Summary of current and future treatment targets and the potential drugs for idiopathic nephrotic syndrome.
\r\n\tA quark exhibits confinement, which means that the quarks are not observed independently but always in combination with other quarks. This makes determining the properties (mass, spin, and parity) impossible to measure directly; these traits must be inferred from the particles composed of them. There are six flavors of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. The flavor of the quark determines its properties.
\r\n\tThere are three generations of quarks, based on pairs of weak positive/negative, weak isospin. The first generation quarks are up and down quarks, the second-generation quarks are strange and charm quarks, the third generation quarks are top and bottom quarks. The up and down quarks make up protons and neutrons, seen in the nucleus of ordinary matter. They are the lightest and most stable. The heavier quarks are produced in high-energy collisions and rapidly decay into up and down quarks.
\r\n\tThe baryons and mesons known at the time fell into symmetric families of multiplets (octuplets, decuplets) sharing two identical quantum numbers (spin and parity), but differing in an ordered way in others (mass, charge, baryon number and strangeness). The mathematical group to fit this complex situation-SU3, the symmetric, unitary group of dimension 3-was proposed independently by Gell-Mann and Ne'eman. The validity of SU3 was demonstrated by the experiment. A major prediction was that a particle (the omega-minus), an isotopic singlet with spin = 3/2, positive parity, mass of roughly 1,680 MeV, negative charge, baryon number +1, strangeness = -3, and stable to strong decay, should exist to complete the 3/2+ baryon decuplet. It was therefore a major triumph for the scheme when the omega-minus, a baryon with the precise mass, charge, and strangeness predicted, was discovered in 1964. All these facts introduced a quark idea fully into modern physics.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-313-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-312-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-314-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d9403b5c874f6e63b0686cd7c432e00",bookSignature:"Prof. Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10205.jpg",keywords:"Chiral Symmetries, Weak Interactions, Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay, Deep Inelastic Scattering, Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), Color Confinement, Quarks Mixing, Cabibbo Angle, Kobayashi-Maskawa Matrix, Quarks Multiplets, CP-Nonconservation, Neutrino Oscillation",numberOfDownloads:56,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 8th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"The designer of the 2nd level trigger for the fluorescence detector and the designer of the 1st level trigger and the Front-End Boards for the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"67836",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Szadkowski",slug:"zbigniew-piotr-szadkowski",fullName:"Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67836/images/system/67836.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Szadkowski completed his Ph.D. with a thesis 'Quarks mixing in chiral symmetries SU4 x SU4 and SU6 x SU6”. Habilitation: „Triggers in the Pierre Auger Observatory: Designs, Implementation and the Impact on the Experimental Results”.\r\nDevelopment of the FPGA-based 2nd level trigger for 24 fluorescence detectors and 1st level trigger for 1660 surface detectors of the Pierre Auger Observatory, FPGA based filters suppressing radio-frequency interferences (RFI) in radio detector of Auger Engineering Radio Array, FPGA based triggers for the Auger surface detectors dedicated for a recognition of very inclined EAS induced by 'old” proton showers or 'young” neutrino showers.\r\nDr. Szadkowski has worked as a research scientist in Michigan Technological University, Associate Professor in College de France, Senior Wissenschaftler, Bergische Universität Wuppertal, and currently is working as the head of the Department of High-Energy Astrophysics and as an Associate Professor at the University of Łódź.",institutionString:"University of Łódź",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Łódź",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:[{id:"73971",title:"The Inter-Nucleon Up-to-Down Quark Bond and its Implications for Nuclear Binding",slug:"the-inter-nucleon-up-to-down-quark-bond-and-its-implications-for-nuclear-binding",totalDownloads:56,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6768",title:"Cosmic Rays",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1578350f18d0bc3abfbcf62278630739",slug:"cosmic-rays",bookSignature:"Zbigniew Szadkowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6768.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67836",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew Piotr",surname:"Szadkowski",slug:"zbigniew-piotr-szadkowski",fullName:"Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66750",title:"Childhood Idiopathic Nephrotic Syndrome as a Podocytopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85994",slug:"childhood-idiopathic-nephrotic-syndrome-as-a-podocytopathy",body:'\nNephrotic syndrome is the commonest manifestation of glomerular disease which is characterized by massive proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, generalized edema, and hyperlipidemia [1]. In children, primary or idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS) may be caused by any of these glomerulonephritides: minimal change nephropathy (MCN), focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN), mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis (MesPGN), and membranous nephropathy (MN). MCN appears to be the most common histopathologic type, followed by FSGS and MPGN in that order [2, 3, 4]. However, recent reports from different parts of the world suggest a change in the pattern of the predominant histopathologic types in childhood INS. For instance, there has been a rise in the prevalence rates of FSGS documented among children in the West African subregion [5, 6, 7]. This trend also applies to MPGN [8], a histological subtype hitherto thought to be more common in adult patients.
\nIn the pathogenesis of INS, there is now a paradigm shift from the concept of an immune-dysregulated disease of the glomerular basement membrane to that of a podocytopathy [9, 10]. In fact, it is now assumed that podocyte abnormalities account for all forms of nephrotic syndrome. Basically, the podocyte is involved in maintaining the structural integrity of the glomerular filtration barrier. Thus, podocyte injury and loss result in significant proteinuria as well as progressive glomerulosclerosis [11]. Podocytopathy can occur in immunologic and non-immunologic diseases of the kidney. Acquired podocytopathies such as MCN and FSGS are considered to have immunologic basis [12]. Interestingly, immunosuppressive therapy has been noted to directly affect the podocyte through the regulation of interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13) and several signaling pathways involved with the stabilization of the actin cytoskeleton and the distribution of the slit diaphragm components [11]. This book chapter aims to discuss the mechanisms underpinning the pathogenesis of childhood INS as a podocytopathy.
\nThe glomerular filtration barrier is essentially a trilaminate structure which consists of the podocyte on the outer surface, the glomerular basement membrane (GBM) in the middle, and the fenestrated endothelium on the inner surface (Figure 1). The podocyte (also known as the visceral glomerular epithelial cell) constitutes the last barrier to protein loss, given its unique structure and location as a terminally differentiated cell which lines the outer surface of the GBM. Each podocyte comprises the foot processes which are separated by a filtration slit (or the slit diaphragm). The foot process comprises components such as actin, myosin-II, α-actinin-4, talin, and vinculin which all constitute a contractile structure [13]. The filament bundles which make up actin are disposed together as arches between contiguous podocyte foot processes [14] and are connected to the GBM at specific points through an adhesion molecule (α-3β-1 integrin complex) [15, 16]. Similarly, the linkage of the podocyte foot processes to the GBM is made possible through both α-3β-1 integrin and dystroglycans [17]. Adjacent foot processes are linked by the slit diaphragm, which forms the main size-selective filter barrier in the glomerular architecture [18, 19]. The filtration slit is composed of multiple protein molecules such as nephrin, P-cadherin, CD2AP, ZO-1, FAT, podocin, and possibly Neph1 [20, 21, 22]. In addition, synaptopodin is closely related to the actin filaments located within the podocyte foot processes [23] and interacts with the tight junction protein, MAGI-1, in the same way as α-actinin-4 MAGI-1 being expressed in podocytes as well [24]. The functional integrity of the podocytes depends on the actin cytoskeleton. This is critical in preserving the intact glomerular filtration barrier, as a healthy podocyte is essential for the maintenance of this barrier.
\nSchematic representation of the molecular structure of the glomerular filtration barrier (Courtesy: Flickr photos).
