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",isbn:"978-1-80356-477-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-476-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-478-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b306ce94998737c764d08736e76d60e1",bookSignature:"Dr. Alyssa A Brewer and Dr. Brian Barton",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11636.jpg",keywords:"Mammalian, Primate, Human, Genetics and Epigenetics, Individual Variability, Adaptation, Cortical Reorganization, Cortical Recovery, Visual Field Map, Sensorimotor Maps, Bottom-Up Sensory Processing, Top-Down Visual Attention",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Brewer is a Stanford-trained physician-scientist, tenured Associate Professor at UC Irvine, and Director of the mind space Lab, who uses cutting-edge computational neuroimaging to study the organization and plasticity of the human sensory cortex.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Barton is a UCI-trained cognitive scientist who has pioneered the study of auditory field maps in the human cortex and currently focuses his research on computational neuroimaging measurements of audiovisual cortical processing and organization.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"115304",title:"Dr.",name:"Alyssa",middleName:"A",surname:"Brewer",slug:"alyssa-brewer",fullName:"Alyssa Brewer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/115304/images/system/115304.jpg",biography:"Dr. Alyssa A. Brewer completed her undergraduate degrees at Stanford University, with a B.S. with Honors in Biological Sciences and an A.B. in Comparative Literature with interdisciplinary Honors in Humanities. She continued on at Stanford in a dual-degree graduate program, graduating with an M.D. and a Ph.D. in Neuroscience in 2007. Her work in graduate school with Brian Wandell, Ph.D., focused on computational neuroimaging measurements of visual cortex organization and plasticity in humans and macaque. She now is an Associate Professor in the Departments of Cognitive Sciences and Language Science, by courtesy, at the University of California, Irvine. Dr. Brewer’s research focuses on visual, auditory, and multi-sensory neuroscience, using behavioral, genetic, and high-resolution neuroimaging techniques to investigate questions ranging from the fundamental organization of human visual and auditory cortex to plasticity in visual, auditory, and sensorimotor regions.",institutionString:"University of California, Irvine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of California, Irvine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"149246",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",middleName:null,surname:"Barton",slug:"brian-barton",fullName:"Brian Barton",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/149246/images/system/149246.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Brian Barton received his B.S. in Psychology at the University of Oregon, where he studied visual attention and working memory with Edward Awh, Ph.D., and Edward Vogel, Ph.D. Dr. Barton then earned his Ph.D. in Psychology with a Concentration in Cognitive Neuroscience in 2013 at the University of California, Irvine (UCI), where he expanded his research into functional MRI measurements of visual cortex organization and plasticity with Alyssa A. Brewer, M.D., Ph.D. He continued on at UCI as a post-doctoral scholar for three years with Drs. Brewer, Greg Hickok, Ph.D., and Kourosh Saberi, Ph.D., applying his vision work to measurements of the organization of human auditory cortex. Dr. Barton’s current research focuses on the organization, function, and plasticity of sensory field maps in human visual and auditory cortex.",institutionString:"University of California, Irvine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of California, Irvine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"18",title:"Neuroscience",slug:"life-sciences-neuroscience"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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With the help and increase of the transvaginal ultrasound, the diagnosis of adnexal masses or cysts becomes more frequent. The incidence of these masses during pregnancy is estimated to be 0.2–2% depending on the week of gestation. The malignancy rate consisted of 1–6%, leaving the vast majority in benign level [1].
Distinguishing between malignant and nonmalignant adnexal masses or cysts especially during pregnancy depends on the level experience of the gynecologist and the disease staging. The most common nonmalignant cyst represents the functional cysts. These cysts or presence of corpus luteum are harmonically influenced and depict different ultrasound morphology. Imaging findings consist of thin wall without disturbance of architecture and lack of vascularization (Figure 1) [2].
A simple ovarian cyst on the right side of the uterus fulfilling all the characteristics mentioned before (Professor Ahmed Abdel Gadir. Illustrated Gynecology and Infertility Ultrasound).
These functional cysts can be shortly or after a couple of months absorbed. The appearance of adnexal mass or cyst during early pregnancy must lead to differential diagnosis of an ectopic pregnancy. Other examples such as cystadenomas or dermoid cysts during pregnancy can be removed laparoscopically during the first trimester.
The evaluation of an adnexal mass and the differential diagnosis toward a possible adnexal malignancy can be managed with ultrasound examination, abdominal MRI, and tumor markers.
