\r\n\tThe purpose of the book is to bring together the latest knowledge about genetic diversity by presenting the studies of some of the scientists who are engaged in development of new tools and ideas used to reveal genetic diversity, often from very different perspectives. The book should prove useful to students, researchers and experts in the area of biology, medicine and agriculture.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-945-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-944-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-946-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0b1e679fcacdec2448603a66df71ccc7",bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmut Çalışkan and Dr. Sevcan Aydin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11643.jpg",keywords:"PCR Based Methods, Protein Based Methods, Sequencing, Conservation of Genetic Resources, Natural Variation, Molecular Markers, Genetic Manipulation in Animals, Resistance to Disease, Genetic Manipulation in Plants, Use of Microorganisms in Biotechnology, Genetic Differentiation, Gene Therapy and Gene Editing",numberOfDownloads:17,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of genetics and molecular biology and Head of Biotechnology division at İstanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include plant molecular genetics, microbial biotechnology and characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaeal strains.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include genetics, environmental biotechnology and bioengineering.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. He obtained a BSc from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, England. His main research areas include the role of germin gene products during early plant development, analysis of genetic variation, polymorphisms, and the characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaea.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"462767",title:"Dr.",name:"Sevcan",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"sevcan-aydin",fullName:"Sevcan Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003QRfRpQAL/Profile_Picture_2022-03-24T08:49:06.jpg",biography:"Sevcan Aydın is an Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Türkiye. She obtained her bachelor's degree from Biology Department of Ege University. She obtained her Ph.D. in Biotechnology Programme of Istanbul Technical University. 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SCA is one of the most frequent hemoglobinopathies in the world. This disease may affect any part of the body, and one of the most commonly affected organs is the spleen. This disease results from a change of the amino acid valine instead of glutamic acid in the sixth position of the beta chain of hemoglobin. This change will produce rigid sickle-shaped red blood cells (RBCs) that hemolyze easily and adhere to each other blocking blood vessels [2].
The SCA is associated with several problems that can acutely or chronically affect health of children or adults with this disease: vasoocclusive crisis, aplastic crisis, acute splenic crisis sequestration, acute chest syndrome, stroke, priapism, and impaired growth and development. This type of anemia is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. When there is only one abnormal copy of the gene, patients do not experience symptoms [3].
In children with SCA, spleen may be clinically palpable or not, functional or not, and not have existing correlation between size and function. The spleen is the organ most affected in SCA. Often, hyposplenism occurs before 1 year of age. Autosplenectomy is caused by fibrosis of the spleen as a result of multiple repeated vasoocclusive crises and usually is present between 5 and 6 years. Splenomegaly, sometimes with hypersplenism, can occur with the loss of function of the spleen. Hyposplenism increases the risk of infections with encapsulated bacteria [4].
The first person who conceptualized the term acute splenic sequestration crisis (ASSC) was Topley in 1981, who defined it as acute splenic enlargement with a fall in the hemoglobin (Hb) level of at least 20 g/l (or 2 g/dL) and abnormal basal reticulocyte count [5]. It is also defined as the sudden onset of splenomegaly (greater than 2 cm from the steady-state level) or sudden enlargement of a preexisting splenomegaly in association with acute anemia, evidence of active bone marrow, and regression of splenomegaly after blood transfusion. It is the result of rapid sequestration of RBCs in the spleen, which alters its functioning. ASSC is divided into major and minor [6, 7, 8].Minor ASSC refers to the moderate increase in splenic size and the decrease in Hb level of 2 to 3 g/dL; sometimes reaching a level as low as 2 to 3 g/dL, the spleen size regresses after blood transfusion, and there is evidence of active bone marrow.
Minor ASSC is referred as a moderate increase in splenic size and a decrease in Hb level of 2 to 3 g/dL; the spleen size regresses after blood transfusion, and there is evidence of active bone marrow.
Splenomegaly is the enlargement of the spleen. However, an enlarged or palpable spleen is not necessarily of clinical significance. Moreover, certain individuals with broadly splayed costal margins have readily palpable but small spleens. A spleen weight of 400–500 g indicates splenomegaly, and some authors consider spleens weighing more than 1000 g to have massive splenomegaly. Spleens that are prominent below the costal margin typically weigh 750–1000 g. Poulin et al. defined splenomegaly as moderate if the largest dimension is 11–20 cm and severe if the largest dimension is greater than 20 cm [9].Hypersplenism refers to splenomegaly and any combination of anemia, leucopenia, and thrombocytopenia, with compensatory bone marrow hyperplasia and tendency to normalization of blood parameters after splenectomy [10, 11].Hyposplenism is defined as an acquired disorder caused by several hematological and immunological diseases and characterized by absent or reduced splenic function impairment [12]. The most common condition associated with hyposplenism is sickle cell anemia, but it is also usually due to surgical removal, congenital aplasia, tumor metastasis, splenic vascular accident, alcoholic liver disease, celiac disease, bone marrow transplantation, and inflammatory bowel disease [13]. RBC abnormalities, including the presence of inclusions, nucleated RBC, and target cells, are commonly present. Patients with hyposplenism are at increased risk of bacterial sepsis, especially due to infection by
ASSC is a serious and the earliest life-threatening complication seen in patients with SCA [15]. It may occur during the first weeks of life, and it could be the first symptom of the disease. Up to 75% of first cases occur before 2 years. ASSC is considered the second leading cause of death after infection in the first decade of life in these patients. These crises are usually seen in infants and young children commonly between 5 months and 2 years of age. Mortality is up to 3% in children and 10% of adults who die from hypovolemic shock given the lack of early transfusion. Other reports show mortality rates of 15%–44% [16, 17]. Early neonatal screening and early parental education diminishes mortality rate up to 0.53% [4].Between 10% and 30% of homozygous children have suffered a crisis of splenic sequestration before 3 years of age, and all patients with SCA and no fibrosis spleen are susceptible to ASSC. In homozygous patients, it usually occurs between 3 months and 3 years old, but it can occur at older ages in those treated early with hydroxyurea, delayed autosplenectomy, and also in double heterozygotes SC and S-thalassemia, in which it can occur even in adulthood. There is a recurrence in the 50% of those who survive a first episode of splenic sequestration [11].
