Main parameters of simulation.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1288",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Solar Cells - Dye-Sensitized Devices",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"Dye-Sensitized Devices",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The second book of the four-volume edition of "Solar cells" is devoted to dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), which are considered to be extremely promising because they are made of low-cost materials with simple inexpensive manufacturing procedures and can be engineered into flexible sheets. DSSCs are emerged as a truly new class of energy conversion devices, which are representatives of the third generation solar technology. Mechanism of conversion of solar energy into electricity in these devices is quite peculiar. The achieved energy conversion efficiency in DSSCs is low, however, it has improved quickly in the last years. It is believed that DSSCs are still at the start of their development stage and will take a worthy place in the large-scale production for the future.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-735-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6075-5",doi:"10.5772/1757",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"solar-cells-dye-sensitized-devices",numberOfPages:504,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"05a255471069664ecf5fbf8778b92076",bookSignature:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko",publishedDate:"November 9th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1288.jpg",numberOfDownloads:121737,numberOfWosCitations:88,numberOfCrossrefCitations:51,numberOfDimensionsCitations:117,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:256,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 7th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6262/images/1936_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Leonid A. Kosyachenko is professor of National University of Chernivtsi, Ukraine. After receiving his Doctor of Sciences Degree in Physics and Mathematics in 1983, he founded and became a head of Optoelectronics Department – the first department of this kind at Ukrainian universities. About twenty of his pupils have performed work to obtain the degrees of Candidate (Ph.D.) and Doctor of Sciences. His research interests have been in physics and technology of solar cells, semiconductor X-ray and γ-ray detectors, light-emitting and photosensitive devices. He is author (co-author) of several books and numerous scientific articles; presented reports at international scientific conferences and meetings in Germany, Italy, England, Japan, China, Greece, Spain, Belgium, Russia. He was the leader of several collaborative projects with the institutions of Russia, Belorussia and is one of the leaders of the long-term projects of the European Commission. Prof. L.A. Kosyachenko is a member of the Ukrainian Physical Society and the guest editor of journal “Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells”.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Chernivtsi National University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"770",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"23326",title:"Chasing High Efficiency DSSC by Nano-Structural Surface Engineering at Low Processing Temperature for Titanium Dioxide Electrodes",doi:"10.5772/21508",slug:"chasing-high-efficiency-dssc-by-nano-structural-surface-engineering-at-low-processing-temperature-fo",totalDownloads:2894,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ying-Hung Chen, Chen-Hon Chen, Shu-Yuan Wu, Chiung-Hsun Chen, Ming-Yi Hsu, Keh-Chang Chen and Ju-Liang He",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23326",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23326",authors:[{id:"43410",title:"Ms.",name:"Ying-Hung",surname:"Chen",slug:"ying-hung-chen",fullName:"Ying-Hung Chen"},{id:"52946",title:"Prof.",name:"Ju-Liang",surname:"He",slug:"ju-liang-he",fullName:"Ju-Liang He"},{id:"52953",title:"Prof.",name:"Keh-Chang",surname:"Chen",slug:"keh-chang-chen",fullName:"Keh-Chang Chen"},{id:"52954",title:"Ms",name:"Shu-Yuan",surname:"Wu",slug:"shu-yuan-wu",fullName:"Shu-Yuan Wu"},{id:"52955",title:"Mr",name:"Chen-Hon",surname:"Chen",slug:"chen-hon-chen",fullName:"Chen-Hon Chen"},{id:"52956",title:"Mr",name:"Chiung-Hsun",surname:"Chen",slug:"chiung-hsun-chen",fullName:"Chiung-Hsun Chen"},{id:"52957",title:"Mr",name:"Ming-Yi",surname:"Hsu",slug:"ming-yi-hsu",fullName:"Ming-Yi Hsu"}],corrections:null},{id:"23327",title:"Investigation of Dyes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells: Ruthenium-Complex Dyes, Metal-Free Dyes, Metal-Complex Porphyrin Dyes and Natural Dyes",doi:"10.5772/19960",slug:"investigation-of-dyes-for-dye-sensitized-solar-cells-ruthenium-complex-dyes-metal-free-dyes-metal-co",totalDownloads:7713,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,signatures:"Seigo Ito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23327",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23327",authors:[{id:"36934",title:"Dr.",name:"Seigo",surname:"Ito",slug:"seigo-ito",fullName:"Seigo Ito"}],corrections:null},{id:"23328",title:"Comparative Study of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Based on ZnO and TiO2 Nanostructures",doi:"10.5772/21452",slug:"comparative-study-of-dye-sensitized-solar-cell-based-on-zno-and-tio2-nanostructures",totalDownloads:6396,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,signatures:"Y. Chergui, N. Nehaoua and D. E. Mekki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23328",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23328",authors:[{id:"43147",title:"Dr.",name:"Yahia",surname:"Chergui",slug:"yahia-chergui",fullName:"Yahia Chergui"},{id:"137790",title:"Prof.",name:"N",surname:"Nehaoua",slug:"n-nehaoua",fullName:"N Nehaoua"},{id:"137791",title:"Dr.",name:"Djamel Eddine",surname:"Mekki",slug:"djamel-eddine-mekki",fullName:"Djamel Eddine Mekki"}],corrections:null},{id:"23329",title:"The Application of Inorganic Nanomaterials in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/23274",slug:"the-application-of-inorganic-nanomaterials-in-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",totalDownloads:4149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Zhigang Chen, Qiwei Tian, Minghua Tang and Junqing Hu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23329",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23329",authors:[{id:"51367",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhigang",surname:"Chen",slug:"zhigang-chen",fullName:"Zhigang Chen"},{id:"55461",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiwei",surname:"Tian",slug:"qiwei-tian",fullName:"Qiwei Tian"},{id:"55462",title:"Prof.",name:"Junqing",surname:"Hu",slug:"junqing-hu",fullName:"Junqing Hu"},{id:"102794",title:"Dr.",name:"Minghua",surname:"Tang",slug:"minghua-tang",fullName:"Minghua Tang"}],corrections:null},{id:"23330",title:"Fabrication, Doping and Characterization of Polyaniline and Metal Oxides: Dye Sensitized Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/19889",slug:"fabrication-doping-and-characterization-of-polyaniline-and-metal-oxides-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",totalDownloads:6271,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,signatures:"Sadia Ameen, M. Shaheer Akhtar, Young Soon Kim and Hyung-Shik Shin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23330",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23330",authors:[{id:"36666",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyung-Shik",surname:"Shin",slug:"hyung-shik-shin",fullName:"Hyung-Shik Shin"},{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],corrections:null},{id:"23331",title:"Dye Sensitized Solar Cells Principles and New Design",doi:"10.5772/21393",slug:"dye-sensitized-solar-cells-principles-and-new-design",totalDownloads:6917,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,signatures:"Yang Jiao, Fan Zhang and Sheng Meng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23331",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23331",authors:[{id:"42934",title:"Prof.",name:"Sheng",surname:"Meng",slug:"sheng-meng",fullName:"Sheng Meng"},{id:"53017",title:"BSc",name:"Yang",surname:"Jiao",slug:"yang-jiao",fullName:"Yang Jiao"},{id:"53638",title:"BSc",name:"Fan",surname:"Zhang",slug:"fan-zhang",fullName:"Fan Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"23332",title:"Physical and Optical Properties of Microscale Meshes of Ti3O5 Nano- and Microfibers Prepared via Annealing of C-Doped TiO2 Thin Films Aiming at Solar Cell and Photocatalysis Applications",doi:"10.5772/22498",slug:"physical-and-optical-properties-of-microscale-meshes-of-ti3o5-nano-and-microfibers-prepared-via-anne",totalDownloads:2942,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"N. Stem, E. F. Chinaglia and S. G. dos Santos Filho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23332",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23332",authors:[{id:"47926",title:"Prof.",name:"Nair",surname:"Stem",slug:"nair-stem",fullName:"Nair Stem"},{id:"57901",title:"Prof.",name:"Eliane F.",surname:"Chinaglia",slug:"eliane-f.-chinaglia",fullName:"Eliane F. Chinaglia"},{id:"57902",title:"Prof.",name:"Sebastiăo G.",surname:"Dos Santos Filho",slug:"sebastiao-g.