Ultrasound examination can easily be undergone and consists of routine procedure with increased sensitivity and specificity, respectively. Imaging findings can facilitate the differential diagnosis between a malignant and a benign adnexal disease.
Ovarian cancer associated with pregnancy represents a rare entity. Ultrasound examination can depict tumor morphology, tumor size, papillary protrusions, and color Doppler flow (Figure 2) [3].
Primary invasive ovarian epithelial cancers. (A) Stage 1, clear cell carcinoma of the ovary. (B) Unilocular solid early invasive cancer with increased vascularity on color Doppler.
The mentioned ultrasound imaging clearly depicts the presence of color Doppler as indirect sign of malignant vascularization, presence of papillary protrusions inside the adnexal wall, and disturbance of adnexal architecture. All these ultrasound characteristics indicate the presence of ovarian cancer [4].
The use of MRI safely during second or third trimester of gestation increases, accompanied with the ultrasound imaging findings, the sensitivity and specificity of diagnosing ovarian cancer during pregnancy. Diagnostic keys during abdominal MRI can be tumor invasion or spread, lymphatic spread, disease staging, and possible metastatic lesions [5].
Classic imaging findings of adnexal malignancy consist of necrotic or solid elements inside the ovarian wall, septal thickening, or mural nodules and papillary excrescences (Figure 3) [6].
A 34-year-old pregnant woman. (A) Axial RARE T2-weighted MR image obtained at 23 weeks’ gestation shows bilateral solid adnexal masses (arrows). (B) Axial RARE T2-weighted MR image through upper abdomen shows large tumor deposit (arrow) abutting liver. Appearances are considered indicative of malignancy. Cesarean hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo oophorectomy were performed at 28 weeks’ gestation because of progression of subphrenic tumor with diaphragmatic irritation. Pathology results showed benign metastasizing leiomyoma. Masses spontaneously regressed after surgery and patient remains free of disease 3 years after surgery.
The use of tumor markers in cases of adnexal masses or cysts often accompanied with pregnancy remains a controversial entity. Due to daily physiologic and hormonal changes during pregnancy, all tumor markers are increased. Ca-125, a tumor marker capable of distinguishing a benign from a malignant adnexal mass, is often increased during pregnancy [7].
Other tumor markers, such as alpha fetoprotein (AFP) and b-HCG often increased in germ cell tumors or Inhibine B and anti-mullerein protein (AMH) often increased in granulosa-associated tumors, are equally increased during all trimesters of gestation [8].
Additionally, elevated Ca-125 levels were found in cases of acute pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Many current studies have been conducted assuming the presence of the mentioned tumor marker in the fallopian tubes [9].
Generally, tumor markers are not used as a screening test. From their point of view, they contribute indirectly toward the final diagnosis. The therapeutic mapping consists of the assiduous physical examination, the imaging findings, and the ranges of the laboratory examination. Ultimate goal remains the quality of life regarding the mother and the fetus.
According to current literature and long conductive series, the frequency of adnexal masses during pregnancy is estimated to be 1 in 81 to 1 in 2500 live births [10].
On the other side, the incidence of ovarian carcinoma in correlation to pregnancy is estimated to be 1 in 21,500 (Figure 4) [11].
Ovarian cancer classification. Source: NCCN Guidelines 2016.
The therapeutic mapping regarding the presence of ovarian carcinoma depends on the predisposition factors, such as the tumor size, tumor staging, lymphatic infiltration, tumor invasion, and presence of metastatic lesions such as liver, brain, and bone metastasis.
The ultimate goal remains the cytoreduction or better debulking. In other words, peritoneal washing, total hysterectomy, bilateral salpigoopherectomy, pelvic and paraortic lymph node dissection, inspection of all peritoneal surfaces and multiple biopsies, and finally, omentum dissection.
There are nonspecific clinical signs to primarily diagnose the existence of ovarian cancer (Figure 5).
Symptoms and clinical signs of ovarian cancer.
For advanced stages of ovarian cancer, the optimal treatment consists of combination of chemotherapy and radiotherapy (Figure 6) [12].
Chemotherapy in ovarian cancer.
The most significant issue remains the therapeutic mapping regarding the combination of ovarian cancer and pregnancy.
As we mentioned above, primary goal represents the increase of free survival rate and quality of life of the mother and fetus, respectively (Figure 7).
Relative 5-year survival for invasive epithelial ovarian cancer. Source: Wikipedia.