In the study of Brousse and colleagues [18], 190 children with SCA diagnosed at birth with SS or Sbeta0 were followed during a study period of 9 years. Among these 190 children are 111 boys and 79 girls (sex ratio, 1:4). They found 437 episodes of ASSC (0.06/patient-year); the median age at the first episode was 1.4 years (0.1–7), and 67% of patients had more than one episode. This study showed that the risk of recurrence was lower when the first episode occurred after 2 years and was higher when the first episode appeared before 1 year of age. In the same study, it was found that patients may experience several episodes, including more than 5; also, the prevalence of ASSC among children with SCA was 12.6%. ASSC incidence was 0.06/patient-year. The lifelong prevalence of acute splenic sequestration ranges from 7% to 30% according to studies [5, 15, 16].Pathophysiology
The spleen is a lymphoid organ dedicated to the clearance of blood cells and pathogens. It links innate and adaptive immune responses. The spleen filters approximately 5% of the cardiac output every minute [19].At present, the pathophysiology of ASSC is not completely understood. In normal conditions, the blood enters to the spleen through the splenic artery and then is distributed through the trabecular arteries that branch throughout the parenchyma to a terminating arteriole called the central arteriole. Splenic arterioles may drain into the venous sinuses or within the parenchyma and thus relieve their blood in the cords of red pulp. The spleen contains specialized macrophages, which are in close contact with blood cells and circulating bacteria, producing phagocytosis of some pathogens [20, 21]. Ten percent of the blood flowing through the spleen passes through filtration beds slowly. There is additional resistance due to the dynamic properties of both endothelial cells, and specialized fibroblasts [22] may play an important role in regulating blood filtration and possibly be dysfunctional in pathological conditions like SCA.The white pulp selectively clears lymphocytes and accessory cells from the blood and allows the spleen to initiate an adaptive immune response. The marginal zone of the spleen produces immunoglobulin M (IgM) that is essential for the phagocytosis of encapsulated bacteria such as
In SCA, RBCs are not deformable enough. The Hb S chain, with valine at the sixth position, has an unusual propensity to bind with other Hb S chains when deoxygenated This polymerization results in rigid molecules of hemoglobin, which are joined to each other and thus it is produced larger polymers that trigger a variety of elongated erythrocytes with decreased deformability. Polymerization in SCA is a process that occurs by factors that lead to deoxygenation such as high altitudes, infections, decreased pH, and low temperatures [24].Polymerization is responsible for the sickled or banana shape of RBCs in SCA, which causes a nonselective increase in membrane cation permeability to sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. When these cations enter the RBC (down their concentration gradient), several cell membrane transport systems are activated, with the important cumulative effect being the egress of water. The polymerization causes erythrocytes with a banana-shaped form that leads to an increase in the permeability of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. These cations will produce an activation of several transportation systems in the red cell membrane, which leads to dehydration of these cells. When the red cell has had several episodes of polymerization and dehydration, it becomes irreversibly deformed cell, which leads to vasoocclusion [25] (see Figure 1).The normal red blood cell can deform as it passes through small vessels. Dehydrated cells increase their viscosity, leading to a decreased deformability [26].
Vascular sinus congestion with Hb SS BCs. Medium-power photomicrograph (original magnification, ×40; hematoxylin–eosin stain) of a spleen tissue sample shows congestion of the vascular sinuses with Hb SS RBCs. (Adopted from Gael J. Sickle cell anemia. RadioGraphics, 2001; 21:971–994.)
Precipitating factors have been described such as bacterial–viral infections (parvovirus B19) or acute chest syndrome or exposure to high altitudes. Febrile events in SS infants may trigger or promote ASSC [27]. Increased inflammation during a febrile condition or vasoocclusive crisis may promote the trapping of blood within the spleen by increasing blood cellularity, blood viscosity, and erythrocyte rigidity [28]. Other precipitating factors (genetic or environmental) need to be sought in the hope that factors predicting ASSC will eventually be identified. Of note, none of the studied children in some studies had concomitant or secondary acute chest syndrome [16, 29].
As defined previously, the ASSC is a decrease of at least 2 g/dL in Hb concentration from baseline (or fall by 20% hematocrit) and increased reticulocytosis and splenomegaly >2 cm compared to baseline. It can also have thrombocytopenia. The clinical manifestations, laboratory studies, and radiological features may raise the suspect about this condition.
The differentiation of ASSC from similar conditions is imperative. Transient aplastic crisis due to parvovirus B19 infection occurs in older children with SCA and typically manifests as worsening anemia with reticulocytopenia and no splenomegaly [30].Malaria and SCA could be present concomitantly and may exacerbate each other, so it is crucial to rule out coinfections [31].
ASSC manifests clinically as the sudden onset of asthenia, adynamia, pain and abdominal distension, pallor, tachycardia, tachypnea, splenomegaly, thirstiness, decreased activity, decreased oral intake, and increased fussiness, and children could quickly manifest signs and symptoms of hypovolemic shock in severe cases. These crises are transient and usually may last from 3 to 4 h until 1 day. Mallouh et al. [28] found that two-thirds of the patients had a fever or infection at the time of the first ASSC.
The older patients may complain of left-sided abdominal pain. Infants with acute splenic sequestration can have sudden, rapid, massive enlargement of the spleen. The hemoglobin may fall by half of its baseline value within a few hours of onset of the sequestration crisis.
It is important to recognize that the spleen is moderately to markedly enlarged, and sometimes very painful. Diffuse abdominal tenderness may increase the suspect of splenic sequestration.
All patients should promptly have minimum laboratory studies, such as CBC with differential, reticulocyte, and platelet count, and chemistry profile, including electrolytes, AST, ALT, bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, LDH, BUN, creatinine, and urinalysis.
