the effect of the longshore gradient of breaker height is included with an additional term given by Ozasa and Brampton. In the Type 3, the intensity of sand transport P is assumed to be proportional to the third power of the amplitude of the bottom oscillatory velocity um due to waves, and in the Type 4, P is given by the wave energy dissipation rate due to wave breaking at a local point. In the Type 5, wave power is calculated using the coordinate system different from that for the calculation of beach changes to predict the topographic changes of an island or a cuspate foreland in a shallow water body under the action of waves randomly incident from every direction. In the Type 6, the height of wind waves is predicted using Wilson’s formula using the wind fetch distance and wind velocity, and then sand transport fluxes are calculated. The Type 7 is a model for predicting the formation of the ebb-tidal delta under the combined effect of waves and ebb-tidal currents with an analogy of the velocity distribution of ebb-tidal currents to the wave diffraction coefficient, which can be calculated by the angular spreading method for irregular waves. In the Type 8, the effect of the nearshore currents induced by forced wave breaking is incorporated into the model by calculating the nearshore currents, taking both the wave field and the current velocity at a local point into account.",book:{id:"6012",slug:"morphodynamic-model-for-predicting-beach-changes-based-on-bagnold-s-concept-and-its-applications",title:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Morphodynamic Model for Predicting Beach Changes Based on Bagnold's Concept and Its Applications"},signatures:"Takaaki Uda, Masumi Serizawa and Shiho Miyahara",authors:[{id:"13491",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaaki",middleName:null,surname:"Uda",slug:"takaaki-uda",fullName:"Takaaki Uda"}]},{id:"57606",title:"Analysis of Dynamic Effects on the Brazilian Vertical Datum",slug:"analysis-of-dynamic-effects-on-the-brazilian-vertical-datum",totalDownloads:950,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter presents a methodology of analyzing the dynamic effect from mean sea level variations, based on Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data, velocity models, tide gauge observations, and satellite altimetry data. GNSS observations were processed in order to obtain the variation of up coordinate required to identify the possible crust movements. Velocity model served as a comparative basis to verify the obtained results from the GNSS data processing and served as a basis for analyzing the time periods without GNSS information. Tide gauge data were used to evaluate the sea level temporal evolution in the Imbituba Brazilian Vertical Datum (I-BVD). Satellite altimetry data were used for checking the results from the GNSS and the tide gauge time series. The analyses were based on time series of observations by GNSS from 2007 until 2016, tide gauge from 1948 until 1968 and 2001 until 2016, and satellite altimetry data from 1991 until 2015 from different missions. As basis for the analysis, it used GNSS SIRGAS-CON stations, the SIRGAS velocity model (VEMOS), and NUVEL velocity model. Considering the discrimination of the crust vertical movement (GNSS processing) from the results obtained with the tide gauge observations, it was observed that there is an evidence of mean sea level (MSL) rising approximately +2.24 ± 0.4 mm/year.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Luciana M. Da Silva, Sílvio R.C. 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Remote sensing technology has real-time and large-area advantages in promoting the monitoring and forecast ability of coastal disaster. Relative to natural disasters, ones caused by human factors are more likely to be monitored and prevented. In this paper, we use several remote sensing methods to monitor or forecast three kinds of coastal disaster cause by human factors including red tide, sea-level rise and oil spilling, and make proposals for infrastructure based on the research results. The chosen method of monitoring red tide by inversing chlorophyll-a concentration is improved OC3M Model, which is more suitable for the coastal zone and higher spatial resolution than the MODIS chlorophyll-a production. We monitor the sea-level rise in coastal zone through coastline changes without artificial modifications. The improved Lagrangian model can simulate the trajectory of oil slick efficiently. Making the infrastructure planning according the coastal disasters and features of coastline contributes to prevent coastal disaster and coastal ecosystem protection. Multi-source remote sensing data can effectively monitor and prevent coastal disaster, and provide planning advices for coastal infrastructure construction.",book:{id:"6195",slug:"sea-level-rise-and-coastal-infrastructure",title:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure",fullTitle:"Sea Level Rise and Coastal Infrastructure"},signatures:"Yan Yu, Shengbo Chen, Tianqi Lu and Siyu Tian",authors:[{id:"162887",title:"Prof.",name:"Shengbo",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"shengbo-chen",fullName:"Shengbo Chen"},{id:"220026",title:"Dr.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",slug:"yan-yu",fullName:"Yan Yu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"839",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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