The incidence of ovarian cancer is increased in older pregnant women [13]. In other words, age represents a predispositional factor which influences the pregnancy outcome.
Many studies from the current literature suggested that many histologic types of ovarian cancer in pregnant women are similar to those in nonpregnant women [14]. Surgical dissection of an adnexal mass diagnosed during pregnancy remains a controversial issue. Adnexal mass with diameter larger than 6 cm, with peripheral vascularization, ascites, or persistent presence of more than 4 months, requires surgical dissection and histologic confirmation and exclusion of potential malignancy [15].
Generally, the ultimate treatment of ovarian cancer during pregnancy consists of surgical intervention with adequate staging. For advanced stages, stages with metastatic lesions, the current literature, and the standard guidelines recommend treatment similar to nonpregnant women—surgical debulking combined with series of chemotherapy or radiotherapy (Figure 8).
Types of hysterectomy. Source: Cancer.org.
As we mentioned above, the standard treatment of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC), the histologic type with the worst prognosis, consists of total hysterectomy, bilateral salpigoopherectomy, peritoneal washing, dissection of the omentum, dissection of all peritoneal implants, and most of all lymph node dissection (pelvic and paraaortic).
If all imaging findings and the laboratory report advocate of an early-stage lesion, the therapeutic mapping is focusing on unilateral oophorectomy or adnexectomy with appropriate staging. It is very important to keep in mind all conservative surgical methods focusing on the pregnancy maintenance.
In cases of advanced stages, termination of pregnancy and use of noeadjuvant chemotherapy or radiotherapy is recommended.
When series of chemotherapy are mandatory regarding advanced stages of ovarian cancer, the suitable period is during the second or third trimester, avoiding the organogenesis of first trimester, period with increased incidence of genital malformations. During these trimesters, the risk of genital malformations does not exceed the risk of general population [16].
Additionally, for patients with diagnosed ovarian cancer during pregnancy and focusing on the current guidelines platinum-based chemotherapy, combination of carboplatin with weekly paclitaxel is strongly recommended after the first trimester, representing a safe chemotherapeutic procedure [17].
Radiotherapy is recommended in advanced stages alone or in combination with series of chemotherapy. The current literature and the global guidelines strongly advise doses of radiotherapy as in nonpregnant women.
Radiotherapy is restricted in cases of dysgerminoma as an example of the most common germ cell tumor due to its radiosensitivity. The field of exposure extends from T11 to L5, with shielding of the contralateral ovary and the femur head [18].
Therapeutic mapping of ovarian cancer during pregnancy remains a controversial issue. Many studies have been conducted in order to establish safe guidelines of treatment with the ultimate goal of increasing free survival and quality of life of the mother and the fetus. Primary diagnosis, multidisciplinary cooperation, assiduous imaging findings, and laboratory examinations assure proper treatment.
The author declares no financial interest with respect to this manuscript.
In 1895, German physicist Wilhelm C. Roentgen accidentally noticed that a cathode-ray tube could make a sheet of paper coated with barium platinocyanide glow [1, 2]. This effect was even while the tube and the paper were in separate rooms. Roentgen decided that the tube must be emitting some sort of penetrating rays, which he named them
The history of computed tomography (CT) scan has been around for almost 50 years. It was created by British engineer Godfrey Hounsfield of EMI Laboratories in 1972 [35], Figure 1. He co-invented the technology with physicist Dr. Allan Cormack. CT uses a computer algorithm to reconstruct an image from the intensity projections collected by detectors for all angles of rotation of both X-ray source and the detectors around the target; such an image is called a slice. Next slice is obtained after moving the target a step inside the gantry and repeating the rotation, collection, and reconstruct. This made it possible to detect diseases at the earliest stages. At the same time, the radiation load is minimal. Important advantages of CT scan are as follows: the possibility of obtaining three-dimensional images of internal organs, the speed of the performing, comfort of the patient. CT scan has been used for investigating and screening many organs and for different diseases [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Moreover, it could be used for brain imaging. For a CT scan slice, detectors acquire data versus rational angles, and the slice image is reconstructed by backprojection and filtered backprojection algorithms [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. This chapter highlights instrumentation aspects and medical applications of conventional and CT scan X-ray technology.
Sir Godfrey Hounsfield with the first commercial CT scanner:
Thus,
The energy of each photon is determined according to the plank’s equation:
where
Non-digital imaging
Bremsstrahlung (brake spectrum) of tungsten.