-dos-santos-filho",fullName:"Sebastiăo G. Dos Santos Filho"}],corrections:null},{id:"23333",title:"Dye Sensitized Solar Cells - Working Principles, Challenges and Opportunities",doi:"10.5772/19749",slug:"dye-sensitized-solar-cells-working-principles-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:27344,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:37,signatures:"Khalil Ebrahim Jasim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23333",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23333",authors:[{id:"36065",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalil",surname:"Jasim",slug:"khalil-jasim",fullName:"Khalil Jasim"}],corrections:null},{id:"23334",title:"Shape Control of Highly Crystallized Titania Nanorods for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Based on Formation Mechanism",doi:"10.5772/21220",slug:"shape-control-of-highly-crystallized-titania-nanorods-for-dye-sensitized-solar-cells-based-on-format",totalDownloads:2483,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Motonari Adachi, Katsuya Yoshida, Takehiro Kurata, Jun Adachi, Katsumi Tsuchiya, Yasushige Mori and Fumio Uchida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23334",authors:[{id:"42313",title:"Prof.",name:"Motonari",surname:"Adachi",slug:"motonari-adachi",fullName:"Motonari Adachi"},{id:"90832",title:"Prof.",name:"Katsumi",surname:"Tsuchiya",slug:"katsumi-tsuchiya",fullName:"Katsumi Tsuchiya"},{id:"102221",title:"MSc.",name:"Fumio",surname:"Uchida",slug:"fumio-uchida",fullName:"Fumio Uchida"},{id:"102222",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Adachi",slug:"jun-adachi",fullName:"Jun Adachi"},{id:"139276",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsuya",surname:"Yoshida",slug:"katsuya-yoshida",fullName:"Katsuya Yoshida"},{id:"139277",title:"Prof.",name:"Takehiro",surname:"Kurata",slug:"takehiro-kurata",fullName:"Takehiro Kurata"},{id:"139278",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushige",surname:"Mori",slug:"yasushige-mori",fullName:"Yasushige Mori"}],corrections:null},{id:"23335",title:"Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Based on Polymer Electrolytes",doi:"10.5772/22237",slug:"dye-sensitized-solar-cells-based-on-polymer-electrolytes",totalDownloads:5655,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,signatures:"Mi-Ra Kim, Sung-Hae Park, Ji-Un Kim and Jin-Kook Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23335",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23335",authors:[{id:"46908",title:"Prof.",name:"Jin-Kook",surname:"Lee",slug:"jin-kook-lee",fullName:"Jin-Kook Lee"},{id:"53695",title:"Dr.",name:"Mi-Ra",surname:"Kim",slug:"mi-ra-kim",fullName:"Mi-Ra Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"23336",title:"Development of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell for High Conversion Efficiency",doi:"10.5772/19577",slug:"development-of-dye-sensitized-solar-cell-for-high-conversion-efficiency",totalDownloads:3728,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Yongwoo Kim and Deugwoo Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23336",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23336",authors:[{id:"35413",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong Woo",surname:"Kim",slug:"yong-woo-kim",fullName:"Yong Woo Kim"},{id:"47175",title:"Prof.",name:"Deug Woo",surname:"Lee",slug:"deug-woo-lee",fullName:"Deug Woo Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"23337",title:"Effective Methods for the High Efficiency Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Based on the Metal Substrates",doi:"10.5772/20688",slug:"effective-methods-for-the-high-efficiency-dye-sensitized-solar-cells-based-on-the-metal-substrates",totalDownloads:2298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ho-Gyeong Yun, Byeong-Soo Bae, Yongseok Jun and Man Gu Kang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23337",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23337",authors:[{id:"35511",title:"Dr.",name:"Man Gu",surname:"Kang",slug:"man-gu-kang",fullName:"Man Gu Kang"},{id:"40092",title:"Dr.",name:"Ho-Gyeong",surname:"Yun",slug:"ho-gyeong-yun",fullName:"Ho-Gyeong Yun"},{id:"54674",title:"Prof.",name:"Yongseok",surname:"Jun",slug:"yongseok-jun",fullName:"Yongseok Jun"},{id:"58084",title:"Prof.",name:"Byeong-Soo",surname:"Bae",slug:"byeong-soo-bae",fullName:"Byeong-Soo Bae"}],corrections:null},{id:"23338",title:"Dye Solar Cells: Basic and Photon Management Strategies",doi:"10.5772/22218",slug:"dye-solar-cells-basic-and-photon-management-strategies",totalDownloads:3555,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,signatures:"Lorenzo Dominici, Daniele Colonna, Daniele D’Ercole, Girolamo Mincuzzi, Riccardo Riccitelli, Francesco Michelotti, Thomas M. Brown, Andrea Reale and Aldo Di Carlo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23338",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23338",authors:[{id:"44418",title:"Prof.",name:"Aldo",surname:"Di Carlo",slug:"aldo-di-carlo",fullName:"Aldo Di Carlo"},{id:"46457",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Colonna",slug:"daniele-colonna",fullName:"Daniele Colonna"},{id:"46817",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorenzo",surname:"Dominici",slug:"lorenzo-dominici",fullName:"Lorenzo Dominici"},{id:"54289",title:"BSc.",name:"Daniele",surname:"D'Ercole",slug:"daniele-d'ercole",fullName:"Daniele D'Ercole"},{id:"54290",title:"Dr.",name:"Girolamo",surname:"Mincuzzi",slug:"girolamo-mincuzzi",fullName:"Girolamo Mincuzzi"},{id:"54914",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas M.",surname:"Brown",slug:"thomas-m.-brown",fullName:"Thomas M. Brown"},{id:"54915",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Reale",slug:"andrea-reale",fullName:"Andrea Reale"},{id:"54916",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Michelotti",slug:"francesco-michelotti",fullName:"Francesco Michelotti"},{id:"55027",title:"Dr.",name:"Riccardo",surname:"Riccitelli",slug:"riccardo-riccitelli",fullName:"Riccardo Riccitelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"23339",title:"Ordered Semiconductor Photoanode Films for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Based on Zinc Oxide-Titanium Oxide Hybrid Nanostructures",doi:"10.5772/19569",slug:"ordered-semiconductor-photoanode-films-for-dye-sensitized-solar-cells-based-on-zinc-oxide-titanium-o",totalDownloads:2654,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Xiang-Dong Gao, Cai-Lu Wang, Xiao-Yan Gan and Xiao-Min Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23339",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23339",authors:[{id:"35389",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiang-Dong",surname:"Gao",slug:"xiang-dong-gao",fullName:"Xiang-Dong Gao"},{id:"52056",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaomin",surname:"Li",slug:"xiaomin-li",fullName:"Xiaomin Li"},{id:"52057",title:"Ms",name:"Cailu",surname:"Wang",slug:"cailu-wang",fullName:"Cailu Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"23340",title:"Photo-Induced Electron Transfer from Dye or Quantum Dot to TiO2 Nanoparticles at Single Molecule Level",doi:"10.5772/24378",slug:"photo-induced-electron-transfer-from-dye-or-quantum-dot-to-tio2-nanoparticles-at-single-molecule-lev",totalDownloads:2495,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"King-Chuen Lin and Chun-Li Chang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23340",authors:[{id:"57006",title:"Dr.",name:"King-Chuen",surname:"Lin",slug:"king-chuen-lin",fullName:"King-Chuen Lin"},{id:"101862",title:"Mr.",name:"Chun-Li",surname:"Chang",slug:"chun-li-chang",fullName:"Chun-Li Chang"}],corrections:null},{id:"23341",title:"Porphyrin Based Dye Sensitized Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/23955",slug:"porphyrin-based-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",totalDownloads:6438,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Matthew J. Griffith and Attila J. Mozer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23341",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23341",authors:[{id:"54613",title:"Mr.",name:"Matthew",surname:"Griffith",slug:"matthew-griffith",fullName:"Matthew Griffith"},{id:"54616",title:"Dr.",name:"Attila",surname:"Mozer",slug:"attila-mozer",fullName:"Attila Mozer"}],corrections:null},{id:"23342",title:"The Chemistry and Physics of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/20609",slug:"the-chemistry-and-physics-of-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",totalDownloads:8811,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"William A. Vallejo L., Cesar A. Quiñones S. and Johann A. Hernandez S.",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23342",authors:[{id:"39724",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Vallejo",slug:"william-vallejo",fullName:"William Vallejo"},{id:"53328",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",surname:"Quiñones",slug:"cesar-quinones",fullName:"Cesar Quiñones"},{id:"53329",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",surname:"Hernandez",slug:"johan-hernandez",fullName:"Johan Hernandez"}],corrections:null},{id:"23343",title:"Preparation of Hollow Titanium Dioxide Shell Thin Films from Aqueous Solution of Ti-Lactate Complex for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/21819",slug:"preparation-of-hollow-titanium-dioxide-shell-thin-films-from-aqueous-solution-of-ti-lactate-complex-",totalDownloads:2922,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Masaya Chigane, Mitsuru Watanabe and Tsutomu Shinagawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23343",authors:[{id:"44974",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaya",surname:"Chigane",slug:"masaya-chigane",fullName:"Masaya