As mentioned before thrombocytopenia, leukopenia and elevated reticulocyte count can also be seen in these children and can be useful in the diagnosis. It is necessary to take into account that hepatic sequestration can occur in patients with SCA, and this condition could have a clinical presentation with abdominal pain and hepatomegaly. Findings may include mild to moderate elevation of liver transaminases.
There is no exact functional evaluation of the spleen, but blood markers, such as Howell–Jolly bodies (HJB) or pitted cells (PIT), could assess the filtering function of the spleen [4].
Howell–Jolly bodies are nuclear remnants in circulating mature red cells, which are, in physiological conditions, groomed or pitted by the spleen. The circulating number of HJB can be counted on blood smears or by flow cytometry [32] and has therefore been used as a marker of splenic dysfunction.
Clinical signs make the diagnosis. Imaging is therefore not essential and, if performed, should be planned after treatment has started. Suspicion of splenic abscess in children with SCA, who have fever, abdominal pain, and an enlarged spleen, must be corroborated by ultrasound.
When loss of splenic function is present, the uptake of 99mTc sulfur colloid diminishes and may entirely disappear. Areas with loss of function could appear as rounded masses of hypoechoic tissue at ultrasound (US) and computed tomography (CT) and may have an attenuation similar to that of normal spleen (see Figure 2A) [33].
The spleen with several ASSC becomes small and calcified. This fibrotic spleen has low signal intensity. These calcifications may be visible at radiography and CT (as shown in Figure 2B).
(A) Enlarged spleen with subcapsular infarction in the posterior pole, suggestive of ASSC. (B) Enlarged spleen that enhances heterogeneously with calcifications, suggestive of ASSC in fibrotic phase. (Courtesy of Lina Marcela Cadavid Alvarez, MD, Radiologist.)
Management is supportive, including the restoration of intravascular volume by packed red blood cell transfusion. The spleen usually decreases its size after a few days or weeks, also resolving thrombocytopenia and leucopenia.
Other support measures include intravenous (IV) fluids such as volume expanders as Ringer lactate or saline solution 0.9%. Transfuse patients with packed RBCs who have acute splenic sequestration and severe anemia to raise the hemoglobin to a stable level. Keep in mind that sequestered red blood cells in the spleen are mobilized after transfusion, so that the level of Hb may increase more than expected.
Do not expect to know the results of additional tests if the suspicion diagnostic request is clear and very urgent transfusion even without cross in case there is evidence of hemodynamic instability. It is recommended to proceed with partial exchange transfusion for signs of respiratory distress [34].
Children younger than 2 years should to ingress in a program of chronic transfusion to maintain HbS <30% until consider splenectomy after that age [35].Discard malaria in patients recently arrived from endemic countries, including PCR by low parasitemia usual [31].
It is important to address the performance and timing of splenectomy in patients with recurrent acute splenic sequestration or symptomatic hypersplenism (see Algorithm 1).
Splenectomy is an essential part of the management of splenic sequestration crisis. Most of the authors recommend splenectomy after the second episode of ASSC. Consider urgent splenectomy if the patient shows no clinical signs of improvement [36]. Splenectomy may be recommended after a first episode if life threatening is predicted.
Within the complications seen after splenectomy are an increased susceptibility to infections by encapsulated bacteria, but other authors have not found an increased incidence of bacteremia or mortality in children who underwent splenectomy. However, they could have more episodes of pain and acute chest syndrome [33].
Total splenectomy prevents the recurrence of splenic sequestration, but there are no clinical trials comparing the efficacy of splenectomy compared to chronic transfusion regimes in patients with SCA.
Total splenectomy in SCA is related to a high risk of fulminant sepsis and increased incidence of other events, which have not been reported in patients with partial splenectomy. Gutiérrez et al. examined 54 patients with SCA, who underwent partial splenectomy and compared the clinical and laboratory results with nonsplenectomized patients. They found that partial splenectomy was a safe procedure in patients with sickle cell disease. There were no differences in the clinical picture in children splenectomized and nonsplenectomized except the greater frequency of hepatic sequestration crisis in the first group [37].
Some authors recommend chronic red cell transfusion to prevent recurrent crises, but this can lead to risks such as hepatitis, HIV, parvovirus, and allosensitization. In addition, many patients developed ASSC when red cell transfusion was stopped [38].
SCA conditions that may require splenectomy are as follows:
Recurrent splenic sequestration crisis
Discomfort and deterioration in quality of life secondary to hypersplenism and splenomegaly
Splenic abscess
Massive splenic infarction
Splenomegaly with nonfunctioning spleen
Peña and Londoño. Proposed management of ASSC.
Patients must be followed periodically, clinically, and with laboratory tests. It is also important to teach the family to palpate the spleen from the diagnosis, warning the need to go quickly to a hospital in case of decay, fever, pallor, and splenomegaly.
Therefore, patients who experience their first ASSC in their first year should be monitored carefully.
To our patients who give us lessons of life from day to day.
To Lina Marcela Cadavid Alvarez, MD, Radiologist from Hospital Pablo Tobon Uribe, Medellín, who provided radiological Images.
Fungal propagules - spores and mycelial fragments, are always present in the air, their concentrations being dependent on environmental factors [4, 5]. Namely, during their life cycle, fungi produce various types of sexual and asexual spores which are actively or passively released into the surrounding environment and dispersed by air currents to available substrates [3]. The successful colonization of available substrates requires propagules to be viable in addition to favorable growth conditions [4, 6]. It is known that due to their metabolic activities, numerous fungal species could cause both esthetic and physical damage to a variety of substrates, including stone, paint, paper, wood, textile and other materials of which cultural heritage artworks are made. Therefore, the application of adequate microscopic techniques, proper species identification and physiological characterization of autochthonous isolates are very important to appropriately assess potential threats to cultural heritage artworks, especially on those stored in inadequate conditions [3]. Consequently, biodeterioration and biodegradation studies require a multidisciplinary approach and a close collaboration of scientists (microbiologists, chemists, geologists etc.) and the specialists responsible for the safeguarding of cultural heritage objects, such as restorers and conservators. Therefore, this work addresses general mechanisms of biodeterioration caused by fungi and their role in the deterioration of different materials which constitute cultural heritage artworks.