Among the fundamental biologic events in INS, a molecular disruption of the filtration slit or GBM results in proteinuria, while rearrangement of podocyte cytoskeleton accounts for foot process effacement. In fact, the basic role played by the podocyte actin cytoskeleton (the skeletal structure of the foot processes) in the pathogenesis of INS is predicated on the disruption of actin-related proteins with the GBM, resulting in effacement of the podocyte foot processes [25]. Still at the molecular level, focal adhesion kinase (FAK) plays an essential role in this foot process effacement, usually observed in podocytopathies [26]. Furthermore, alterations in podocyte proteins such as nephrin and Neph1 (nephrin homologue), CD2-associated protein (CD2AP), and podocin all contribute to the pathogenesis of INS as podocytopathies [27, 28, 29]. Nephrin represents an essential constituent of the slit diaphragm and also serves as an efficient mobilizer of other proteins such as podocin and CD2AP (Figure 1) [30]. It has been proposed that a vital interaction exists between the actin cytoskeleton and the molecules that make up the filtration slit such as podocin, nephrin, and CD2AP [31, 32]. Thus, nephrotic-range proteinuria occurs as a result of structural disruptions in the podocytes which present as foot process effacement, as well as changes in the actin cytoskeleton and molecular alteration of the filtration slit [33]. Again, the component molecules of the actin cytoskeleton include actin, α-actinin, and synaptopodin [34, 35]. Interestingly, the upregulation of α-actinin results in the reorganization of the cytoskeleton in some nephrotic syndromes [36], while the expression of synaptopodin is generally preserved in MCN, but diminished in FSGS [37]. Podocalyxin is a molecule presumed to mediate the stability of the foot processes [38] and has also been found to be raised in nephrotic syndromes [39]. Finally, the fundamental role of adhesion molecules such as integrins and focal adhesion proteins has been shown in genetically based animal experiments which end up in nephrotic syndrome [40, 41]. Specifically, α3β1 (the main integrin heterodimer in the podocyte), when destroyed in the podocytes of experimental mice, gave rise to nephrotic-range proteinuria and foot process effacement. In addition, αvβ3 integrin (also expressed in podocytes) can be activated by uroplasminogen type I activator receptor (uPAR) (in podocytes) [42] or its soluble form, suPAR (from the circulation) [43]. Its activation notably leads to foot process effacement through the rearrangement of the podocyte actin cytoskeleton: a characteristic event in podocytopathy [44].
\nInterventions targeting molecular pathways which regulate the actin cytoskeleton can potentially play an important role in the treatment of proteinuric kidney diseases, such as nephrotic syndrome. There are three major molecular frameworks which modulate the actin cytoskeleton and prevent podocyte detachment from GBM, namely, Rho-GTPases, cell-matrix adhesion proteins, and endocytic proteins. For instance, the podocyte-expressed RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42 regulate signal transduction pathways which affect many aspects of cell behavior, including alterations in the actin cytoskeleton [45, 46]. The regulatory ability of these protein molecules on the actin cytoskeleton points to their fundamental role in the pathogenesis of nephrotic syndrome and as possible treatment targets [25]. For instance, the inhibition of RhoA and Rac1 could potentially reduce proteinuria and optimize renal function and ameliorate glomerulopathy [47, 48, 49, 50], given that elevated RhoA activity has been noted to induce foot process effacement and subsequent proteinuria [51].
\nFurthermore, blocking αvβ3 integrin with an anti-β3 antibody or cilengitide (the small molecule inhibitor) was noted to have ameliorated uPAR-induced proteinuria, underscoring the importance of this integrin as another potential therapeutic target [42, 43]. Also, targeted pharmacologic inhibition of integrin α2β1 in murine models also reduced proteinuria [52], while inhibition of major focal adhesion proteins, such as FAK and Crk1/Crk2, reduced both podocyte foot process effacement and proteinuria [26, 53]. In addition, one important therapeutic target in proteinuria is the regulating activation of integrin β1 via abatacept (CTLA-4-Ig) or integrin αv inhibitor, cilengitide, or integrin α2β1 [42, 43, 52, 54].
\nThe link between transient receptor potential cation channels (TRPCs) and the actin cytoskeleton has also been well reported [25]. TRPCs are nonselective cationic channels with affinity for calcium ions, which contribute significantly in the pathogenesis of renal and cardiovascular diseases [55]. In podocytes, many TRPCs are reportedly expressed, namely, TRPC1, TRPC3, TRPC4, TRPC5, and TRPC6 [56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. A striking therapeutic application is the ability of TRPC5 inhibitor (ML204) to protect against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced proteinuria, as well as protamine sulfate- and LPS-triggered foot process effacement [61].
\nRegarding the supportive function of synaptopodin on the actin cytoskeleton, this protein molecule not only constitutes a linkage to the actin cytoskeleton but remains vital for stress fiber synthesis in podocytes [62, 63]. Despite the previously presumed usefulness of calcineurin inhibitors, like cyclosporine A (CsA) and FK506 in the treatment of INS given their immunosuppressive effects on T cells, the mediatory role of calcineurin on synaptopodin degradation via induction of protease cathepsin L is well established; interestingly, CsA shields synaptopodin from cathepsin L-mediated breakdown, thereby maintaining the integrity of the actin cytoskeleton [64].
\nFinally, the regulatory activity of endocytic proteins in the actin cytoskeleton is confirmed by recent findings of possible therapeutic benefits of Bis-T-23-induced dynamin oligomerization and actin polymerization for nephrotic syndrome [65]. In fact, some researchers have shown that the GTPase dynamin is important for podocyte physiology [66]. In proteinuric kidney disease, induction of cytoplasmic cathepsin L results in degradation of dynamin, ending up with disruption of the actin cytoskeleton and proteinuria. Again, the modulating effect of dynamin on the actin cytoskeleton is related to the stabilization of the glomerulus. Thus, based on the beneficial activity of Bis-T-23 to kidney health in various models of chronic kidney disease (CKD) through the formation of actin-dependent oligomers of dynamin and polymers of actin, dynamin has been regarded as a possible therapeutic target for the management of CKD [67]. Better still, the recognition of dynamin as one of the vital and autonomous regulators of focal adhesion maturation suggests a molecular mechanism which underpins the beneficial effect of Bis-T-23 on podocyte physiology [67]. The efficacy of some of the therapeutic agents currently used in clinical practice and in experimental animal models is summarized in Table 1.
\nPotential pharmacologic agents | \nTreatment targets in podocytopathy | \nIndications | \nEfficacy | \nSide effects | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Cyclosporine A† (a major calcineurin inhibitor. Another example is FK 506) | \nDownregulation of synaptopodin | \nClinical use in SRNS and in renal transplantation | \nInduces remission in SRNS | \nMajor side effects in humans: tremors, hypertension, nephrotoxicity, hirsutism, and gum hypertrophy | \n
Inhibitors of small Rho-GTPases‡ | \nSmall Rho-GTPases (Rho A, Rac 1) | \nStill under trial (nephrotic syndrome) | \n– | \n– | \n
Cilengitide/anti-β3 antibody* | \nBlockage of αvβ3 integrin | \nStill under trial (nephrotic syndrome) Clinical use in glioblastoma | \n– | \n– | \n
Abatacept | \nModulating activation of integrin β1 | \nStill under trial/clinical use in FSGS | \n– | \n– | \n
Inhibitors of TRPC 5** | \nTRPC 5 | \nStill under trial | \n– | \n– | \n
Bis-T-23 | \nDynamin oligomerization and actin polymerization | \nStill under trial l (proteinuric kidney diseases, CKD) | \n– | \n– | \n
Summary of current and future treatment targets and the potential drugs for idiopathic nephrotic syndrome.