When a human body is exposure to
In digital X-ray imaging, instead of using an
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) or amorphous selenium (a-Se) is used to generate positive charges proportional to X-ray intensity [10, 55, 56, 57]. These positive charges are stored in capacitors until they are readout. The capacitor charge corresponding to each pixel is read using a thin flat transistor (TFT) and is converted to voltage, using a charge-to-voltage amplifier. Figure 4 shows a single detector for one pixel. A matrix consisting of many single detectors can be fabricated similar to the one used in CCD (charge-coupled display).
Direct digital X-ray image capture. One pixel in a cross section of a linear array, all pixels in the array are similar. The readout control selects the pixel being readout. In a planar array, two readout controls are used for selecting the row and the column of the readout pixel. Advances in semiconductor electronics made it possible to fabricate a matrix of such single detector [
In this technique, the
Indirect digital X-ray image capture. One pixel in a cross section of a linear array, all pixels in the array or matrix are similar. The readout control signal selects the column and row of the pixel being readout.
In conventional
An illustrative sectional diagram of a CT scan machine.
Computed tomography consists of two main steps. The first one is the acquisition of
In Figure 7, an
An intensity function
where
Notice that this logarithmic operation is implemented naturally by different detectors. Thus, the detected value
Also Eq. (4) can be written as
where
It is obvious that due to the integration of the absorption coefficients of all voxels on the line
A backprojection computer simulation example: (a), an intensity function
An intensity function
From Figure 9, we can observe that the linear projection on a detector on the arc is parameterized by the detector angle
where
Figure 11(a) shows a computer simulation scenario for
Backprojection aims at reconstructing an image representing an approximation of the absorption coefficient of each voxel since the true invers is not possible. In linear bean, this backprojection is given by
However, in fan beam, the projection is given by
Frequencies gain of three one-dimensional filters used with backprojection; (a) ramp filter; (b) low-pass filter generated by as a Hanning window; and (c), the multiplication of both filters in the frequency domain normalized to a maximum unity. The filter in (c) is sued for filtering
This implies that in both linear and fan beam projections, each (
A backprojection computer simulation example in fan beam-
Conventional
Chest X-ray image. Top row, normal; bottom row, bacterial pneumonia. From
Chest X-ray image. Top row, normal; bottom row, from left-to-right, COVID-19, bacterial pneumonia, and tuberculosis. From
Low radiation load, high resolution, and fast procedure make the CT scan one of the main diagnostic tools and for different health problems. We are just interested in mentioning few CT scan application examples. CT scan could be used for detecting and screening lung carcinoma as shown in Figure 14. In COVID-19, CT scan has played an important role for lung instigation COVID-19-induced pneumonia. This pneumonia manifests as itself as bright spots in the image since it absorbs more X-ray energy. Figure 15 shows in the top row non-COVID CT scan images while in the bottom one shows COVID-19 images. CT scan also is convenient imaging tool for the brain in trauma and normal clinical routine. Figure 16 shows brain images with hemorrhage in the top row while in the bottom one shows the segmentation for detecting the hemorrhage region. Also, CT scan has been used for the investigation of spinal cord and vertebral column.