Fungi present on artworks can affect them in two ways – mechanically and chemically. The aforementioned processes, more often than not, are taking place simultaneously. Depending on the substrate’s nature, exogenic and endogenic factors, the effect of one process can prove more prominent than the other [7, 8]. Notably, depending on its location, fungal colonizers can affect the substrate in two ways – from the surface to its interior and
Physical processes are taking place under the influence of hyphal apical growth or by the formation of fruiting bodies on the surface and/or the inner layers of the colonized material. If the fungal growth is superficial, it results in the formation of spreading mycelium which covers the substrate and changes the original appearance, hence the esthetic value of the artifact [7]. Inner fungal growth might lead to further damage of the artworks and, especially if paintings are concerned, to the detachment of painted layers (exfoliation). Melanized micromycetes are well known inducers of mechanical deterioration, especially of stone substrates, since melanin provides mechanical rigidness to fungal structures, enhances the turgor pressure and facilitates hyphal penetration [8, 9]. In order to study mechanical deterioration, the application of different microscopic techniques is pivotal, especially
Scanning electron micrographs depicting deteriorated surfaces of cultural heritage objects: A, B. deteriorated icon silk fibers with cracks and gaps formed by
Mechanisms of chemical biodeterioration are much more complex and prominent than physical ones. Fungi can chemically alter the substrate via assimilation and dissimilation processes [11]. In case of the former, fungi utilize nutrients from the substrate by secreting various enzymes which catalyze the macromolecules’ degradation. In contrast, dissimilation represents the production of various extracellular metabolites such as organic acids and pigments. These substances modify or damage the colonized substrate. Since hyphae have high surface to volume ratio, these metabolites can quickly diffuse between the cells as well as from the cell into the substrate [7, 8]. Nowadays, various microbiological, biochemical and petrographical tests are employed to study chemical biodeterioration.
A significant percentage of world cultural heritage objects is represented by stone artworks, such as architectural monuments, statues and tombstones, to name just a few [26]. Stone is considered an extreme environment for microbial growth and proliferation, mostly due to the intensive oscillations of diurnal and seasonal microclimatic parameters and low nutrient and water content [27]. Stone surfaces directly exposed to sunlight could achieve temperatures above 60°C, while being simultaneously susceptible to freezing–thawing cycles [28, 29]. Regardless, certain groups of microorganisms, the so called lithobionts, are able to colonize such environments. Primary colonizers are photoautothrophic organisms – cyanobacteria, algae and lichens, while hemolithotrophic and hemoorganotrophic bacteria and fungi are considered secondary. The latter are oligotrophic or poikilotrophic organisms which adapted to survive and grow in harsh or variable environmental conditions [29].
Microbial dwellers of stone surfaces frequently form biofilm, highly structurised microbial consortium embedded in a mutual extracellular matrix. Biofilm formation starts with unspecific, reversible interactions, followed by stable interactions which are initiated as a consequence of the formation of specific molecules and structures (lipopolysaccharides, membrane proteins, flagellae). After initial adhesion, extracellular polymeric substances are produced and excreted, enhancing the adhesion and cohesion of cells [8]. Evolutionary advantages of biofilm are to provide protection, resistance to physical and chemical stressors, metabolic cooperation and mutually regulated gene expression [30]. All groups of microbial dwellers of stone are characterized with a high phenotypic plasticity, which is reflected in polymorphism – the change of growth or sporulation forms with regard to external conditions. Therefore, micromycetes, which colonize this environment, are able to form different somatic and reproductive structures - sclerotia, chlamidospores, conidial clusters, perithecia and pycnidia [29, 31]. Moreover, stone interior is a specific microenvironment for the growth of certain microorganisms such are endolithic fungi. The microclimatic conditions in this environment are a little more favorable – water retention is higher and solar radiation and air current intensities are lower [27].
Among fungal colonizers of stone, micorcolonial fungi constitute a specific ecological group characterized by its slow growth and formation of irregular shaped cells, often packed in aggregates. They rarely form specialized reproductive structures and in turn, by active growth, form thick, pigmented cell walls which enable transition to the state of dormancy during prolonged, unfavorable environmental conditions. The ability to secrete extracellular polymeric substances and thick cell walls, enable water retention, nutrient absorption, desiccation reduction and cellular adhesion/cohesion. These organisms are able to survive for long periods without metabolic activities and their metabolic rates are low even during optimal environmental conditions [27].
Dematiaceous fungi are considered the most important agents of stone deterioration. All representatives intensively produce dark colored melanins which provide protection from excessive environmental radiation (UV radiation, x- and γ-rays) and chemical stressors. This group encompasses microcolonial fungi and black yeasts, species of genera:
Fungi can deteriorate stone via physical and chemical mechanisms. Physical mechanisms include hyphal penetration of the rock surface which causes its fragmentation, while chemical ones include secretion of acidic metabolites and pigments and oxidation of mineral forming cations. Although many microorganisms are able to produce acids, fungi are considered as the most potent ones in nature that degrade rocks and minerals. The production of various acidic metabolites leads to the biocorrosion - dissolution of the mineral substrate, resulting in the formation of various secondary mycogenic minerals [26].