Chigane"},{id:"52996",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitsuru",surname:"Watanabe",slug:"mitsuru-watanabe",fullName:"Mitsuru Watanabe"},{id:"52997",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsutomu",surname:"Shinagawa",slug:"tsutomu-shinagawa",fullName:"Tsutomu Shinagawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"23344",title:"Fabrication of ZnO Based Dye Sensitized Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/19459",slug:"fabrication-of-zno-based-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",totalDownloads:5698,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,signatures:"A.P. Uthirakumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23344",authors:[{id:"35035",title:"Prof.",name:"Periyayya",surname:"Uthirakumar",slug:"periyayya-uthirakumar",fullName:"Periyayya Uthirakumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"23345",title:"Carbon Nanostructures as Low Cost Counter Electrode for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/20399",slug:"carbon-nanostructures-as-low-cost-counter-electrode-for-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",totalDownloads:5110,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Qiquan Qiao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23345",authors:[{id:"38772",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiquan",surname:"Qiao",slug:"qiquan-qiao",fullName:"Qiquan Qiao"}],corrections:null},{id:"23346",title:"Dye Sensitized Solar Cells as an Alternative Approach to the Conventional Photovoltaic Technology Based on Silicon - Recent Developments in the Field and Large Scale Applications",doi:"10.5772/23650",slug:"dye-sensitized-solar-cells-as-an-alternative-approach-to-the-conventional-photovoltaic-technology-ba",totalDownloads:5264,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Elias Stathatos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23346",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23346",authors:[{id:"52979",title:"Prof.",name:"Elias",surname:"Stathatos",slug:"elias-stathatos",fullName:"Elias Stathatos"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"4479",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"New Approaches and Reviews",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6907a79a7d35f34d0c719d6297a2667",slug:"solar-cells-new-approaches-and-reviews",bookSignature:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4479.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1290",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"New Aspects and Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52415367e48e5b68d47325bdfc81cdce",slug:"solar-cells-new-aspects-and-solutions",bookSignature:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1290.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1289",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"Silicon Wafer-Based Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76fb5123cd9acbf3c37678c5e9bd056a",slug:"solar-cells-silicon-wafer-based-technologies",bookSignature:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1289.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"295",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"Thin-Film Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad5cda9b208fbf385f7cdf7a5c16baae",slug:"solar-cells-thin-film-technologies",bookSignature:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/295.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3633",title:"Solar Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"solar-energy",bookSignature:"Radu D Rugescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3633.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"8615",title:"Prof.",name:"Radu",surname:"Rugescu",slug:"radu-rugescu",fullName:"Radu Rugescu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3118",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"Research and Application Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5502d7fd7559d60419f2615615ae4cf5",slug:"solar-cells-research-and-application-perspectives",bookSignature:"Arturo Morales-Acevedo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"90486",title:"Prof.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Morales-Acevedo",slug:"arturo-morales-acevedo",fullName:"Arturo Morales-Acevedo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"877",title:"Third Generation Photovoltaics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c3bdfaebac38dab83a69c488bcda219d",slug:"third-generation-photovoltaics",bookSignature:"Vasilis Fthenakis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/877.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68723",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasilis",surname:"Fthenakis",slug:"vasilis-fthenakis",fullName:"Vasilis Fthenakis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3676",title:"Solar Collectors and Panels",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"solar-collectors-and-panels--theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Reccab Manyala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12002",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Reccab",surname:"Manyala",slug:"reccab-manyala",fullName:"Reccab Manyala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2154",title:"Energy Storage",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98b5e296523724495675754b80db6245",slug:"energy-storage-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ahmed Faheem Zobaa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39249",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed F.",surname:"Zobaa",slug:"ahmed-f.-zobaa",fullName:"Ahmed F. Zobaa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1679",title:"Solar Radiation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b0b9fb90b15500b61d5a45e26648ff57",slug:"solar-radiation",bookSignature:"Elisha B. Babatunde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1679.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103748",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisha B.",surname:"Babatunde",slug:"elisha-b.-babatunde",fullName:"Elisha B. Babatunde"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"64890",slug:"erratum-emergency-operations-of-sudden-water-pollution-accidents",title:"Erratum - Emergency Operations of Sudden Water Pollution Accidents",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64890.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64890",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64890",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64890",chapter:{id:"64626",slug:"emergency-operations-of-sudden-water-pollution-accidents",signatures:"Jin Quan, Lingzhong Kong, Xiaohui Lei and Mingna Wang",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"October 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 1st 2018",datePublished:"December 19th 2018",book:{id:"8874",title:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",slug:"emergency-operation-technologies-for-sudden-water-pollution-accidents-in-the-middle-route-of-south-to-north-water-diversion-project",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",bookSignature:"Xiaohui Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC 4.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"282118",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohui",middleName:null,surname:"Lei",slug:"xiaohui-lei",fullName:"Xiaohui Lei"}],productType:{id:"4",title:"Compact",chapterContentType:"compact",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},authors:[{id:"280923",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",fullName:"Lingzhong Kong",slug:"lingzhong-kong",email:"lzkong@126.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"64626",slug:"emergency-operations-of-sudden-water-pollution-accidents",signatures:"Jin Quan, Lingzhong Kong, Xiaohui Lei and Mingna Wang",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"October 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 1st 2018",datePublished:"December 19th 2018",book:{id:"8874",title:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",slug:"emergency-operation-technologies-for-sudden-water-pollution-accidents-in-the-middle-route-of-south-to-north-water-diversion-project",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",bookSignature:"Xiaohui Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC 4.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"282118",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohui",middleName:null,surname:"Lei",slug:"xiaohui-lei",fullName:"Xiaohui Lei"}],productType:{id:"4",title:"Compact",chapterContentType:"compact",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},authors:[{id:"280923",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",fullName:"Lingzhong Kong",slug:"lingzhong-kong",email:"lzkong@126.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8874",title:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Emergency Operation Technologies for Sudden Water Pollution Accidents in the Middle Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project",slug:"emergency-operation-technologies-for-sudden-water-pollution-accidents-in-the-middle-route-of-south-to-north-water-diversion-project",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",bookSignature:"Xiaohui Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC 4.