Protects synaptopodin from cathepsin L-mediated degradation (stabilizes actin cytoskeleton).
Potentially ameliorates proteinuria.
Reduces uroplasminogen type 1 activator receptor-induced proteinuria/also inhibits angiogenesis.
Protects against liposaccharide-induced proteinuria and foot process effacement (adapted from Ref. [68]).
SRNS, steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome; CKD, chronic kidney disease; FK 506, nitrogen mustard and tacrolimus; FSGS, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis; TRPC, transient receptor potential cation channel
Significant progress has now been made in unraveling the complex molecular mechanisms and pathways responsible for maintaining podocyte health and thus the structural and functional integrity of the glomerular filtration barrier. Podocyte injury is now believed to be the basic pathology in childhood INS. As a podocytopathy, disruption of the podocyte architecture eventually results in the massive proteinuria seen in the syndrome. Consequently, several novel therapeutic targets have been proposed and successfully demonstrated, raising hopes for novel pharmacologic agents which could be useful in treating the disorder.
\nSunflower oil production is rapidly emerging in Russia, Ukraine, Turkey, and other countries, filling an important niche of locally supplied protein and fat sources. Sunflower seeds are becoming of outmost importance to fulfill the requirements for safe products and find efficient ways to reduce potential chemical and technological hazards. Current methods of sunflower seed processing rely on well-developed and established food industry thermal treatment (roasting, drying, heating, and cooling), mechanical treatment (cleaning, flaking, grinding, and pressing), and fractionation methods (extraction, sedimentation, separation, centrifugation, etc.) [1, 2, 3, 4]. Application of novel emerging processing technologies, which potentially can improve processing efficiency and quality of the products to the sunflower seeds, is rather limited.
\nDevelopment of a novel scientific direction should be based on an active implementation of green technologies [5]. Green technologies include methods that enhance the efficiency of extraction of target components (oils, fats, phospholipids, polyphenols, pigments, etc.) from plant materials and can improve the traditional processing technology or combine traditional technology with novel emerging technologies [5].
\nSunflower oil is a high-calorie product that is widely used in its natural form for food, canning, and cosmetic production purposes [6]. Sunflower oil is attracting increasing attention as a source of renewable raw materials for chemical and energy industries. The range of its use for chemical purposes is extremely wide—from use as a starting material for chemical synthesis to use as lubricants. Sunflower oil is more environmentally friendly: it decomposes after 7 days by 95%, whereas mineral oil decomposes only by 15–17%. As a biodiesel fuel, sunflower oil can partially replace natural oil reserves, reducing CO2 emission [7]. Sunflower is one of the main crops used for biofuel production. An additional raw material during sunflower processing is sunflower husk, which is actively introduced as fuel pellets in alternative energy [8, 9].
\nRecently some promising emerging technologies of electrical treatment such as pulsed electric field (PEF) and high-voltage electrical discharges (HVED) for oil production were reported by several authors [10, 11]. As a novel industry-scale technology, pulsed electric field has already been mentioned as an innovative solution for electroporation of oil cells [12,13] during extraction process. Permeabilization of the oil cell membrane can be increased due to rectangular bipolar or monopolar electrical pulses (millisecond or even microsecond pulse width). During volumetric PEF treatment, micro- and nano-pores are formed [14]. Such gentle treatment with low-temperature effects is quite important for heat-sensitive and organic materials. For oilseeds this technology forms an intercellular component film on the surface of treated materials due to electroporation [15]. This effect is studied by our research group and has great potential in oil extraction process.
\nTo release the oil from the solid seed matrix, at a preparation stage, flaking, crushing, and roasting are used. According to [16] more than 40% sunflower spherosomes remain undestroyed after crushing and roasting. This limits a residual oil yield in sunflower meal. PEF or PED pretreatment assists in releasing the oil from lipo-vacuoles of mesocarp cells that have not been disrupted. Depending on process conditions (possibility of soaking or wetting of treating mass), PEF or PED treatment is preferred.
\nIn order to expand the scope of application of PED and PEF treatments on an industrial scale, a clear understanding of the changes in the internal material structure, rheological behavior, processing efficiency, and extraction kinetics is necessary.
\nAs a novel technology, pulsed electrical discharge (PED) treatment has already been mentioned as innovative solution for electroporation of oil cells [10, 11, 15] during extraction process. The oil cell membrane can be charged sufficiently using monopolar electrical pulses (millisecond or even microsecond pulse width) to cause the rapid dielectric breakdown of material tissue under focused discharge energy. The main result of PED treatment is micro- and nano-channel formation [17] with low-temperature effects, which is quite important for heat-sensitive materials. For oilseeds this technology forms an intercellular oil film on the surface of treated materials due to electroporation [15]. This effect is studied by our research group and has great potential in oil extraction process.
\nPilot-scale PED treatment set-up is described in Figure 1a. Pulsed electrical discharges were distributed to the treating mass in a filamentary glow discharge mode. Treatment chamber was in a point-plane electrode configuration. A stainless steel sphere (10 mm in diameter) was connected to a permanent magnet to focus discharges. Top and bottom electrodes were placed in a dielectric holder. The electrode gap was set as 15 mm. Treatment chamber was set on positioning platform with two stepper motors. Sunflower mass treatment trajectory was controlled by the authors’ software in accordance with Figure 1b. Immediately after PED treatment, sunflower mass was transfer for pressing step.
\nExperimental set-up used to generate pulsed electrical discharges in air (a), schematic visualization of treatment trajectory in a treatment cell (b), and visualization of a treatment process (c) (adopted from [18]).
In Advanced Technologies Lab (Krasnodar, Russia), PED treatment was performed using the Matsusada power high-voltage system in combination with high-voltage amplifier [18]. In the set-up used in these experiments, the pulse or discharge duration was of 10 μs, and the frequency was 30 Hz. Each pulse or discharge applied provides a voltage of 30 kV. Specific input energy ranged from 10.0 J/kg up to 1.0 kJ/kg (Figure 1c).
\nThe nature of the applied discharge in the treatment is shown in Figure 1. The high-voltage discharge oscillogram (Figure 2) is shown as two signals (purple and yellow). The yellow line characterizes the input signal coming to the amplifier and has distortion on the increasing front of the forward-angle pulse. The purple signal characterizes the output discharge on the electrodes. In this case, the microprobe on the falling edge of the rectangular signal in the form of repeated exponential pulses is clearly visible. These pulses characterize the presence of a breakdown in the air, visually observed during the experiment.
\nWaveform of the input signal coming to the amplifier (yellow) and the output high-voltage signal coming to the electrodes (purple).
Crushing and roasting are industrial technological steps assisting to release the oil from solid seed matrix, but not totally. To analyze the effect of PED treatment, treated sample was covered with gold and analyzed on FESEM. When analyzing the micrographs of the seed cake surface after roasting and PED treatment, an oil film (F) is clearly visible, and electrical holes (H), expressed in the form of convex craters, less than 2 microns in size are noticeable (Figure 3c). PED pretreatment assists in releasing the oil from lipo-vacuoles of mesocarp cells that have not been disrupted. After sunflower seed cake roasting operation (110°C), globules of oil (O) are clearly visible in the dark and light areas, as well as an oil film (F), expressed in the form of light homogeneous areas (Figure 3b). FESEM images of PED-treated sunflower seed cake are shown in Figure 3. The oil cell membrane (M) is presented in the form of looped light fibers surrounding the oil cell (Figure 3a,b). At rest the pulp there is a loose coagulation structure. The adhesion between the dispersed particles occurs mainly due to the free oil released as a result of roasting process. Thus, the contacting particles of the seed cake form a skeleton in a fixed oily film, adhered to the walls of the screw channel.