Lichenized fungi are important colonizers of stone substrates. These organisms have a high tolerance to variations of environmental factors, especially temperature, insolation and water availability, which is responsible for their cosmopolitan distribution and ability to colonize extreme environments [36]. These organisms are poikilohydric, i.e. they are capable of enduring cycles of desiccation and rehydration due to their ability of lowering their metabolic rate and enter cryptobiosis under conditions of low water availability [37]. Endolithic lichens are of special importance to stone deterioration, since they are capable of the deepest penetration into the stone compared to other microorganisms [38]. Apart from the fact that hyphae of the mycobiont can penetrate the rock surface (Figure 1E and F), perithecia formation by some endolithic species can penetrate the surface from the inside out, which leads to biopitting [27]. Additionally, lichen growth could cause exfoliations, encrustations and disaggregation of the stone surface [11, 39]. Conversely, lichen morphology and its adhesive capability aren’t always in correlation with its capacity to alter the substrate and physiological differences between the species are considered to be more significant [40, 41]. In fact, synthesis of different chemical deterioration agents is done by the mycobiont. Apart from carboxylic, lichens have the ability to produce lichen acids, semisoluble polyphenolic compounds which are able to form complexes with metal cations. The capability of lichens to absorb and maintain water enhances the duration of chemical reactions and therefore facilitates deterioration process [39, 41]. Lastly, some authors have reported the presence of orange-brownish patinas (
Wall painting, as the pictorial technique, encompasses all painting techniques aimed at beautifying wall surfaces. There is no universally accepted definition of fresco, as well as consensus on what techniques can be included in this type of wall painting, however, the term
Fungal infestation of wall paintings can occur from several sources including contaminated indoor air as the main, but also soil and plants of immediate vicinity, visitors, contaminated conservation tools, and indoor hotspots as secondary sources [7]. Whether a certain fungus will be able to colonize the painted layer or mortar depends on the ecological and physiological requirements of a given species. If the requirements are met the process is further controlled by three main factors: nutrient availability, relative humidity, and temperature [32]. The origin of nutrients in fresco painting is related to (1) additives (chaff, wheat paste, barley flakes, animal hair, hemp and flax fibers, egg whites, oils, fats) mixed with mineral and complex fillers of chopped straw and lime mortar; (2) additives used in the preparation of mortar (liquid resins, tar, polymer latex, emulsions, bitumen, milk, olive and linseed oil, lard, animal blood); (3) binders of plant and animal origin mixed with mineral pigments; (4) casein, paraloid mixtures, fixatives and consolidants based on polymer components (cellulose acetates, polyvinyl acetate, polymethyl acrylate, etc.) used in restoration works [32, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50]. These organic components determine the richness of the fresco mycobiota. Since the composition of the painted layer and mortar is predominated by inorganic components, its mycobiota differs greatly from the fungal communities established on other painted works of art [45]. Furthermore, heterogeneously pigmented zones of the painted layer can be considered as selective substrates that condition the development of a specific mycobiota [51]. Using culture-dependent methods, the most commonly documented fungi on painted layer and mortar of wall paintings are Ascomycota of genera
Species of the genera
Mechanical (1) and chemical (2) activity of fungi directly results in damages to structural and esthetic integrity of fresco paintings. (1) Hyphal penetration, together with formation of fruiting bodies and various modifications of mycelium, increases internal pressure thereby forming new cracks in the painted layer and mortar, as well as expanding the existing ones. Damages caused by mechanical activity are considered by some to be of greater importance compared to changes induced by environmental factors and fungal chemical activity [61]. Furthermore, aside from mechanical activity, damages as the result of change in substrate properties can also incur due to utilizing fresco components as a source of nutrients for fungal growth (2′1) and/or due to secretion and interaction of fungal metabolites with organic and inorganic components of the painted layer and mortar (2′2) [7, 62]. (2′1) Extracellular enzymes break down complex organic components into simpler molecules enabling their absorption and easier penetration of hyphae into the substrate which results in cracking and peeling of the painted layer and mortar. The main enzymes involved in this process are β-glucosidase, phosphatase, lipase, arylsulfatase, esterase, protease and endo-N-acetyl-PD-glucosamidase [63, 64]. (2′2) Excreted organic acids chelate metal ions present in mineral pigments and mortar, resulting in the formation of mineral salts and complex compounds that increase pressure in pores, which leads to cracking, peeling, and loss of fragments of the painted layer and mortar [65, 66]. Additionally, salts stimulate formation of surface irregularities that serve as suitable sites for the settlement of heterotrophic microorganisms, thereby increasing the bioreceptivity of fresco painting [67]. In these circumstances, there is an uncontrolled biofilm development and acceleration of chemical dissimilation activity through oxidation, reduction and transformation of metal ions in pigments, primarily Fe and Mn, but also As, Pb, Cu, Zn and Hg, resulting in the alterations to the original color of the painted layer [53, 68]. Aside from organic acids, very stable and persistent fungal pigments (melanins, mycosporins, quinones, hydroxyanthraquinones and carotenoids) secreted onto the surface induce changes in the original coloration, which is process that depends on the chemical composition of the pigment, environmental conditions and interactions with substrate components [7, 32].
One of the best-known pictorial technique today, oil painting on canvas, emerged in the Middle Ages and has since been one of the most important art expressions, constituting outstanding works of art with important historic and cultural value [69]. Structurally speaking, these works of art are composed of the pictorial layer between the protective covering varnish and the ground (or preparatory layer) spread on a linen canvas. Compared to the other forms of artwork, oil paintings on canvas possibly provide the widest range of microhabitats and nutrients that may be exploited by a large variety of microbial species [70]. Materials that constitute the painting, i.e. the cellulose of the canvas support, organic adhesives (i.e. various animal, fish and plant glues) used in sizing the support, natural varnishes, and the oils used in binding the pigments (linseed, turpentine and other oils) are all composed of organic molecules of high nutritional content that are all easily degraded [32, 63]. These organic molecules encompass sugars, gums, and other polysaccharides, proteins and waxes, but also less chemically defined mixtures of biomolecules, such as egg yolk, bile, and urine, as well [45]. Organic glue pastes used to coat the back of paintings with linen canvas, i.e. “re-lining”, may also represent a rich nutrient source [71]. Furthermore, dirt, dust and other environmental contaminants (volatile hydrocarbons released from machinery, respiration and cigarette smoke) deposited on the surface of the oil paintings provide nutrients as well [63].