Chest CT scan slices: Most left, Normal; middle, adenocarcinoma and Most right, carcinoma. From
Chest CT scan slices: Top row, non-COVID, bottom row, COVID. From
Brain CT scan: Top row, brain image with intracranial Hemorrhage; bottom row, the segmentation of the image to detect the intracranial Hemorrhage region. From
CT scanner has been one of the main diagnostic imaging tools in the medical field. It provides multi two-dimensional slices in the axial plane for abdomen, chest, brain, vertebral column, and spinal cord. It employs low dose of X-ray. It also takes a reasonable time to get CT scan procedure done. More work may be needed to develop CT scan technology affordable for the development countries. Appreciated research efforts are going on to mining and processing the images provided by the CT scanner to develop computer algorithms that can help in improving diagnostic accuracy. These include developing different algorithms in machine learning, image processing, statistical analysis, multi resolution analysis, fast filtered backprojection. Image processing includes noise reduction and image enhancement, features extraction, morphology analysis, image segmentation. Deep learning aims at answering a question of if disease or not disease, e.g., benign tumor or carcinoma one, COVID or non-COVID, based on the given image. In backprojection research, the objective is to develop fast and supper resolution backprojection algorithms and to employ compressive sensing for image reconstruction.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"58010",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72304",title:"Fourth Industrial Revolution: Current Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities",slug:"fourth-industrial-revolution-current-practices-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:6371,totalCrossrefCites:42,totalDimensionsCites:68,abstract:"The globalization and the competitiveness are forcing companies to rethink and to innovate their production processes following the so-called Industry 4.0 paradigm. It represents the integration of tools already used in the past (big data, cloud, robot, 3D printing, simulation, etc.) that are now connected into a global network by transmitting digital data. The implementation of this new paradigm represents a huge change for companies, which are faced with big investments. In order to benefit from the opportunities offered by the smart revolution, companies must have the prerequisites needed to withstand changes generated by “smart” system. In addition, new workers who face the world of work 4.0 must have new skills in automation, digitization, and information technology, without forgetting soft skills. This chapter aims to present the main good practices, challenges, and opportunities related to Industry 4.0 paradigm.",book:{id:"6291",slug:"digital-transformation-in-smart-manufacturing",title:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing"},signatures:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Raffaele Cioffi and Federico\nZomparelli",authors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"},{id:"205141",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Zomparelli",slug:"federico-zomparelli",fullName:"Federico Zomparelli"},{id:"208748",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Cioffi",slug:"raffaele-cioffi",fullName:"Raffaele Cioffi"}]},{id:"40977",doi:"10.5772/53885",title:"The Emergence of Scientific Reasoning",slug:"the-emergence-of-scientific-reasoning",totalDownloads:4520,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"654",slug:"current-topics-in-children-s-learning-and-cognition",title:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition"},signatures:"Bradley J. 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Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:null,title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:null},{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27589,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2294,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82382",title:"A Cultural Approach in the Synchronous Class in English Teaching and Learning",slug:"a-cultural-approach-in-the-synchronous-class-in-english-teaching-and-learning",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105553",abstract:"If culture is defined as a way of training to obtain knowledge through educational channels, the concept is associated with educability. Therefore, teaching cognitive, attitudinal, and procedural knowledge directly indicates teaching and learning culture to acquire norms and patterns of sociocultural behavior. The purpose of this study was: to debate about the way interaction among students and teachers in synchronous classes based on life’s materials, topics, and methods, and critical or reflective thinking can be adapted by the teacher to the students’ closest environment to communicate in English as an international language. If a language is taught, spoken, and learned in the country, culture surrounding the context is taught. If this language is not spoken in the place, the knowledge system also transmits norms and values, different from those of the language. So, the students get, culturally and socially, modes of action, principles, and knowledge through international language learning. Thus, teaching and learning English as an international language means the way possible interaction has opportunities for every student’s growth and the way their personality formation gets integral results. English taught and learned as an international language denotes reaching the students’ world and needs to communicate in English as a meaningful international language.",book:{id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy - Challenges, Recent Advances, New Perspectives, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg"},signatures:"Ned Vito Quevedo Arnaiz, Nemis García Arias and Fredy Pablo Cañizares Galarza"},{id:"82470",title:"The Effect of COVID-19 on the Quality of Life of Care Workers: Challenges for Social Services Leaders",slug:"the-effect-of-covid-19-on-the-quality-of-life-of-care-workers-challenges-for-social-services-leaders",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105603",abstract:"Stressful situations are likely to impact health and social care workers’ quality of life negatively. Indeed, mental, physical, and emotional health problems have been reported in relation to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the quality of life of health care workers. Instead of health care workers’ reality, and despite the care sector’s relevance, studies of the effects of COVID-19 on the quality of life of care workers have not been sufficiently explored. Recognizing the effect of COVID on the quality of life of care workers will collaborate with leaders of organizations, social work practitioners, and academics in the design of policies that promote better working conditions. Therefore, during 2021, a study was carried out in Chile where 150 social services and care workers were surveyed in Chile using a version of COV19-QoL in Spanish. The impact of COVID on quality of life is described, and the challenges that this reality implies to social service leaders are presented.