\nSEM image of initial (a) and heat moisture-treated sunflower seed cake (b) and FESEM image of heat moisture-treated plus PED-treated sunflower seed cake at x250 and x600 magnification (adopted from [18]).
Studying the pulsed electrical discharge effect on rheological behavior of sunflower seed cake can help to advance work and to develop projects for their industrial application. Few authors reported positive effects on rheological properties on some oil crops [19, 20]. Positive effects of electric discharges on rheological behavior of material with high viscosity are reported by several authors [21, 22]. It means that electrical treatment process can modify internal seed structure, increase the amount of destroyed spherosomes, and change rheological parameters of seed cake.
\nStructurally sunflower seed cake is a complicated dispersed system consisting of dispersed phase bubbles, oil globules with husk droplets, and dispersed medium as a protein shell (Figure 3). Such dispersed systems usually are non-Newtonian and characterized by complex rheological behavior.
\nEach individual pulsed discharge develops according to filamentary glow discharge mechanism. With a large surface resistance of the dielectric material (sunflower cake), a charge is created on its surface, created both during the charge drift from the discharge zone of the gas gap and as a result of the surface discharge. Electrical discharges penetrate the sunflower seed mass causing the crater appearance in a treatment zone. As a focused electrical discharge, energy forms a channel and damages cell membranes.
\nWhen analyzing SEM images and considering the supplied pulse, discrete traces of surface discharges can be noted. The size of the craters remaining on the test material averages 3–10 μm (Figure 3c). It is important to note that for discharge with a “positive” voltage, they do not merge with each other, which indicates the same sign of the electric charge distributed over their body.
\nConsidering the duration of the development of plasma-chemical processes, the speed of ions in an electric field, and the diffusion of chemically active compounds, the processing time of the material was determined to be minimal in terms of product quality. The maximum number of destroyed cell membranes and the maximum release of free oil to the surface were observed when exposed to a maximum number of pulses.
\nUsing a modified rotational viscometer Fungilab One Pro (Fungilab, Spain) for sunflower mass, an apparent viscosity via shear rate dependence was obtained. Figure 4 shows the apparent viscosity for PED-treated and non-treated sunflower seed mass as a function of the shear rate. Non-Newtonian shear- thinning behavior from the flow curves sunflower seed cake (pretreated and non-treated) exhibit is observed. A similar shear-thinning behavior has also been observed for sesame seed [23] and sage seed solutions [24].
\nApparent viscosity and shear rate dependence of non-treated seed cake (∆) and after PED treatment for protocol a with number of discharges n = 1800 (■), n = 1200 (x), and n = 600 (○).
Pulsed electrical discharges contributed to the mechanical destruction of oil globules and the release of free oil to the surface. PED treatment decreases the initial shear stress from 24.5 to 22.9 Pa for samples after treatment with an E = 16 kV/cm field and number of discharges n = 1800.
\nMost of the oilseed materials have inhomogeneous loose structure in comparison with cellular structure of fruits and vegetables. PED effect can be visually observed for a first few cell layers on sunflower mass surface. This indicates a filtration or diffusion processes acting inside the internal material structure. As a result, there is no significant difference between viscosity curves for treated by PED and untreated materials (Figure 4).
\nInitial oil content of heated sunflower meal according to the specification was 49.78 ± 0.5%. To analyze PED treatment effect on oil extraction, heated sunflower meal was treated and then pressed and extracted using n-hexane. Figure 5 shows the extraction kinetic curves without and after PED treatment. PED treatment was performed at the following parameters: field strength 13.3 kV/cm, number of pulses 3600, and processing time 2 minutes. Table 1 shows the oil yield data at various stages of the experiment. With the use of pretreatment with high-voltage discharges, the maximum oil yield was 15.7%, compared to the oil yield without treatment of 13.8% after 3 minutes of pressing (Table 1). It is worth noting that the improved oil yield later positively affected the residual oil content in sunflower meal, reducing the amount of oil by 0.58%.
\nThe yield of oil versus time dependence during pressing on hydraulic press.
\n | Pressing | \nSolvent extraction | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Without PED | \nAfter PED | \nWithout PED | \nAfter PED | \n|
Oil yeild, % | \n13.8 ± 0.2 | \n15.7 ± 0.2 | \n34.18 moisture (3.01) | \n33.47 moisture (1.55) | \n
Residual oil content of sunflower meal, % | \n\n | \n | 1.19 ± 0.06 | \n0.61 ± 0.05 | \n
Oil yield values at various stages for treated and untreated heated sunflower meal samples.
Due to the preliminary destruction of the integrity of the oil cell membranes, the mass has a “sponge-like” structure. Like dielectric breakdown process, the flow of charged particles passes through the structure of the material and forms a channel. Due to the formation of numerous channels, mass transfer characteristics are improved.
\nPresented curves at Figure 5 have a similar appearance to the extraction kinetics curve. It can be seen that due to the PED pretreatment, the integrity of the oil cells disintegrated, which as a result caused an improved oil yield. Previous data related to the application of a pulsed electric field to the oilseed material sunflower showed the possibility of destruction of oilseed cells using electric fields [11]. This is also confirmed by microstructural studies [17].
\nIn sunflower oil production depending on the modernity of production, 0.5–5% of the oil remains in the sunflower oilseed meal [16]. Totally, it reaches up to 25 g/1 kg of sunflower oil as a monetary loss. Preliminary PED treatment could potentially help to extract 99.8% of sunflower oil during extraction. For a large-scale sunflower oil plant with 1200 tons/day capacity, PED technology could potentially increase the sunflower oil production by 6.96 tons per day. This additional revenue increases profit margins and pays back the investment in PED equipment.
\nChemical parameters such as peroxide and acid value of extracted by pressing sunflower oil are shown in Table 2. The peroxide value characterizes the degree of oxidation of fats and oils and expressed in terms of the number of grams of iodine absorbed per gram of the sample. The peroxide value for oil for untreated and PED treated samples were 6.8 and 13.7, respectively. From the authors’ point of view, the double roasting process could cause such high value of the peroxide value after PED treatment. Since to recreate the industrial process of heated sunflower meal processing it was heated for a long time to a temperature of 100°C, first for processing with high-voltage discharges, and as a preparation for pressing. As a result, the active action of oxygen during prolonged heating process contributed to an increase in this parameter by two times.
\nSample | \nPeroxide value | \nAcid value | \n
---|---|---|
Untreated | \n6.8 mmol active O2/kg | \n1.45 ml KOH/g | \n
PED treated with E = 13.3 kv/cm and number of pulses n = 3600 | \n13.7 mmol active O2/kg | \n1.43 ml KOH/g | \n
Oil quality indicators for samples treated and untreated by PED.
Acid value (the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize free acids in 1 g of the sample) was used to check the purity of the oil and characterizes the degree of lipid hydrolysis. The acid number of the processed heated sunflower meal did not change and amounted to 1.43 KON/g.
\nFor a more detailed analysis of the oil quality after treatment, IR spectrometry was used. Data from the obtained spectra for samples without and after processing are shown in Figure 6.
\nIR spectrum of untreated extracted oil (blue line) and after PED treatment (red line).