Given the wide range of organic molecules that are present in oil paintings, many different microorganisms may grow provided inadequate storage and favorable environmental conditions, primarily high relative humidity and temperature, are met [45]. These specific environmental conditions may start and/or accelerate the microbial growth, which otherwise would persist on the obverse and the reverse side of the painting in a dormant metabolic state [70]. Among multitudes of different microorganisms, fungi are notorious for their ability to inhabit and decay paintings due to their enormous metabolic activity and ability to grow at low aw values [32]. However, to the best of our knowledge, despite being one of the most numerous objects exhibited and stored in museums and warehouses worldwide, relatively fewer number of studies to date have been engaged in describing the fungal communities dwelling on canvas oil paintings compared to the other forms of art. Using culture-dependent methods, the most commonly documented fungi on painted surface, canvas and wooden frame are Ascomycota of genera
Fungal induced deterioration of canvas oil paintings can occur on both the obverse and the reverse side. It usually starts on the reverse side as canvas components are more readily degraded than those found on the obverse side. In addition, support polymers and the glue sizing in the canvas act as supplementary substrates for fungal growth [22]. Canvas was shown to be one of the most susceptible painting materials (only surpassed by linseed oil), with the susceptibility depending on the percentage content of cellulose, lignin, and other organic components [74, 77]. The higher the percentage of cellulose and lignin, the more resistant it will be to fungal attack [78]. Due to their ability to produce cellulolytic enzymes responsible for cellulose fibers dissolution, fungi of the genus
On the other hand, the degree of deterioration on the obverse side depends on the oil paints and their mode of application. Varnish, added to provide protection against environmental attacks, is the least susceptible painting material to fungal attack, while many pigments are known to possess antifungal properties [74]. Fungal communities are found to be less dense and diverse in pictorial layers containing pigments with heavy metals (e.g. Pb, Cu and Hg), compared to those found in pictorial layers without such compounds [75]. On the obverse side, hydrolytic activities that the fungi undertake to sustain growth results in the detachment of the paint layer from the support, with further increase in the loss of material happening due to excretion of destructive metabolites, i.e. organic or inorganic acids and the additional production of extracellular enzymes: lipases, esterases, endo-N-acetyl-glucosaminidases and proteases [22]. Such activities lead to formation of structural impairments usually manifested as exfoliation of paint layers, cracking, peeling, formation of paint blisters, detachment of the paint layer from the support, deformations and loss of strength of support. Strongly linked to these damages are the esthetic impairments (preceding the structural damages or forming as a resulting consequence) manifesting as the change of the original coloration due to pigment alterations, biofilm formation on the painted surface or staining as the result of pigment excretion by fungi [75]. Fungi of
Wood as a material has been widely used as a structural element for many types of constructions or for ritual, religious and decorative purpose. Historically, human usage of wood is embedded in wood cultural heritage reflecting past and present human life, culture, ideals, symbols and values. Wood cultural heritage objects can be classified as: moveable (musical instruments, frames, furniture, sculptures, iconic altar etc.), immovable (temples, churches, chapels, royal palaces, pagodas, wooden bridges etc.) and underwater (shipwrecks, foundation piles, wooden cargo or contents which were partially or totally underwater, periodically or continuously for at least 100 years), according to UNESCO [79]. Lignocellulose is the major component of wood biomass and consists of three types of polymers, cellulose (40–55%), hemicelluloses (24–40%) and lignin (18–35%) that are strongly intermeshed and chemically bonded by non-covalent bonds and by covalent crosslinkages [19]. Organic nature and optimal water content make the wooden substrate suitable for microbial attack [80]. However, microbial deterioration of these materials occurs only under poor conservation conditions: high humidity level, soil contact, poor ventilation, and rare maintenance [81]. Even though deterioration of wood cultural heritage is a process conducted by all groups of microorganisms, fungi have the most significant potential to affect this type of historic artworks [82]. Biodegradation and biodeterioration of wood materials is predominantly dependent on its moisture content, requiring a minimum of 20% of water. Despite dry wooden objects are considered to be resistant to fungal degradation due to low moisture content, occasional wetting, leaks and flooding can increase humidity, enabling conditions for fungal growth. The mechanism of biodeterioration implies the development of fungi on the surface (Figure 1G and H) or between internal structures, the production of extracellular enzymes, the structural change of basic biopolymers, which ultimately results in visible changes of the object [81]. Generally, fungi that attack wooden material can be distinguished as white-rot, brown-rot and soft rot fungi. White rot fungi are the only organisms that can completely depolymerize and degrade all lignin components as well as cellulose and hemicellulose. The largest number, of about 1500 species, belongs to the Basidiomycota and a smaller number belongs to Ascomycota. Most commonly found species are from genera
Additionally, paper, which is mostly produced by mechanical and chemical processing of cellulose fibers, originating from wood, is the most important material on which cultural achievements in the whole world are recorded and preserved. Since it is created as a product of the wood industry and consists of 90–99% of cellulose fibers, in the ecological sense, paper is considered to be a cellulose substrate. Books, documents, writings, old maps, photographs, etc. are objects made of paper that are most often kept in libraries, archives and museums. Apart from paper, cotton and linen are fabrics which main components are cellulose fibers. Also, paraments, defined as hangings or ornaments used for decorations of Christian churches’ interiors are often tailored of cotton and linen. In that sense, it should be emphasized that, art objects made of cellulose fibers can be colonized by cellulolytic fungi. These fungi can degrade cellulose fibers via process off cellulolysis, defined as an enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose polymer into glucose units. In that sense, the fungi capable for production of cellulolytic enzymes are frequently isolated from paper, especially from old books or documents kept in libraries, archives and museum depots. Among the frequently encountered species on the paper substrates are the members of genera