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"282118",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohui",middleName:null,surname:"Lei",slug:"xiaohui-lei",fullName:"Xiaohui Lei"}],productType:{id:"4",title:"Compact",chapterContentType:"compact",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10572",leadTitle:null,title:"Advancements in Chromophore and Bio-Chromophore Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe textbook would target the recent most developments in the chromophores (dyes, pigments, organic compounds with extended conjugation and their metal-complexes) and bio-chromophores (natural biomolecules such as metalloenzymes and artificial biomolecules for instance those developed by integrating biomolecules with chromophores) based research.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will entail design, development, and industrial applications of new and novel dyes and pigments from wide areas of organic and inorganic chemistry along with biological sciences. Besides, this book will comprise recent design and development on organic molecules and their metal-complexes towards the detection of biologically and environmentally concerned cations, anions, neutral molecules via chromogenic, fluorometric, and electrochemical signaling responses using UV/vis, emission, and electrochemical techniques. Further, the advancements in the bio-chromophores for detection of biologically vital as well as harmful ions and molecules using colorimetric changes via UV/vis technique, fluorimetric signaling through emission technique, and electrochemical changes by cyclic voltammetry (CV), LSV, etc. will also be included in this book.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-341-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-340-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-342-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4aca0af0356d8d31fa8621859a68db8f",bookSignature:"Dr. Rampal Pandey",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10572.jpg",keywords:"Organic Probes, Metal-Complex Probes, Nano-Probes, Fluorometric Readout, Electrochemical Response, Environmentally Concerned Analytes, Bio-Chromophores, Biomolecular Detection, Multichannel Signaling Response, Absorption, Emission, Electrochemical",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 15th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 13th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 3rd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A leading young researcher in the chromophore, MOF, and soft material research, Appointed Associate Dean at NIT Uttarakhand, received Presidents Inspire Teacher Award, published quality international papers, registred patents, developed MOOC and e-PG Pathshala contents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338234",title:"Dr.",name:"Rampal",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",slug:"rampal-pandey",fullName:"Rampal Pandey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338234/images/system/338234.jpg",biography:"DR RAMPAL PANDEEY\nAssistant Professor (Chemistry) & Associate Dean (Faculty Welfare & International Affairs) \n\t \nACADEMIC and PROFESSIONAL DETAILS\n1. Assistant Professor (Gr-1), The President’s Inspired Teacher, NIT Uttarakhand, India July 2018-To date \n2. Assistant Professor (DST INSPIRE Faculty), Dr. H. S. Gour University, Sagar, 2013-2018. \n3. Research Associate, September 2012-June, 2013 BHU, Varanasi (U.P.),\n4. Senior Research Fellow (2010-2012) Junior Research Fellow: (2009-2010), BHU, Varanasi. \n5. Teaching Assistant: 2012-13 (BHU) and Teaching Assistant: 2005-06 (APS University, Rewa). \n6. Post PG Project: (06 Months) 2004, BARC, Mumbai.\n7. M.Sc. (Inorganic Chemistry) in 2004; B.Sc. in 2002 from A.P.S. University, Rewa, India. \nADDITIONAL QUALIFICATION\n1.\tNET Qualified\n2. GATE Qualified\nRESEARCH GUIDANCE \n1.\tPhD Awarded: 01 (one); On-going 04 (four). One JRF trained under my project.\nRESEARCH PROJECTS \n1. DST Project (Rs. 35,00,000/-) 01/07/2013 to 30/06/2018.\n2. Co-ordinating MOOC programme (Rs. 13,00,000/-), Status: On-going \nHONORS and AWARDS \n1.\tVDGOOD International Outstanding Scientist Award-2020\n2.\tExcellent work appreciation from NIT Uttarakhand (present employer)-2020\n3.\tThe President’s Inspired Teacher (Recognized in 2015) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspired_Teacher)\n4.\tAmerican Chemical Society Award (3 yr membership) for significant research-2015\n5.\tBest poster award in RSC-CRSI at NCL Pune, India-2015\n6.\tBest poster award (IYL) Conference at Dr. H. S. Gour University, Sagar, India-2015\n7.\tDST-INSPIRE Faculty Award-2012\n8.\tSenior Research Fellowship, CSIR, New Delhi, India-2010\n9.\tBest (1st) poster award at IISc, Bangalore, India-2010.\n10.\t1st ranker in university entrance examination for MBA-IR-2002\nMEMBERSHIP \n1.\tThree (03) year member of American Chemical Society (ACS), USA\n2.\tAnnual member of Royal Chemical Society (RSC), UK (No. 574194) \n3.\tLife member of Chemical Research Society of India (CRSI) (No. LM 1051).\n4. Life member of Society of Material Chemistry of India (SMC-INDIA) (No. LM-647).\n\nRESEARCH PUBLICATIONS (Cumulative Impact Factor 131; h-index 15, i10 23)\nInternational (41) in ACS, RSC, Elsevier, Wiley-Intersciences \nNational (03) \nPATENTS\nOne (01) GRANTED; one (01) under revision \n\n(a) Online Invited lectures delivered: 02\n(b) Invited lectures: 06 (02 International; 04 National), \n(c) Oral lectures: 03; Poster: 15 \n(d) Resource Person: 01\n(e) Conferences/meetings organized: 08 \n\nBook Chapters Written: 01 \n\ne-CONTENT DEVELOPMENT \n1. MHRD-UGC e-pathashala programme \n(a) Developed e-texts of 20 modules. \n(b) Delivered e-lectures of 09 modules available on YouTube by MHRD-UGC\nhttps://youtu.be/9nDUfojnjNk https://youtu.be/YKlQQodPXMo https://youtu.be/1WCpvT7wLso \n \n2. MOOC programme on-going (Role: Co-coordinator) \n(a) Developed 40 modules under my supervision\n(b) Seven (07) e-content developed as content writer.",institutionString:"National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61278",title:"Heat Transfer of Helix Energy Pile: Part 1: Traditional Cylinder Helix Energy Pile",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76820",slug:"heat-transfer-of-helix-energy-pile-part-1-traditional-cylinder-helix-energy-pile",body:'\nEnergy saving and environmental protection have been the symbols in modern development. In China, “Strategic Action Plan for Energy Development (2014—2020)” was published in November 2014 in order to achieve sustainable development. The plan points out that the non-fossil energy share of primary energy consumption would reach 15% by 2020 and the utilized quantity of geothermal energy would run up to 50 million tons of standard coal. Ground source heat pump (GSHP) is an efficient technology to exploit the shallow geothermal energy and has been applied extensively in building energy conservation.
\nGSHP utilizes the ground maintaining a nearly constant temperature as the heat source or sink, and the particular underground temperature is appropriate for efficient operation of the unit. The most important component for GSHP is the ground heat exchanger (GHE) and the borehole GHE with U-type tube. However, the high installation and drilling cost restrict the application of borehole GHE, especially for rocky areas. Therefore, energy piles [1] have been proposed and widely applied for its good economic and well-heated transfer performance. The primary structure forms of energy piles consisting of U type [2, 3, 4] (such as single U type, parallel double U type, triple U type and series U type) and helix type [5, 6, 7] and the helix energy piles (HEPs) are promising GHEs due to the characteristics of large heat exchange rate and no air choking in the pipes. However, due to the features of complex helix structures, shallow burial and a large diameter of the pile, the heat transfer characteristics of HEPs are completely different from the U-type borehole GHE and would not be described by classical Kelvin’s line source. Hence, the heat transfer of HEP has formed an academic focus.
\nHelix energy pile is a new kind of heat exchanger for ground source heat pump. It is usually buried in the building concrete pile foundation, combined with the building structure. Compared with the conventional U-type and W-type energy pile, helix energy pile has a larger heat transfer area under the same depth. In addition, helix energy pile can avoid the problem of air accumulation at the top of U-type and W-type ones. As for the traditional helix energy pile, the tube is wound on the cylindrical wall as shown in Figure 1, which is called the cylinder helix energy pile (CyHEP) in this section.
\nCylinder helix energy pile (CyHEP).
Through literature research and analysis, it was found that due to the complicated structure of the cylinder helix energy pile, and there is a lack of research on the heat transfer model of it. At present, the heat transfer model is mainly a thermal conductivity model. It is considered that the thermo-physical properties of the pile backfill are the same as those of the soil, which is different from the actual heat transfer process. Most of the numerical solution models are simulated with commercial CFD software. However commercial CFD software has modeling and meshing difficulties, poor flexibility and other shortcomings. Based on the above reasons, a new discrete method of cylinder helix energy pile is presented in this section, and a three-dimensional numerical heat transfer model is established based on a transient heat balance theory. It can provide a more accurate description of the heat transfer process of the cylinder helix energy pile, thus providing design guidance for the actual project.