The spectrum obtained for pretreated oil had an additional absorption band in the region of 2300–2500 cm−1. Several groups of RNH3\n+, R2C═NH+, and RnPH3−n phosphines can fluctuate in this region. Based on these data, it can be assumed that as a result of pulsed electrical discharge treatment, a new substance may be formed, which includes an amino or phospho group, due to the transition of molecules to an excited state. Sunflower seeds contain a whole complex of vitamins and microelements, including phosphorus, which are not present in the sunflower oil. Perhaps a new method of pretreatment allows you to extract nitrogen-containing vitamins such as B6 and B9. Tables 3 and 4 provide a detailed breakdown of the spectrum for amino or phospho groups.
\nSalts of amines | \n|||
---|---|---|---|
\n\n | \n3300–3030 (3.03–3,30) 1430–1390 (7.00–7.20) | \nc. c. | \nυN-H, wide, δN-H, wide | \n
\n\n | \n~3000 (3.33) ~2500 (4.00) ~2000 (5.00) 1600–1575 (6.25–6.35) 1500 (6.67) | \nδN-H, wide, c. δN-H, med. δN-H, med. δN-H\n δN-H\n | \nFew bands | \n
\n\n | \n2700–2250 (3.70–4.33) | \nc. | \nυN-H, sometimes it appears as a group of bands | \n
\n\n | \n2700–2250 (3.70–4.33) | \nc. | \nυN-H, sometimes it appears as a group of bands | \n
\n\n | \n— | \n— | \nDoes not have characteristic bands | \n
\n\n | \n2500–2300 (4.00–4.34) 2200–1800 (4.55–5.56) | \nср | \nWide band, sometimes manifested in the form of groups of strips | \n
Decoding the IR spectrum by the amino group.
Phosphines\n | \n2275–2440 (4.40–4.01) 1080–1090 (9.26–9.17) 910–940 (10.00–10.64) 1405–1440 (7.12–6.94) | \nυPH, med. δPH2, med. δPH2\n δCH2P\n | \n\n |
Phosphine oxides\n | \n1140–1300 (8.77–7.69) ~1150 (~8.70) ~1190 (~8.40) | \nc. c. c. | \nThe frequency is affected by the electronegativity of substituents Aliphatic Aromatic | \n
Phosphoric acid\n | \n2550–2700 (3.92–3.70) 2100–2350 (4.76–4.26) | \nυOH, med. υOH, med. | \nWide band | \n
Decoding the IR spectrum for the phospho group.
Thus, according to the results of oil quality parameters, it was shown that PED treatment at the stage of preparation of the material for subsequent processing has a nonsignificant effect. The detected deterioration of the peroxide number value is primarily associated with the setting of the experiment and requires a more detailed analysis.
\nAccording to the data obtained, a novel technology for sunflower oil production called pulsed electrical discharge pretreatment has been shown as an emerging technology to improve sunflower oil yield.
\nPulsed electric field technology is foreseen as a rather flexible tool applicable for a range of cases from stressing of single cells or electroporation of plant cells as a preparation method before extraction or drying [25]. PEF treatment is a series of high-voltage electric pulses of short duration that creates the electric field strength from 1 to 80 kV/cm inside the treatment chamber. In a recent study on oil crops [11], it has been discovered that PEF can damage the structure of oil cells during the process, as well as facilitate the oil extraction without any temperature effects before extraction.
\nWith respect to oil crops, continuous PEF treatment method is a sequence of the following operations: preparing the material (grinding, soaking), PEF treatment in continuous flow mode, drying, and extraction (Figure 7).
\nPilot PEF system with a continuous-flow chamber for sunflower oil production and continuous-flow treatment chamber with a parameter control system [26].
PEF treatment requires pre-shredding and soaking process of the material to produce a homogeneous, conductive medium. PEF treatment technology has been tested on such oil materials, such as olives [27], canola [28], and rapeseed [13]. As noted above, one of the conditions of PEF treatment is sufficient conductivity of the medium (humidity of material should be not less than 50%) [13]. Conductivity (electrical conductivity) also varies with temperature and dielectric characteristics of the material itself. Most oil-bearing materials are polar dielectrics, which creates certain difficulties for the industrial application of the PEF treatment method. The requirement to conduct the process of wetting of oil-bearing material is not always possible on production and can lead to a negative effect of the treatment [15]. Given the heterogeneity of the structure of the crushed seed, treatment according to the PEF treatment method in the works [13, 15] was conducted in the following sequence: grinding, moisturizing with the addition of water (approximately 1:1), PEF treatment, drying, and screw pressing.
\nRecent trend of PEF treatment application as a pretreatment prior to extraction of oil from oil-bearing materials. The greatest effect of PEF treatment as a preparatory stage was noted for olives [27]. The authors note that the increase in the yield of olive oil was 13.3 wt.% after processing with pulsed electric field intensity of 2 kV/cm and energy expenditure of 11.25 kJ/kg. The content of phenolic components, phytosterols, and tocopherols is significantly higher than in the samples without treatment.
\nPEF treatment with field strength E = 7 kv/cm and energy expenditure Q = 84 kJ/kg for rapeseeds allowed to increase the yield of oil by 2%, while the content of various associated useful components in the oil increased [13]. When black cumin seed was exposed to a field strength of E = 3.25 kV/cm, the yield of oil was increased by 37% [11]. However, the authors do not comment on such a significant increase in output of oil screw press after processing, limited only by the explanation of the effect of the opening of oil cells due to the treatment. [10] noted a 4.9 wt% increase in output of oil of sesame after PEF treatment with a field strength of E = 20 kV/cm, a pulse frequency of 0.5 Hz, and duration of 10 μs with preservation of quality characteristics.
\nPEF treatment method compared to the process of heating food products is more effective, since it allows to maintain the original quality characteristics of the food product. This treatment can be combined with other electro-physical methods of “green technologies” in the process of extracting vegetable oils [5]. With respect to oleaginous materials, data are available only on a pilot plant with a capacity of 2, 20, and 40 kW.
\nBased on the above, it can be concluded that PEF technology has a great potential of industrial application by combining the traditional processes of production of vegetable oils during the stages of preparation of the material for extraction and conducting extraction with an overlay of PEF and preparation prior to screw pressing. PEF treatment method regarding oil crops requires a number of preparatory operations such as soaking and subsequent drying, which creates a number of difficulties in the transition to large-scale production. However, this problem can be solved by soaking in solvent, as is done on the example of sunflower seeds [15].
\nModification of the surface structure of a sunflower cotyledon after PEF treatment is shown in Figure 8. The possibility of sunflower oil cell destruction using short unipolar electrical pulses is clearly noticeable. It was experimentally defined that on the area of 1 mm2, more than 25 convex craters appeared. According to average sunflower cell size of 100–200 μm, pulsed electric field was effecting on most of the cell membranes. Such kind of treatment could be used to create a new type of porous body structures [29].
\nExperimental set-up used to generate pulsed electrical discharges in air (a) and schematic visualization of treatment trajectory in a treatment cell (b).
In the case of pulse electric field application, sunflower body can be presented in the form of a modified capillary-porous model with additional microcapillaries. Such new model can be used to describe heat and mass transfer processes in sunflower seeds pretreated by pulsed electric field.
\nExtraction yield obtained after PEF treatment is considered to be the main parameter to determine the economic efficiency and global performance of PEF-assisted sunflower oil production. In PEF application for the oil extraction processes from sunflower seeds, the main parameter is the applied energy. Sunflower seed preparation for PEF treatment and further extraction process were performed using ethanol solvent. It was determined that the increase in specific energy for a given electrical conductivity of samples has a monotonical increasing power dependence (Figure 9).
\nThe oil yield on specific energy of PEF treatment dependence.
However, a further increase in the intensity index E does not significantly increase the oil yield index. The energy consumed (56.7 kJ/kg) for 7 kV/cm is the highest value of the oil yield of 48.5%, which was established experimentally and limited by temperature influence appearing during PEF treatment.