Textile is defined as elastic material produced by spinning of natural or synthetic raw fibers and which are in final form composed of interlocked network of threads or yarns. Apart from synthetic fibers, materials used for textile production could be of plant or animal origin. Cotton, linen, hemp and jute are widely used fabrics of plant origin and hence they are composed of cellulose fibers. Many old-fashioned and vintage attires and garments, worn by our ancestors were woven from these fabrics and deposited in museum depots and exhibition rooms, or still worn during traditional festivities. In that sense, those fibers could be easily attacked by cellulolytic fungi, and mechanisms of biodeterioration are similar to those of the fungi capable of degrading paper-based materials. On the other hand, animal fibers include wool and silk [92]. Wool is a textile fiber obtained from various hairy mammals, but mostly from sheep, and main constituent of wool is a protein keratin. When compared with textile fibers of plant origin, wool is more resistant to fungal attack due to its specific cross-linked structure with disulphide bonds [93]. However, fungi capable for keratinolysis can attack wool fibers and cause wool degradation. Pioneer research by some authors demonstrated that fungi are the main “culprits” responsible for wool degradation, in much higher degree then bacteria, and members of genera
Specific morphology and physiology of fungi enables them to colonize multifarious substrates, including cultural heritage artifacts. Due to their pronounced metabolic capacity, fungal deteriogens are able to significantly influence both aesthetical appearance and integrity of monuments, sculptures, murals, paintings, textile and documentary heritage. Nowadays, conversance of fungal biology is becoming crucial in proper assessment of contamination and colonization of artworks but also in their adequate storage and protection. Since mycology as a science gains more and more application in the conservation and restauration procedures, the investigations in this scientific filed become essential in cultural heritage safeguard.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Some systems are highly affected by a small fraction of influential nodes. Number of fast and efficient spreaders in a network is much less compared to the number of ordinary members. Information about the influential spreaders is significant in the planning for the control of propagation of critical pieces of information in a social or information network. Identifying important members who act as the fastest and efficient spreaders is the focal theme of a large number of research papers. Researchers have identified approximately 10 different methods for this purpose. Degree centrality, closeness centrality, betweenness centrality, k‐core decomposition, mixed degree decomposition, improved k‐shell decomposition, etc., are some of these methods. In this expository article, we review all previous works done in the field of identifying potential spreaders in a network.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Reji Kumar Karunakaran, Shibu Manuel and Edamana Narayanan\nSatheesh",authors:[{id:"200190",title:"Dr.",name:"Reji Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Karunakaran",slug:"reji-kumar-karunakaran",fullName:"Reji Kumar Karunakaran"},{id:"200193",title:"Mr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Shibu",slug:"manuel-shibu",fullName:"Manuel Shibu"},{id:"200194",title:"Dr.",name:"E N",middleName:null,surname:"Satheesh",slug:"e-n-satheesh",fullName:"E N Satheesh"}]},{id:"57940",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72145",title:"Graph-Based Decision Making in Industry",slug:"graph-based-decision-making-in-industry",totalDownloads:1726,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Decision-making in industry can be focused on different types of problems. Classification and prediction of decision problems can be solved with the use of a decision tree, which is a graph-based method of machine learning. In the presented approach, attribute-value system and quality function deployment (QFD) were used for decision problem analysis and training dataset preparation. A decision tree was applied for generating decision rules.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"218951",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",slug:"izabela-kutschenreiter-praszkiewicz",fullName:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz"}]},{id:"72140",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91972",title:"Comparative Study of Algorithms Metaheuristics Based Applied to the Solution of the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem",slug:"comparative-study-of-algorithms-metaheuristics-based-applied-to-the-solution-of-the-capacitated-vehi",totalDownloads:687,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter presents the best-known heuristics and metaheuristics that are applied to solve the capacitated vehicle routing problem (CVRP), which is the generalization of the TSP, in which the nodes are visited by more than one route. To find out which algorithm obtains better results, there are 30 test instances used, which are grouped into 3 sets of problems according to the position of the nodes. The study begins with an economic impact analysis of the transportation sector in companies, which represents up to 20% of the final cost of the product. This case study focuses on the CVRP for its acronym capacitated vehicle routing problem, analyzing the best-known heuristics such as Clarke & Wright and sweep, and the algorithms GRASP and simulated annealing metaheuristics based.",book:{id:"8241",slug:"novel-trends-in-the-traveling-salesman-problem",title:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem",fullTitle:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem"},signatures:"Fernando Francisco Sandoya Sánchez, Carmen Andrea Letamendi Lazo and Fanny Yamel Sanabria Quiñónez",authors:[{id:"155426",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Francisco",surname:"Sandoya",slug:"fernando-sandoya",fullName:"Fernando Sandoya"},{id:"313162",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Letamendi",slug:"carmen-letamendi",fullName:"Carmen Letamendi"},{id:"319376",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanny",middleName:null,surname:"Sanabria",slug:"fanny-sanabria",fullName:"Fanny Sanabria"}]},{id:"55541",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68703",title:"Modeling Rooted in‐Trees by Finite p‐Groups",slug:"modeling-rooted-in-trees-by-finite-p-groups",totalDownloads:1151,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Graph theoretic foundations for a kind of infinite rooted in-trees T(R)=(V,E) with root R, weighted vertices v ∈ V, and weighted directed edges e∈E⊂V×V are described. Vertex degrees deg(v) are always finite but the trees contain infinite paths (vi)i≥0. A concrete group theoretic model of the rooted in-trees T(R) is introduced by representing vertices by isomorphism classes of finite p-groups G, for a fixed prime p, and directed edges by epimorphisms π: G → πG of finite p-groups with characteristic kernels ker(π). The weight of a vertex G is realized by its nuclear rank n(G) and the weight of a directed edge π is realized by its step size s(π)=logp(#ker(π)). These invariants are essential for understanding the phenomenon of multifurcation. Pattern recognition methods are used for finding finite subgraphs which repeat indefinitely. Several periodicities admit the reduction of the complete infinite graph to finite patterns. The proof is based on infinite limit groups and successive group extensions. It is underpinned by several explicit algorithms. As a final application, it is shown that fork topologies, arising from repeated multifurcations, provide a convenient description of complex navigation paths through the trees, which are of the greatest importance for recent progress in determining p-class field towers of algebraic number fields.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Daniel C. Mayer",authors:[{id:"198580",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel C.",middleName:null,surname:"Mayer",slug:"daniel-c.