\nFigure 2 shows the sketch of a discretized helix energy pile. As shown in the figure, the continuous, circular cross-section helical fluid is discretely divided into a finite number of discrete, non-continuous stepped and square cross-section cells. The shape of a single fluid cell is shown in Figure 3, which is a micro-cell under the cylindrical coordinate system. In this way, the discrete fluid unit body can be better combined with the cylindrical coordinate system to facilitate the establishment of the heat balance equation of the fluid unit body, the backfill material and the geotechnical unit body.
\nThe sketch of discretized helix energy pile.
The sketch of the heat balance of unit body.
Taking each discrete element as the research object, the amount of energy change per unit time of the element is equal to the net amount of heat transferred from the adjacent element, which is the essence of the transient heat balance principle of the element. As shown in Figure 4, within a certain period of time, the transient thermal equilibrium equation of the unit body is shown as the following:
\nwhere qz+、qz− are heat flux transferred from the unit below and above in the z direction to the calculated unit, W/m2; qr+、qr− are heat fluxes transferred from the unit in the radial positive normal direction and the negative normal direction to the calculated unit, W/m2; qθ+、qθ− are heat fluxes transferred from the unit in the positive normal of θ direction and the negative normal of θ direction to the calculated unit, W/m2; ρ is the density of the calculated unit, kg/m3; cp is the specific heat of the calculated unit, J·m−3·°C−1; V(i,j,k) is the volume of the calculated unit, V(i,j,k) = zsp·[0.5θsp(j) (r2(i) − r2(i − 1))], m3; θsp is the increment in θ direction; τsp is the time step, s; T is the temperature, °C.
\nThe sketch of the positional relation of special unit body.
It is the key for the principle of transient heat balance to determine the heat transfer q between adjacent unit bodies in Eq. (1). And the heat transfer q between adjacent unit bodies is determined by the temperature difference and thermal resistance of adjacent unit bodies as shown in Eq. (2):
\nwhere Rz+, Rz− is the heat transfer resistance between the unit below and above in the z direction and the calculated unit, °C·m2·W−1; Rr+, Rr− is the heat transfer resistance between the unit in the radial positive normal direction and the negative normal direction and the calculated unit, °C·m2·W−1; Rθ+, Rθ− is the heat transfer resistance between the unit in the positive normal of θ direction and the negative normal of θ direction and the calculated unit, °C·m2·W−1.
\nIn sum, for the three-dimensional heat transfer model proposed in this section, the key lies in the calculation of heat flow or thermal resistance, and the heat flow and thermal resistance for different types of unit bodies are determined, respectively.
\n(1) Thermal resistance calculation for unit body not in contact with the fluid: As for the unit body not in contact with the fluid, the heat transfer is a pure thermal conduction process; thus, the thermal resistance in the z direction, r direction and θ direction can be calculated as following:
\nwhere λs is the thermal conductivity of soil, W·m−1·°C and rc(i) is the distance from center of calculated unit to center of the pile, m.
\n(2) Thermal resistance calculation for unit body in contact with fluid: For the unit body in contact with fluid, as shown in Figure 4, the heat transfer resistance of C1 and C6 units should include three items: fluid convection thermal resistance, thermal conductivity resistance of the wall and thermal conductivity resistance of the backfills. Thus, for a typical unit body C2, the thermal resistance in the z direction can be calculated as the following and the other thermal resistances of unit body C2 can be calculated in the same way as thermal resistance calculation for unit body not in contact with the fluid. In the same way, the calculation methods of the thermal resistances of the unit bodies C1 and C3–C6 in contact with the fluid are similar to those of the unit body C2.
\nwhere λg is the thermal conductivity of the backfill, W·m−1·°C; δ is the spiral wall thickness, m; h is the convection heat transfer coefficient inside the tube, W·m−2·°C−1.
\n(3) Heat flow calculation for fluid unit: Due to the discretized fluid cell body being in the form of stairs, in terms of geometry, the upper ladder cell body (cell F3 in Figure 4) and the lower ladder cell body (cell F1 in Figure 4) fail to ensure the continuity of flow and heat transfer. Therefore, in order to ensure continuity, it is assumed that the upper fluid unit F3 and the lower fluid unit F1 have a thermal effect, and the fluid unit F3 and the backfilling unit C1 and the fluid unit F1 and the backfilling unit C3 are insulated. Based on the above assumptions, the expression of heat flow in the θ direction of the fluid units F3 and F2 can be obtained as shown in Eq. (9). And heat transfer resistance in other directions is determined by the calculation of the thermal resistance of the unit in contact with the fluid. For the F1 fluid unit, in order to ensure the continuity of the fluid, qθ− should be the heat transferred from unit F3 to unit F1, and it is calculated in the same way as unit F3 and unit F2.
\nwhere m is the fluid flow, m3·s−1 and cp,f is the fluid specific heat, J·m−3·°C−1.
\n(4) Soil surface boundary condition: As the helix energy pile is shallow, pile depth is generally about 10 m; the soil surface environmental factors, such as air temperature, will affect the soil temperature of the pile foundation, thus affecting its heat transfer performance. For pile foundations installed in the basement, this section ignores the radiative heat transfer between the ground and other surfaces in the basement. And considering the convective heat transfer between the ground and the air, the boundary conditions of the soil surface are given by Eq. (10).
\nwhere A(i,j,0) is the top surface area of the unit (i,j,0), A(i,j,0) = θsp(r(i)2 − r(i − 1)2), m2; ha is the convection heat transfer coefficient, W·m−2·°C−1 and Ta is the air temperature, °C.
\nThen the heat flow or thermal resistance formula of each type of unit body above is brought into the heat balance, Eq. (1), and the linear equations of the temperature field of helix energy pile at time τ can be obtained. The temperature field of fluid and heat transfer area is calculated with the C# programming language in the visual studio program developed platform, using the Gauss–Seidel iterative method. This is the three-dimensional numerical heat transfer model established in this section based on transient heat balance theory. It can provide more accurate description of the heat transfer process of the cylinder helix energy pile, thus providing design guidance for the actual project.
\nFor helix energy piles, the heat transfer along the pipe and the geothermal temperature distribution characteristics are of great significance to the optimal design of the heat exchangers. The engineering significance of pitch, pile diameter, flow rate and other design parameters can be obtained from the perspective of efficient heat transfer. Based on the establishment of the three-dimensional numerical heat transfer model of the helix energy pile mentioned above, this section analyzes the fluid heat transfer along the pipe and geothermal temperature distribution characteristics and lays a theoretical foundation for its optimization design.
\nFor helix energy piles, since the fluid flows downward along the tube length spirally in the spiral tube, the general direction of the fluid flow is vertically downward; there is no “reverse” flow between the fluids, the fluid temperature in the tube has the characteristic of gradually decreasing or increasing along the flow direction of the tube. And according to the geometric characteristics of the helix energy pile, the spiral pipe is divided into four stages of heat transfer along the process, as shown in Figure 5.
Entrance stage (L1): In the vicinity of the inlet part of the helix pipe, the top of the pipe is in direct contact with the covered area, and there is no heat exchange pipe in the covered area. In addition to transferring heat (cold) in the radial direction, fluid in the pipe also transfers heat (cold) to the covered area in the axial direction, so this stage has a larger heat exchange capacity. However, as the flow progresses, the distance between the helical fluid and the covered area is further away; the axial heat transfer gradually decreases, and the thermal short circuit between the adjacent spiral coils in the axial direction becomes stronger and stronger. The heat transfer efficiency gradually decreases, resulting in a gradual decline in heat transfer. Define the above stage as the entrance stage; the heat exchanger length is L1.
Thermal short circuit stage (L2): With the increase of the distance along the pipeline, the entrance stage is over; the phenomenon of thermal short circuit between adjacent spiral pipes in the axial direction is serious, and the amount of cold (heat) emitted from the spiral fluid in the axial direction to the soil is less and less. The amount of cold (heat) is mainly transmitted in the diameter direction. Due to the limited volume of the backfill area and the large temperature difference between the fluid in the initial stage of the spiral pipe and the surrounding soil/backfill, the intensity of the heat transfer is relatively large and the amount of cold (heat) emitted to the backfill area aggregates, resulting in the backfill area being short circuited seriously in the diameter direction, and this part is defined as the thermal short circuit stage; the length is L2. At this stage, it has the following salient features: the thermal short circuit effect in the diameter direction of the backfill area and the axial thermal short circuit effect are serious, but the thermal short circuit phenomenon in the diameter direction of the backfill area is gradually weakened and the heat exchange capacity gradually increases.