\nFrom a chemical point of view, PEF treatment has no increased reaction of molecular oxygen with triacylglycerine, which negatively effects on chemical characteristics. PEF increases the content of human health-related compounds, such as polyphenols and tocopherols [15]. Sunflower oil spectra and color plot of untreated and PEF-treated sunflower seeds are shown in Figure 10.
\nSunflower oil spectra plot and color plot for PEF-treated (1) marked as a black line and untreated samples (2) marked as a green line.
Non-treated oil obtained after ethanol extraction (Figure 10, black line) has a yellowish hue and lies in the second quadrant of the color spectrum. The same results of the oil yield were obtained for PEF-treated sunflower mass by ethanol (green line). Main color parameters such as L*, a*, and b* for extracted sunflower oil are listed in Table 5. PEF treatment affected lightness on sunflower oil, ranging from 91.68 in untreated to 92.06 in PEF-treated samples. Applying of PEF treatment allowed to increase the blue-yellow coordinate b* from −1.84 up to −1.46. For PEF pretreated sunflower mass, initial value of green-red coordinate, a*, decreased from 9.51 down to 7.06. From the authors’ point of view, such difference in color parameters might be due to a chemical reaction of electrodes and plant material.
\nSample | \nL*\n | \na*\n | \nb*\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Untreated | \n91.68 | \n−1.84 | \n9.51 | \n
PEF-treated | \n92.06 | \n−1.46 | \n7.06 | \n
General color parameters of control and PEF sunflower oil.
In summary, the initial sunflower oil after PEF treatment became more yellowish and greenish oil.
\nAccording to the data obtained in this chapter, a novel technology for sunflower oil production called pulsed electric field pretreatment has been shown as an emerging technology to improve sunflower oil yield up to 8.05% using ethanol as a solvent. This is not a maximum possible increase, since the disintegration index did not reach its maximal value for a completely destroyed amount of cell membranes. However, in production cycles, factories are using n-hexane which is more efficient for extraction processes. PEF treatment in a continuous flow of roasted sunflower seed cake material could help sunflower oil mills to increase profit margins.
\nPulsed electrical discharge and pulsed electric field treatment were studied on physical, morphological, and oil recovery characteristics of sunflower seeds. The efficiency of PED technology for sunflower seed oil yield and oil quality, along with surface and rheological behavior, was studied. Solvent extraction efficiency and internal structure changes along with oil quality were studied for sunflower seeds pretreated by PEF. Our study demonstrates significance of both technologies for structural change and technological parameter efficiency.
\nThe obtained effects are directly dependent on the processing method, preliminary preparation of the material, its initial component composition, and structure of the material. Moreover, as shown by literature data, the use of these electrical treatment methods allows to obtain products (oils), enriched with bioactive components. From the point of view of product quality, the proposed methods are able to preserve the original taste and organoleptic and qualitative indicators of oil-bearing materials and can be used to obtain high-quality functional products. Most of the research related to the study of methods of PED and PEF treatment should be carried out on pilot equipment, with technological parameters close to the industrial scale. It undoubtedly actualizes the obtained results and allows to predict the effects for the industrial scale.
\nThe reported research was funded by internal grant of Kuban State University of Technology.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen authors on the Global Highly Cited Researchers 2018 list",metaDescription:null,metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nYuekun Lai
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\\n\\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\\n\\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\\n\\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\\n\\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\\n\\nGang Chen 2016-18
\\n\\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMark Connors 2015-18
\\n\\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\\n\\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\\n\\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\\n\\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\\n\\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\\n\\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\\n\\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\\n\\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\\n\\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\\n\\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\\n\\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\\n\\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\\n\\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYuekun Lai
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\n\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"289905",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Inamuddin",slug:"inamuddin",fullName:"Inamuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289905/images/system/289905.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Inamuddin is currently working as an assistant professor in the Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, and more specifically, renewable energy and the environment. He has published 127 research articles in international journals of repute and 18 book chapters in knowledge-based book editions published by renowned international publishers. He has published 39 edited books with Springer, United Kingdom, Elsevier, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. USA, CRC Press Taylor & Francis, Asia Pacific, Trans Tech Publications Ltd., Switzerland, and Materials Science Forum, USA. He is a member of various editorial boards serving as associate editor for journals such as Environmental Chemistry Letter, Applied Water Science, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, Springer-Nature, Scientific Reports-Nature, and the editor of Eurasian Journal of Analytical Chemistry.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"99002",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Koontongkaew",slug:"koontongkaew",fullName:"Koontongkaew",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Thammasat University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"156647",title:"Dr.",name:"A K M Mamunur",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"a-k-m-mamunur-rashid",fullName:"A K M Mamunur Rashid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"MBBS, DCH, MD(Paed.), Grad. Cert. P. Rheum.(UWA, Australia), FRCP(Edin.)",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Khulna Medical College",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"234696",title:"Prof.",name:"A K M Mominul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a-k-m-mominul-islam",fullName:"A K M Mominul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000cA8dpQAC/Co2_Profile_Picture-1588761796759",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Mominul Islam received both of his bachelor's and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that, he joined as Lecturer of Agronomy at Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Bangladesh, and became Professor in the same department of the university. Dr. Islam did his second Master’s in Physical Land Resources from Ghent University, Belgium. He is currently serving as a postdoctoral researcher at the Department of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture at Purdue University, USA. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph.D. degree in Plant Allelopathy from The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was “Allelopathy of five Lamiaceae medicinal plant species”. Dr. Islam is the author of 38 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 1 book chapter, and 3 books. He is a member of the editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is supervising the research of MS and Ph.D. students in areas of Agronomy. Prof. Islam is conducting research on crop management, bio-herbicides, and allelopathy.",institutionString:"Bangladesh Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangladesh Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"214531",title:"Mr.",name:"A T M Sakiur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"a-t-m-sakiur-rahman",fullName:"A T M Sakiur Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Rajshahi",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"66545",title:"Dr.",name:"A. F.",middleName:null,surname:"Omar",slug:"a.-f.-omar",fullName:"A. F. Omar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. A. F. Omar obtained\nhis Bachelor degree in electrical and\nelectronics engineering from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2002, Master of Science in electronics\nengineering from Open University\nMalaysia in 2008 and PhD in optical physics from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2012. His research mainly\nfocuses on the development of optical\nand electronics systems for spectroscopy\napplication in environmental monitoring,\nagriculture and dermatology. He has\nmore than 10 years of teaching\nexperience in subjects related to\nelectronics, mathematics and applied optics for\nuniversity students and industrial engineers.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"191072",title:"Prof.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191072/images/system/191072.