-mayer",fullName:"Daniel C. Mayer"}]},{id:"57771",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71774",title:"Governance Modeling: Dimensionality and Conjugacy",slug:"governance-modeling-dimensionality-and-conjugacy",totalDownloads:1353,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Q-analysis governance approach and the use of simplicial complexes—type of hypergraph—allow to introduce the formal concepts of dimension and conjugacy between the network of entities involved in governance (typically organizations) and the networks of those attributes taken into account (e.g. their competences), which offer a specific angle of analysis. The different sources of existing data (e.g. textual corpora) to feed the analysis of governance—environmental in particular—are mentioned, their reliability is briefly discussed and the required pre-processing steps are identified in the perspective of evidence-based analyses. Various indices are constructed and evaluated to characterize the context of governance as a whole, at mesoscale, or locally, i.e. at the level of each of the entities and each of the attributes considered. The analysis of ideal-type stylizing boundary cases provides useful references to the analysis of concrete systems of governance and to the interpretation of their empirically observed properties. The use of this governance modeling approach is illustrated by the analysis of a health-environment governance system in Southeast Asia, in the context of a One Health approach.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Pierre Mazzega, Claire Lajaunie and Etienne Fieux",authors:[{id:"220099",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Mazzega",slug:"pierre-mazzega",fullName:"Pierre Mazzega"},{id:"220102",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",middleName:null,surname:"Lajaunie",slug:"claire-lajaunie",fullName:"Claire Lajaunie"},{id:"220103",title:"Prof.",name:"Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Fieux",slug:"etienne-fieux",fullName:"Etienne Fieux"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55642",title:"Monophonic Distance in Graphs",slug:"monophonic-distance-in-graphs",totalDownloads:1556,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"For any two vertices u and v in a connected graph G, a u − v path is a monophonic path if it contains no chords, and the monophonic distance dm(u, v) is the length of a longest u − v monophonic path in G. For any vertex v in G, the monophonic eccentricity of v is em(v) = max {dm(u, v) : u ∈ V}. The subgraph induced by the vertices of G having minimum monophonic eccentricity is the monophonic center of G, and it is proved that every graph is the monophonic center of some graph. Also it is proved that the monophonic center of every connected graph G lies in some block of G. With regard to convexity, this monophonic distance is the basis of some detour monophonic parameters such as detour monophonic number, upper detour monophonic number, forcing detour monophonic number, etc. The concept of detour monophonic sets and detour monophonic numbers by fixing a vertex of a graph would be introduced and discussed. Various interesting results based on these parameters are also discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"P. Titus and A.P. 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The validity of using ONPA to derive the optimal answer was confirmed by in silico computing using a reverse-engineering method to reconstruct the complete tours in the feasible answer set from the measured ONPA. The high specificity of the sequence-tagged hybridization, and ligation that results from the use of PLPs significantly increased the accuracy of answer determination in DNA computing. When combined with the high throughput efficiency of qPCR, the time required to identify the optimal answer to the TSP was reduced from days to 25 min.",book:{id:"8241",slug:"novel-trends-in-the-traveling-salesman-problem",title:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem",fullTitle:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem"},signatures:"Fusheng Xiong, Michael Kuby and Wayne D. 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A decision tree was applied for generating decision rules.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"218951",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",slug:"izabela-kutschenreiter-praszkiewicz",fullName:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz"}]},{id:"55375",title:"An Example Usage of Graph Theory in Other Scientific Fields: On Graph Labeling, Possibilities and Role of Mind/Consciousness",slug:"an-example-usage-of-graph-theory-in-other-scientific-fields-on-graph-labeling-possibilities-and-role",totalDownloads:1831,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This paper provides insights into some aspects of the possibilities and role of mind, consciousness, and their relation to mathematical logic with the application of problem solving in the fields of psychology and graph theory. This work aims to dispel certain long-held notions of a severe psychological disorder and a well-known graph labeling conjecture. The applications of graph labelings of various types for various kinds of graphs are being discussed. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa is a Full Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Alicante, Spain, and has been the vice president of International Relations and Development Cooperation at this university since 2010. She created the research group in applied biochemistry in 2017 (https://web.ua.es/en/appbiochem/), and from 1999 to the present has made more than 200 contributions to Spanish and international conferences. Furthermore, she has around seventy-five scientific publications in indexed journals, eighty book chapters, and one patent to her credit. Her research work focuses on microbial metabolism (particularly on extremophile microorganisms), purification and characterization of enzymes with potential industrial and biotechnological applications, protocol optimization for genetically manipulating microorganisms, gene regulation characterization, carotenoid (pigment) production, and design and development of contaminated water and soil bioremediation processes by means of microorganisms. This research has received competitive public grants from the European Commission, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, the Valencia Region Government, and the University of Alicante.",institutionString:"University of Alicante",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"83122",title:"New Perspectives on the Application of Chito-Oligosaccharides Derived from Chitin and Chitosan: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106501",signatures:"Paul Edgardo Regalado-Infante, Norma Gabriela Rojas-Avelizapa, Rosalía Núñez-Pastrana, Daniel Tapia-Maruri, Andrea Margarita Rivas-Castillo, Régulo Carlos Llarena-Hernández and Luz Irene Rojas-Avelizapa",slug:"new-perspectives-on-the-application-of-chito-oligosaccharides-derived-from-chitin-and-chitosan-a-rev",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"83015",title:"Acute Changes in Lipoprotein-Associated Oxidative Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106489",signatures:"Ngoc-Anh Le",slug:"acute-changes-in-lipoprotein-associated-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Anh",surname:"Le"}],book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"83041",title:"Responses of Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plant Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106590",signatures:"Vishwa Jyoti Baruah, Bhaswati Sarmah, Manny Saluja and Elizabeth H. Mahood",slug:"responses-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-to-plant-stress",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"90",type:"subseries",title:"Human Development",keywords:"Neuroscientific Research, Brain Functions, Human Development, UN’s Human Development Index, Self-Awareness, Self-development",scope:"