Small temperature difference stage (L3): When the thermal short circuit stage is over, the thermal short circuit phenomenon in the backfill area will be weak and the fluid temperature will decrease or increase further, resulting in lower heat transfer temperature difference between the fluid and the surrounding area; thus, the heat exchange capacity of the heat exchanger is gradually reduced. This stage is defined as the small temperature difference stage and the length is L3. This stage has the following salient features: temperature difference between fluid and rock and soil is small, capacity of geothermal storage (heat) is weak and heat transfer capacity gradually decreases.
Exit stage (L4): As the small temperature difference stage is over, the fluid is close to the outlet part of the helix pipe. This stage is defined as the exit stage and its length is L4. The exit stage is similar to the entrance stage. Since the spiral pipe near the exit is in direct contact with the soil at the bottom of the buried pipe, the axial thermal short circuit effect is weak. In addition to the heat exchange in the diameter direction, the fluid in the pipe also exchanges heat with the soil at the bottom of the ground tube. And as the fluid flows along the pipe, the distance between the spiral fluid and the bottom of the soil gradually shortens, the axial thermal short circuit effect becomes weak; thus, the heat transfer capacity gradually increases.
Heat transfer characteristic along the pipe.
Taking the case of summer heat release condition as an example, under the condition of constant inlet water temperature, the proposed three-dimensional numerical heat transfer model is used to simulate the fluid and soil temperature of the cylinder helix energy pile. And the four stages defined above are discussed. The main parameters of simulation are shown in Table 1. According to the thermo-physical properties of dense clay, the thermal conductivity of rock and soil is 1.2 W/(m·°C) and the specific heat of volume is 1680 kJ/(m3·°C). The thermal conductivity of backfilling material is 1.5 W/(m·°C), the specific heat of volume is 2200 kJ/(m3·°C) and the thermal conductivity of the spiral pipe is 0.45 W/(m·°C).
\nParameters | \nUnit | \nValue | \n
---|---|---|
Inlet water temperature | \n°C | \n35 | \n
Water flow rate | \nm/s | \n0.3 | \n
Running time | \nh | \n48 | \n
Cover soil depth | \nm | \n2 | \n
Buried depth of the pile | \nm | \n8 | \n
Diameter of the pile | \nm | \n1.5 | \n
Pitch | \nm | \n0.15 | \n
Main parameters of simulation.
Figure 6 shows the temperature distribution of the fluid at τ = 48 h. It can be seen from the figure that the temperature of the fluid decreases gradually along the length of the pipe. The rate of change of fluid temperature at the entrance and exit stages is obviously larger, indicating that at the inlet and outlet heat transfer stage, the axial heat transfer is more prominent.
\nFluid temperature distribution along the flow direction.
Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the changes of fluid heat transfer along the pipe and the vertical geothermal temperature distribution; we can clearly distinguish the four heat transfer stages proposed above.
Entrance stage (0–30 m): According to the vertical geothermal temperature field given in Figure 8, it can be seen that the soil temperature in the affected area at this stage has a large temperature gradient in the axial and radial directions, resulting in a significantly larger heat transfer at this stage. However, as the distance between the fluid and the covered area increases, the axial thermal interference between the adjacent spiral coils increases and the amount of heat exchange decreases rapidly.
Thermal short circuit stage (30–150 m): Due to the high fluid temperature at this stage, a large amount of heat is transferred to the backfill area and the volume of the backfill area is limited, resulting in the accumulation of heat in the backfill area with high temperature and strong thermal short circuit effect in the diameter direction of the backfill area. However, as shown in Figure 8, with the gradual increase of the distance along the distance, the temperature in the backfill zone gradually decreases; the thermal influence in the backfill area decreases, the thermal effect radius decreases, the thermal short circuit effect gradually decreases and the heat transfer capacity gradually increases.
Small temperature difference stage (150–320 m): After the heat exchange at the entrance and thermal short circuit stages, the fluid temperature is lower and the heat transfer temperature difference between the fluid and the surrounding heat transfer area is gradually reduced, and the effect of cold (heat) storage in the soil is poor, resulting in the decrease of heat transfer capacity at this stage.
Exit stage (320–344 m): This stage is similar to the entrance stage. The fluid is in direct contact with the soil at the bottom of the spiral pipe. The soil temperature has a large temperature gradient both in radial direction and in axial direction, and the heat transfer effect is better. With the increase of the distance along the path, the closer the distance between the spiral fluid and the bottom soil, the more obvious the axial heat transfer effect is, and the heat transfer capacity gradually increases.
Fluid heat flux along the flow direction.
Temperature field on r-z plane.
It can be seen from the analysis of the four stages that the entrance stage, thermal short circuit stage and exit stage belong to certain stages, and these three stages are beneficial for the whole heat exchange, especially for the entrance and exit stage; the heat transfer capacity is higher than the thermal short circuit and small temperature difference stages. For the small temperature difference stage, the heat transfer capacity decreases along the pipe length, so in the actual project design, it is necessary to reduce the proportion of the small temperature difference stage to the total heat exchange tube length and to maximize the other three stages, especially the entrance and exit stages.
\nBased on the proposed three-dimensional numerical heat transfer model, this section analyzes and discusses the influence of different design parameters (pile diameter, pile depth and pitch) on cylinder helix energy pile, providing effective and direct theoretical guidance for the actual project.
\nThe method of constant inlet water temperature is adopted to analyze and discuss the heat exchange capacity of the cylinder helix energy pile. The inlet temperature is 35°C and the flow rate is 0.3 m/s. According to the thermo-physical properties of dense clay, the thermal conductivity of rock and soil is 1.2 W/(m·°C) and the volumetric specific heat is 1680 kJ/(m3·°C). The thermal conductivity of backfill material is 1.5 W/(m·°C), volumetric specific heat is 2200 kJ/(m3·°C) and the thermal conductivity of the spiral pipe is 0.45 W/(m·°C).
\nFigure 9a shows the effect of pile diameter on heat flux per unit pipe length of the pile. The analysis shows that with the increase of pile diameter, the heat flux per unit pipe length decreases gradually, but the variation range is relatively small, which indicates that although the increase of pile diameter will cause the length of the spiral pipe to increase approximately proportionally, however, due to the increase of pile diameter, the phenomenon of thermal short circuit in the backfill area is weakened, which will weaken the influence on heat flux per unit pipe length. Taking the pile depth H = 8 m as an example, pitch b is, respectively, 0.1 and 0.3 m; when the pile diameter increases from 1 to 2.5 m, the average heat flux per unit pipe length decreases from 7.28 to 6.58 W/m, from 17.30 to 15.36 W/m, a relative decrease of 9.6 and 11.2%, respectively. The pile diameter increases by 0.1 m. The average heat flux per unit pipe length decreases by 0.047 and 0.129 W/m, respectively.
\nEffect of pile diameter on heat transfer performance. (a) Heat flux per unit pipe length. (b) Heat flux per unit pile depth.
Figure 9b shows the effect of pile diameter on the heat flux per unit pile depth of the pile. It can be seen from the figure that with the increase of pile diameter, the heat flux per unit pile depth increases approximately linearly, which is due to the increase of buried pipe length, that is, the contact area between spiral buried pipe and surrounding area increases, resulting in the heat transfer amount of the pile greatly increasing; thus, the heat flux per unit pile depth increases approximately linearly in proportion. Taking the pile depth H = 8 m as an example, the pitch b is, respectively, 0.1 and 0.3 m; when the pile diameter increases from 1 to 2.5 m, the average heat flux per unit pile depth increases from 228.8 to 516.3 W/m, from 182.0 to 402.3 W/m, an increase of 1.26 times and 1.21 times, respectively. The pile diameter increases by 0.1 m. The average heat flux per unit pile depth increases by 19.2 and 14.7 W/m, respectively.