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam received both of his bachelor and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that he joined as Lecturer of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh and became Professor in the same department of the university. He is currently serving as Director (Research) of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph D degree in Chemical and Process Engineering from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was “Improvement of Biodiesel Production through Genetic Studies of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)”. Dr. Islam is the author of 98 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 11 book chapters and 3 books. He is a member of editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is also serving as the General Secretary of Plant Breeding and Genetics Society of Bangladesh, Seminar and research Secretary of JICA Alumni Association of Bangladesh and member of several professional societies. Prof. Islam acted as Principal Breeder in the releasing system of BU Hybrid Lau 1, BU Lau 1, BU Capsicum 1, BU Lalshak 1, BU Baromashi Seem 1, BU Sheem 1, BU Sheem 2, BU Sheem 3 and BU Sheem 4. He supervised 50 MS and 3 Ph D students. Prof. Islam currently supervising research of 5 MS and 3 Ph D students in areas Plant Breeding & Seed Technologies. Conducting research on development of hybrid vegetables, hybrid Brassica napus using CMS system, renewable energy research with Jatropha curcas.",institutionString:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"322225",title:"Dr.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam received both of his bachelor's and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that he joined as Lecturer of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh, and became Professor in the same department of the university. He is currently serving as Director (Research) of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph.D. degree in Chemical and Process Engineering from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was 'Improvement of Biodiesel Production through Genetic Studies of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)”. Dr. Islam is the author of 99 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 11 book chapters, 3 books, and 20 proceedings and conference paper. He is a member of the editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is also serving as the General Secretary of Plant Breeding and Genetics Society of Bangladesh, Seminar, and research Secretary of JICA Alumni Association of Bangladesh and a member of several professional societies. Prof. Islam acted as Principal Breeder in the releasing system of BU Hybrid Lau 1, BU Lau 1, BU Capsicum 1, BU Lalshak 1, BU Baromashi Seem 1, BU Sheem 1, BU Sheem 2, BU Sheem 3 and BU Sheem 4. He supervised 50 MS and 3 PhD students. Prof. Islam currently supervising the research of 5 MS and 3 PhD students in areas Plant Breeding & Seed Technologies. Conducting research on the development of hybrid vegetables, hybrid Brassica napus using CMS system, renewable energy research with Jatropha curcas.",institutionString:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"91977",title:"Dr.",name:"A.B.M. Sharif",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"a.b.m.-sharif-hossain",fullName:"A.B.M. Sharif Hossain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"97123",title:"Prof.",name:"A.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Sharif Ullah",slug:"a.m.m.-sharif-ullah",fullName:"A.M.M. Sharif Ullah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/97123/images/4209_n.jpg",biography:"AMM Sharif Ullah is currently an Associate Professor of Design and Manufacturing in Department of Mechanical Engineering at Kitami Institute of Technology, Japan. He received the Bachelor of Science Degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1992 from the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh. In 1993, he moved to Japan for graduate studies. He received the Master of Engineering degree in 1996 from the Kansai University Graduate School of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering (Major: Manufacturing Engineering). He also received the Doctor of Engineering degree from the same institute in the same field in 1999. He began his academic career in 2000 as an Assistant Professor in the Industrial Systems Engineering Program at the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand, as an Assistant Professor in the Industrial Systems Engineering Program. In 2002, he took up the position of Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the United Arab Emirates (UAE) University. He was promoted to Associate Professor in 2006 at the UAE University. He moved to his current employer in 2009. His research field is product realization engineering (design, manufacturing, operations, and sustainability). He teaches design and manufacturing related courses at undergraduate and graduate degree programs. He has been mentoring a large number of students for their senior design projects and theses. He has published more than 90 papers in refereed journals, edited books, and international conference proceedings. He made more than 35 oral presentations. Since 2005, he directs the advanced manufacturing engineering research laboratory at Kitami Institute of Technology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kitami Institute of Technology",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"213441",title:"Dr.",name:"A.R.Kavitha",middleName:null,surname:"Balaji",slug:"a.r.kavitha-balaji",fullName:"A.R.Kavitha Balaji",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anna University, Chennai",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"172688",title:"Prof.",name:"A.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Salker",slug:"a.v.-salker",fullName:"A.V. Salker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Goa University",country:{name:"India"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5684},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5166},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1682},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10211},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:887},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15616}],offset:12,limit:12,total:10241},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"15"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10471",title:"Advances in Dynamical Systems Theory, Models, Algorithms and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"689fdf3cdc78ade03f0c43a245dcf818",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Bruno Carpentieri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10471.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"92921",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Carpentieri",slug:"bruno-carpentieri",fullName:"Bruno Carpentieri"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:3},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5131},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering",parent:{title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology"},numberOfBooks:843,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:20039,numberOfWosCitations:23377,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15510,numberOfDimensionsCitations:34628,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10224",title:"Safety and Risk Assessment of Civil Aircraft during Operation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d966066f4fa44f6b320cd9b40ed66bbd",slug:"safety-and-risk-assessment-of-civil-aircraft-during-operation",bookSignature:"Longbiao Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10224.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260011",title:"Dr.",name:"Longbiao",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"longbiao-li",fullName:"Longbiao Li"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10025",title:"Numerical and Experimental Studies on Combustion Engines and Vehicles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44d31c0f408772b0e50d89e029f4b14d",slug:"numerical-and-experimental-studies-on-combustion-engines-and-vehicles",bookSignature:"Paweł Woś and Mirosław Jakubowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10025.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"119441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paweł",middleName:null,surname:"Woś",slug:"pawel-wos",fullName:"Paweł Woś"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10073",title:"Recent Advances in Nanophotonics",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aceca7dfc807140870a89d42c5537d7c",slug:"recent-advances-in-nanophotonics-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mojtaba Kahrizi and Parsoua A. Sohi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10073.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"113045",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Kahrizi",slug:"mojtaba-kahrizi",fullName:"Mojtaba Kahrizi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8180",title:"Landslides",subtitle:"Investigation and Monitoring",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bfd80e1f39cf25ec7b8c18ed95b74c9",slug:"landslides-investigation-and-monitoring",bookSignature:"Ram Ray and Maurizio Lazzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8180.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"ram-ray",fullName:"Ram Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7700",title:"Modern Printed-Circuit Antennas",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c348dddb91240f82d274524c736108e3",slug:"modern-printed-circuit-antennas",bookSignature:"Hussain Al-Rizzo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7700.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"153384",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Rizzo",slug:"hussain-al-rizzo",fullName:"Hussain Al-Rizzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9174",title:"Product Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3510bacbbf4d365e97510bf962652de1",slug:"product-design",bookSignature:"Cătălin Alexandru, Codruta Jaliu and Mihai Comşit",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9174.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2767",title:"Prof.",name:"Catalin",middleName:null,surname:"Alexandru",slug:"catalin-alexandru",fullName:"Catalin Alexandru"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9266",title:"Machine Tools",subtitle:"Design, Research, Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3def867e2d654b757bb101201bc6d1e6",slug:"machine-tools-design-research-application",bookSignature:"Ľubomír Šooš and Jiri Marek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9266.