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Magdalena Calderón-Orellana, Alejandra Inostroza and Paula Miranda Sánchez"},{id:"82448",title:"Virus World Vulnerability: A Critical Reading of Gender and Performance in Bo Burnham’s “Inside” (2021)",slug:"virus-world-vulnerability-a-critical-reading-of-gender-and-performance-in-bo-burnham-s-inside-2021",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105182",abstract:"Through an engagement with the seminal work of Raewyn Connell on masculinities and hegemonic masculinity, this chapter argues for the hegemonic norm as producing behaviour among men that can be traced in multiple male subjectivities. The argument is that men respond to the prevailing masculine norm by enacting self-protective disavowal—a complex psychological process that involves the reordering of reality in the interests of the maintenance of power, and one that is seen in cases of both legitimate and imagined threats to the self and the body. Self-protective disavowal is at the core of the Same Shit phenomenon—the idea that while the experience of masculinity varies across culture and position in the gender order, self-protective disavowal is a constant that leads to predicable patterns among men. The discussion then explores deliberate vulnerability as a kind of anti-protective disavowal in Bo Burnham’s INSIDE, a complex, undefinable ‘special’ released on Netflix in 2021. The chapter considers Burnham’s work as a departure from self-protective disavowal and Same Shit masculinity through deliberate vulnerability and critically evaluates the value of this alternative, especially given the nihilism that reigns over the work and calls into question the validity of uncritically romanticization of alternatives.",book:{id:"10540",title:"Masculinity Studies - An Interdisciplinary Approach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10540.jpg"},signatures:"Chris McWade"},{id:"82454",title:"Prospects and Pitfalls Experienced by Social Workers Working in a Confounding Environment in a South African Setting",slug:"prospects-and-pitfalls-experienced-by-social-workers-working-in-a-confounding-environment-in-a-south",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105604",abstract:"While social workers are professionally and aptly placed to facilitate a turn-around environment rife with a conglomeration of challenges such as poverty, ignorance, and diseases, the chapter discusses the developmental prospects and pitfalls that confound their practice in South Africa. Opportunely, social work interventions continue to gain developmental mileage through increased training of social workers, their increased deployment in various versatile domains of social and economic development and increased widening of the scope of social work research, especially current research in fields such as HIV/AIDS and coronavirus. On the other side of the coin, the chapter discusses social work pitfalls attributed to professional curricular gaps as social work continue to follow a western-centric curriculum; the presence of various metaphysical beliefs and myths that weaken or derail social work interventions and a weaker research environment to offer a plausible and timely solution to the prevalent problems. The chapter concludes by calling for a paradigm shift in the social work curriculum as well as its indigenization to productively respond to the South African socio-cultural and geographical milieu.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Simon Murote Kang’ethe"},{id:"82425",title:"Financial Reporting and Analysis of Tesla Green Technology in the United States Market",slug:"financial-reporting-and-analysis-of-tesla-green-technology-in-the-united-states-market",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105065",abstract:"This study aims to discuss and analyze the financial position and performance of the US Tesla green technology company in the United States. This study uses a case study approach, financial data, and website methodologies to collect and analyze the research data. The case study is Tesla, Inc., which is a US electric vehicle and clean energy company based in Austin, Texas. Tesla is a green technology company that produces and designs electric cars, battery energy storage from home to grid-scale, solar roof tiles and solar panels, and related products and services. Tesla is growing fastly by introducing new green products, and it is now one of the world’s most valuable enterprises. It has a high market capitalization of almost US$1 trillion to become the world’s most valuable automaker. This study concludes that Tesla has changed their strategy to become the most worldwide sales of purely battery electric vehicles, capturing 23% of the market and 16% of the plug-in electric battery in the market for 2020. It has also developed a significant installer of photovoltaic systems through its subsidiary Tesla Energy in the United States. One of the largest global battery energy-storage systems suppliers is Tesla Energy, with 3.99 gigawatt-hours installed in 2021.",book:{id:"11251",title:"Banking and Accounting",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg"},signatures:"Nizar Mohammad Alsharari"},{id:"82427",title:"Our Globalization Era among Success, Obstacles and Doubts",slug:"our-globalization-era-among-success-obstacles-and-doubts",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105545",abstract:"In the last decades, the never-ending and unlimited expanding of both international economies and operations became globalization. Among its main features, one could recall the enormous increase of world macro-economic quantities (Gross World Product, Inter-continental Trade, FDI), as well as financial values (public debts and currency printing). The chapter tries to quantify them, by a statistical analysis of historical data (Section 1). Section 2 is dedicated to the strategic problems of firms, in particular the threats and opportunities for (inter) national firms willing to become global, and obstacles are included in Section 3. This given, it deals with the behavior of countries from the political and juridical points of view, and those ones passed form initial perplexities, distaste, or even hostility to a favorable behavior. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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