\nFigure 10 shows the effect of different pile depths on the heat transfer performance under different pile diameters with pitch b = 0.1 m. As can be seen from the figure, with other conditions constant, the deeper the heat transfer pile, the longer the tube length, the lower the outlet temperature, the smaller the average heat transfer temperature difference and the smaller the heat flux per unit pipe length; at the same time, the increase of the pile depth will further increase the speed of the decrease of the heat flux per unit pipe length. Taking pile radius rp = 0.75 and 1.2 m as an example, the heat flux per unit pipe length decreases from 8.03 to 6.99 W/m and 8.02 to 6.02 W/m when the pile depth H increases from 2 to 10 m, a decline of 12.9 and 25.0%, respectively.
\nEffect of pile depth on heat transfer performance. (a) Heat flux per unit pipe length. (b) Heat flux per unit pile depth.
Similarly, for the heat flux per unit pile depth, due to the increase of pile depth, resulting in lower average heat transfer temperature difference, heat flux per unit pile depth decreases. In addition, under different pile diameter conditions, the difference of heat flux per unit pile depth is larger, and the larger the pile diameter, heat flux per unit pile depth decreases. Taking rp = 0.75 and 1.25 m as an example, when pile depth H increases from 2 to 10 m, the heat flux per unit pile depth decreases from 378.3 to 329.2 W/m and from 629.6 to 472.2 W/m, a decline of 12.9 and 25.0%, respectively.
\nFigure 11 shows the effect of pitch on heat transfer performance. Analysis finds that the pitch has greater impact on the heat flux per unit pipe length. Due to the increase of the pitch, the distance between the spiral tubes increases, and the axial short circuit phenomenon of the adjacent spiral tubes is weakened; thus, the heat flux per unit pipe length increases. Taking the pile radius rp = 0.5 m as an example, when the pile depth H = 8 m, the pitch increases from 0.1 m to 0.3 m; the heat flux per unit pipe length increases from 7.28 to 17.31 W/m, an increase of 1.38 times. For each 0.1 m increase in pitch, the heat flux per unit pipe length increases by an average of 3.34 W/m.
\nEffect of pitch on heat transfer performance. (a) Heat flux per unit pipe length. (b) Heat flux per unit pile depth.
Although the heat flux per unit pipe length increases approximately linearly with the increase of pitch, the heat flux per unit pile depth is approximately linearly reduced. The increase of pitch will reduce the axial thermal short circuit; thus, the effective heat transfer tube length is reduced for a certain size of the energy pile, that is, the effective heat transfer area of the fluid and the soil is reduced; thus, the total heat transfer amount of the pile is reduced. Taking the pile radius rp = 0.5 m as an example, when the pile depth H = 8 m, the pitch increases from 0.1 to 0.3 m; the heat flux per unit pile depth decreases from 228.8 to 182.0 W/m, decreases by 20.5%. For every 0.1 m increase in pitch, the heat flux per unit pile depth has an average of 15.6 W/m decrease.
\nBoth the analytical solution model and numerical solution model for CyHEP are built to discuss their dynamic characteristics of thermal interferences and heat transfer performance. The following conclusions can be drawn.
Four heat exchange stages for the spiral pile geothermal heat exchanger along the fluid flow direction are revealed: inlet heat exchange stage, grout thermal short-circuiting stage, small temperature difference stage and outlet heat exchange stage. Each stage has corresponding heat transfer characteristics, and reducing the length of small temperature difference stage and increasing the other stages would enhance the heat exchange of spiral geothermal ground heat exchanger.
As the pile diameter increases, the heat transfer per unit tube length decreases, and the heat exchange per unit pile depth increases. For every 0.1 m increase in pile diameter, the heat transfer per unit tube length decreases by an average from 0.047 to 0.129 W/m, and the unit heat exchange per unit pile depth increases by 14.7 to 19.2 W/m.
As the pile depth increases, the heat transfer per unit tube length and the heat exchange per unit pile depth are reduced. During the process of increasing H from 2 m to 10 m, the heat exchange per unit tube length and the heat exchange per unit pile depth are reduced from 1.04 to 2.00 W/m and 49.1–157.4 W/m, respectively.
As the pitch increases, the heat transfer per unit tube length increases, and the heat exchange per unit pile depth decreases. For a 0.1 m increase in pitch, the heat transfer per unit tube length increases by 3.34 W/m, and the unit heat exchange per pile depth decreases by 15.6 W/m.
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who helped me during the writing of this book. And I feel grateful to all the teachers in the Army Logistical University of PLA who once offered me valuable courses and advice during my study. Last, my thanks go to my beloved family for their loving considerations and great confidence in me all through these years. I also owe my sincere gratitude to my friends who gave me their help and time in listening to me and helping me work out my problems during the difficult course of the book.
\nThis work received support from the Research Initiative for Basic Science and Frontier Technology of Chongqing, China [cstc2016jcyjA0496], Natural Science Foundation of China [51706243].
\nWe declare that we have no financial and personal relationships with other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our work; there is no professional or other personal interest of any nature or kind in any product, service and/or company that could be construed as influencing the position presented in, or the review of, our work.
x, y, z | Cartesian coordinate (m) |
r, φ, z | cylindrical coordinate (m) |
R,φ, Z | dimensionless cylindrical coordinate |
h | height (m) |
H | dimensionless height |
r | radial coordinate (m) |
R | dimensionless radial coordinate |
ql | heating rate per length of pipe (W s−1) |
τ | the time (s) |
αs | thermal diffusivity (m−2 s) |
dp | distance from the heat source point to the calculated point (m) |
dn | distance from the heat sink point to the calculated point (m) |
Dp | dimensionless distance from the heat source point to the calculated point (m) |
Dn | dimensionless distance from the heat sink point to the calculated point (m) |
ρ | density (kg m−3) |
c | specific heat (J kg−1 K−1) |
λ | thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1) |
△T | the temperature rise (K) |
R | thermal resistance (m−1 K−1 W) |
L | Length of helix pipe |
Greek symbols | |
θ | cone angle (rad) |
φ | spiral angle (rad) |
Fo | Fourier number |
η | influence coefficient |
Θ | dimensionless temperature rise |
Superscript | |
´ | integration parameter |
ave. | the average value |
CyHEP | cylinder helix energy pile |
CoHEP | truncated cone helix energy pile |
t | top surface of pile |
b | base surface of pile |
mi | middle surface of pile |
i | the index of arc |
j | the index of coil |
k, n | the index of time |
p | Pipe |
f | fluid |
g | ground |
This chapter evaluates the means tests that apply in Australia against alternative principles that can be applied to evaluate the integration between the first and second pillars of a retirement income system. Central to the analysis are the Effective Marginal Tax Rates (EMTRs) that apply to the first pillar when subject to the means tests.
The Australian retirement income system consists of two main pillars: the means tested Age Pension (AP) and Superannuation [1]. The first pillar is a welfare benefit that is means tested and funded from general government revenue. The superannuation system consists mainly of privately administered funds in which members have investment accounts into which mandated contributions are paid. Members are able to take tax free lump sums from the age of 60, but many choose to withdraw “account-based pensions”, which allow members to vary the amount drawn—subject to a regulated minimum proportion of their accounts. A third pillar consists of voluntary savings including the home.
There are currently two separate components of the means tests, the income test and the assets test, and homeowners are treated differently from non-homeowners. The means test rules are Byzantine in their complexity and change frequently—sometimes with considerable effects on some groups of pensioners. The following description omits many details on the grounds of immateriality.
The AP dates back to the formation of Australia with Federation in 1909, the amounts being shown in Figure 1. It has increased roughly in line with average wages, with a particular boost under the Whitlam government of the early seventies. Relative to minimum wages, it has approximately doubled over the past century, which means that pensioners are better off relative to workers on lower incomes. This shift has partly been a response to old age poverty, but may also reflect the relative political influence of these two groups.
History of AP and means tests—couples.