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"141212",title:"Prof.",name:"Ľubomír",middleName:null,surname:"Šooš",slug:"ubomir-soos",fullName:"Ľubomír Šooš"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10093",title:"Electromagnetic Propagation and Waveguides in Photonics and Microwave Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1aa3bf83f471bb1591950efa117c6fec",slug:"electromagnetic-propagation-and-waveguides-in-photonics-and-microwave-engineering",bookSignature:"Patrick Steglich",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10093.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"223128",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Steglich",slug:"patrick-steglich",fullName:"Patrick Steglich"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7414",title:"Modulation in Electronics and Telecommunications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5066fa20239d3de3ca87b3c45c680d01",slug:"modulation-in-electronics-and-telecommunications",bookSignature:"George Dekoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7414.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9833",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Dekoulis",slug:"george-dekoulis",fullName:"George Dekoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:844,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"17237",doi:"10.5772/24553",title:"Hydrogels: Methods of Preparation, Characterisation and Applications",slug:"hydrogels-methods-of-preparation-characterisation-and-applications",totalDownloads:64134,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:204,book:{slug:"progress-in-molecular-and-environmental-bioengineering-from-analysis-and-modeling-to-technology-applications",title:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering",fullTitle:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering - From Analysis and Modeling to Technology Applications"},signatures:"Syed K. H. Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]},{id:"35261",doi:"10.5772/34233",title:"Anisotropic Mechanical Properties of ABS Parts Fabricated by Fused Deposition Modelling",slug:"anisotropic-mechanical-properties-of-abs-parts-fabricated-by-fused-deposition-modeling-",totalDownloads:6620,totalCrossrefCites:71,totalDimensionsCites:172,book:{slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Constance Ziemian, Mala Sharma and Sophia Ziemian",authors:[{id:"89554",title:"Dr.",name:"Mala",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"mala-sharma",fullName:"Mala Sharma"},{id:"98759",title:"Dr.",name:"Constance",middleName:null,surname:"Ziemian",slug:"constance-ziemian",fullName:"Constance Ziemian"},{id:"137165",title:"Ms.",name:"Sophia",middleName:null,surname:"Ziemian",slug:"sophia-ziemian",fullName:"Sophia Ziemian"}]},{id:"13254",doi:"10.5772/13474",title:"Insight Into Adsorption Thermodynamics",slug:"insight-into-adsorption-thermodynamics",totalDownloads:6549,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:154,book:{slug:"thermodynamics",title:"Thermodynamics",fullTitle:"Thermodynamics"},signatures:"Papita Saha and Shamik Chowdhury",authors:[{id:"13943",title:"Dr.",name:"Papita",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"papita-saha",fullName:"Papita Saha"},{id:"24184",title:"Mr.",name:"Shamik",middleName:null,surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"shamik-chowdhury",fullName:"Shamik Chowdhury"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57483",title:"Helicopter Flight Physics",slug:"helicopter-flight-physics",totalDownloads:5802,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"flight-physics-models-techniques-and-technologies",title:"Flight Physics",fullTitle:"Flight Physics - Models, Techniques and Technologies"},signatures:"Constantin Rotaru and Michael Todorov",authors:[{id:"206857",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Rotaru",slug:"constantin-rotaru",fullName:"Constantin Rotaru"},{id:"209010",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Todorov",slug:"michael-todorov",fullName:"Michael Todorov"}]},{id:"49024",title:"Biological and Chemical Wastewater Treatment Processes",slug:"biological-and-chemical-wastewater-treatment-processes",totalDownloads:24447,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:27,book:{slug:"wastewater-treatment-engineering",title:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering",fullTitle:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering"},signatures:"Mohamed Samer",authors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:8185,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"48982",title:"A Comprehensive Modeling and Simulation of Power Quality Disturbances Using MATLAB/SIMULINK",slug:"a-comprehensive-modeling-and-simulation-of-power-quality-disturbances-using-matlab-simulink",totalDownloads:11234,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"power-quality-issues-in-distributed-generation",title:"Power Quality Issues in Distributed Generation",fullTitle:"Power Quality Issues in Distributed Generation"},signatures:"Rodney H.G. Tan and Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy",authors:[{id:"152137",title:"Dr.",name:"Vigna",middleName:null,surname:"Ramachandaramurthy",slug:"vigna-ramachandaramurthy",fullName:"Vigna Ramachandaramurthy"},{id:"175327",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodney",middleName:"H.G.",surname:"Tan",slug:"rodney-tan",fullName:"Rodney Tan"}]},{id:"72592",title:"Modeling Antecedent Soil Moisture to Constrain Rainfall Thresholds for Shallow Landslides Occurrence",slug:"modeling-antecedent-soil-moisture-to-constrain-rainfall-thresholds-for-shallow-landslides-occurrence",totalDownloads:244,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"landslides-investigation-and-monitoring",title:"Landslides",fullTitle:"Landslides - Investigation and Monitoring"},signatures:"Maurizio Lazzari, Marco Piccarreta, Ram L. Ray and Salvatore Manfreda",authors:[{id:"202304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"ram-ray",fullName:"Ram Ray"},{id:"250931",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Lazzari",slug:"maurizio-lazzari",fullName:"Maurizio Lazzari"},{id:"318565",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Piccarreta",slug:"marco-piccarreta",fullName:"Marco Piccarreta"},{id:"318566",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Manfreda",slug:"salvatore-manfreda",fullName:"Salvatore Manfreda"}]},{id:"67558",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Principle and Applications",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-and-applications",totalDownloads:5351,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"73317",title:"Remote Sensing Approaches and Related Techniques to Map and Study Landslides",slug:"remote-sensing-approaches-and-related-techniques-to-map-and-study-landslides",totalDownloads:275,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"landslides-investigation-and-monitoring",title:"Landslides",fullTitle:"Landslides - Investigation and Monitoring"},signatures:"Ram L. Ray, Maurizio Lazzari and Tolulope Olutimehin",authors:[{id:"202304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"ram-ray",fullName:"Ram Ray"},{id:"250931",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Lazzari",slug:"maurizio-lazzari",fullName:"Maurizio Lazzari"},{id:"320982",title:"Ms.",name:"Tolulope",middleName:null,surname:"Olutimehin",slug:"tolulope-olutimehin",fullName:"Tolulope Olutimehin"}]},{id:"52822",title:"Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) for 5G Networks",slug:"non-orthogonal-multiple-access-noma-for-5g-networks",totalDownloads:12850,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"towards-5g-wireless-networks-a-physical-layer-perspective",title:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks",fullTitle:"Towards 5G Wireless Networks - A Physical Layer Perspective"},signatures:"Refik Caglar Kizilirmak",authors:[{id:"188668",title:"Dr.",name:"Refik Caglar",middleName:null,surname:"Kizilirmak",slug:"refik-caglar-kizilirmak",fullName:"Refik Caglar Kizilirmak"}]},{id:"70874",title:"Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy Resources",slug:"social-economic-and-environmental-impacts-of-renewable-energy-resources",totalDownloads:1636,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"wind-solar-hybrid-renewable-energy-system",title:"Wind Solar Hybrid Renewable Energy System",fullTitle:"Wind Solar Hybrid Renewable Energy System"},signatures:"Mahesh Kumar",authors:[{id:"309842",title:"Mr.",name:"Kamlesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"kamlesh-kumar",fullName:"Kamlesh Kumar"}]},{id:"73582",title:"Introductory Chapter: Importance of Investigating Landslide Hazards",slug:"introductory-chapter-importance-of-investigating-landslide-hazards",totalDownloads:181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"landslides-investigation-and-monitoring",title:"Landslides",fullTitle:"Landslides - Investigation and Monitoring"},signatures:"Ram L. Ray and Maurizio Lazzari",authors:[{id:"202304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"ram-ray",fullName:"Ram Ray"},{id:"250931",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Lazzari",slug:"maurizio-lazzari",fullName:"Maurizio Lazzari"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"74786",title:"Distributed Sources Optimal Sites and Sizes Search in Large Power Systems",slug:"distributed-sources-optimal-sites-and-sizes-search-in-large-power-systems",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95266",book:{title:"Renewable Energy"},signatures:"Mustafa Mosbah, Redha Djamel Mohammedi and Salem Arif"},{id:"74745",title:"CFD Optimization Method to Design Foam Residue Traps for Full Mold Casting",slug:"cfd-optimization-method-to-design-foam-residue-traps-for-full-mold-casting",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95505",book:{title:"Casting Processes"},signatures:"Yuto Takagi, Masahiro Inagaki and Ken’ichi Yano"},{id:"74839",title:"Critical Mach Numbers of Flow around Two-Dimensional and Axisymmetric Bodies",slug:"critical-mach-numbers-of-flow-around-two-dimensional-and-axisymmetric-bodies",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94981",book:{title:"Aerodynamics"},signatures:"Vladimir Frolov"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:294},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/126967/pia-macdonald",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"126967",slug:"pia-macdonald"},fullPath:"/profiles/126967/pia-macdonald",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()