Figure 1 also traces the development of the income and asset test free limits over the century. The two tests were merged between 1961 and 1985. Before 1969, pensions were not payable to those over the means test free limits, although between 1953 and 1971 assets were converted into income at a rate of 10%. From 1969, taper rates (the rate at which the AP is reduced as a proportion of the relevant means) of 50% have applied on income except for a period from 2000 to 2009 when they were reduced to 40%. The taper rate on the asset test seems to have been set at 7.8% except from 2007 to 2016 where it was only 3.9%.
The current AP for a married couple owning their own home is slightly in excess of $36,000 per annum, reduced by the greater of 50% of income over $7800 p.a. or by 7.8% of assets over a threshold of $394,500. Single pensions are a relatively generous 66% of those paid to a couple.
Those who are renting qualify for rental assistance of $3588 for singles but—strangely—only $3380 if a couple. The asset test limits for non-homeowners are also some $200,000 higher than for homeowners.
The Australian means tests appear to be particularly complex and Australian pensioners on a wider range of incomes and with a wider range of assets are affected by the taper rates under the means tests than pensioner residents of other countries [2].
The Department of Social Services (DSS) explains and justifies the means tests thus: “The means test functions to assess a person’s overall capacity for self-support and target social security expenditure according to need. … Means testing also provides incentives for self-provision in the form of participation and saving. The means test balances these objectives by the use of income and assets free areas and the tapered withdrawal of payment as a person’s assessable income and assets increase” [3].
The DSS discussion paper [3] also lists the criteria against which the current means testing system should be judged. Those principles need to encompass the treatment of a variety of types of asset (especially annuity and deferred annuity products) as well as financial and other investments and physical assets.
“Neutrality—the means test assessment of investments should not advantage a particular type of product or provide an incentive for people to invest in a particular asset …
Equity—the rules should treat people with similar means in a consistent way (horizontal equity) and those who have a greater capacity to self-provide for their retirement should receive lower income support (vertical equity).
Resilience—the rules should be able to apply to a range of products, including new products, without diminishing neutrality and equity …
Integrity—the rules should ensure the social security system remains targeted to assisting those people who need support and that people cannot maximise their Age Pension by engaging in strategies that minimise the extent to which their own income or assets are counted in means test assessments.
Fiscal sustainability—the means test treatment of new retirement income stream products should have regard to the cost of the social security system.
Simplicity—the rules should be easy to understand for income support recipients, financial advisors and income stream providers. Complicated rules can result in people making poor financial decisions. Simple rules support people to make good decisions.”
We have no argument with these principles. This chapter, however, argues that the asset test is especially inequitable to the cautious who retain assets for precautionary purposes; makes planning extremely complex; and significantly distorts the investment and drawdown behaviour of many retirees. It therefore fails all the policy principles except possibly that of fiscal sustainability. There are alternative approaches that could better meet these principles including fiscal sustainability.
While not the main point of this chapter, the difference in treatment between home-owners and renters is egregiously inequitable, and needs to be discussed first as it would not be complex to address, and the adjustment could be performed in a manner which would be revenue-neutral.
The pressing issue is the dire position of those who neither own their own home nor have access to social housing. Given that only 10% (or about 200,000) of such properties had rents of less than $10,000 annually in 2011 [4], rent assistance of $3588 p.a. places considerable financial stress on those non-homeowners with limited other resources, many of whom are reduced to poverty or homelessness. Unpublished data from the Australian Department of Social Services shows 32,000 homes, where people are aged 65 and above and receiving rent assistance, are paying unaffordable rents in NSW [5]. It is a 50% rise in the past five years and includes 9000 people, 65 and over, who are paying more than half their income on rent.
Given that there are some 1.2 million people over 65 in NSW, this implies that about 2.5% of the aged population face the problem—90,000 country-wide. We make no detailed calculations as to precisely what would be fair, but suggest that the amount should be more or less doubled. While $6000 p.a. is not enough to fully cover rent, homeowners do face significant costs that would have to be considered in detailed modelling. Doubling rent assistance to pensioners not in social housing would cost less than $200 m, which is close to 0.25% of the cost of support to the aged.
At the other end of the financial spectrum, the exemption of the home from the asset tests means that there may well be as many pensioners receiving the AP while living in multi-million dollar houses. Particularly given that dwellings and land represent over 50% of the household balance sheet, an exemption seems myopic and distorts financial planning, spending, investment and the price of housing [6, 7]. The DSS discussion paper justifies it so:
“The exemption of the principal residence from the assets test recognises the greater financial security that pensioners have if they live in their own home and importance placed on the family home in Australian society.”
While these assertions are clearly true, the rational conclusion would be to include homes in the assets test rather than exclude them precisely for these reasons. Home ownership does provide financial security so those who rent need to be given more, while those who obviously have secure lodgings need less social support. The “importance placed on the family home” emphasises this. For many, however, the “family home” has three empty bedrooms and is crumbling around the surviving parent, who is increasingly unable to manage the activities of daily living, let alone maintain the house. But the homeowner is not willing to downsize to a less expensive and more manageable property, sometimes for psychological reasons but often also because of the negative impact on their main source of income, the AP.
Each of the criteria mentioned in Section 2.4, except perhaps simplicity, demand the inclusion of the principal residence. The arguments against ignore the disadvantages faced by renters. Homes provide an imputable rent and the AP should be adjusted if pensioners decide to spend more on it.
The need to include the value of the house in the asset test has been recommended by almost all who have considered the question. There have been eight different recommendations in as many years: the Harmer Pension Review, the Henry Review, a Grattan Report, three Productivity Commission reports, Rice-Warner and the National Commission of Audit [8]. It seems overwhelmingly clear that affordability issues should be addressed by including the value of the home.
There are two reasons to distinguish one source of wealth from another. The first is the basic human right of housing security; the second is fungibility. These two can explain much of the visceral response of some people when suggestions are made to include the home in the means tests. The right to housing has a simple logic: if people do not have their own place, they must occupy someone else’s. This right must include some security of tenure to be meaningful, and without some security and protections for both renters and owners the incentive to care for and improve the place is absent. Addressing the lack of security enjoyed by renters is the subject of another debate. Those interested in some of the theoretical and political controversies might like to refer to Hayward [9].
The problem of fungibility is that the home cannot easily be turned into income. Conventional reverse mortgages are relatively expensive and, given the normal operation of compound interest, may lead to significant reductions in the net residual value of the home which might constrain future choices if the borrower wishes to move into other accommodation. There is also a government scheme (the “Pension Loans Scheme”) that lends the AP shortfall to part pensioners. The interest rates charged are a little lower than commercial reverse mortgages but more restrictions apply to eligibility and the manner of drawdown of funds.
If the value of the home is to be included in the means tests, then the lack of fungibility means that some pensioners at least will be worse off. Johnson and colleagues [8] refer to a growing consensus for effective instruments to address the issue of fungibility, and refers to some commercial schemes including those that share capital appreciation.
Careful consideration would need to be devoted to transitional arrangements so that inclusion of the home (or the excess of the value of the home above some threshold value) does not bear unreasonably harshly on those pensioners who have already retired, in the expectation that the current means testing rules will continue to apply (perhaps with slight adjustment to parameters) throughout their retirements.
The key issue addressed by this chapter is the way by which the AP is reduced by financial assets—including those in superannuation funds. As will become clear in this section, the issue is not simply the “taper rate” (the rate at which the AP is reduced in relation to assets held above the assets test threshold), because the long-term effects are very different for different approaches to the drawdown of the superannuation balance.
We take it as given that the objective of the superannuation system is to provide for consumption in retirement, and that the AP supplements this for those who do not have the means to support themselves. One important consequence of this is that superannuation benefits are to be seen as a mechanism for supporting the lifestyle of retired Australians, not as a mechanism by which the real capital value of a pensioner’s estate is maintained or grown, to be passed to non-dependents. The current dominance of account-based pensions does not achieve this result, and we could argue that the pooling of longevity risk should be encouraged by the means tests. This is however not the main thrust of this chapter, which is the unfairness and distortions created by the asset test.
In each case, we consider the marginal losses to AP entitlements that arise from having assets over the thresholds. We refer to these as EMTRs. Legally, the tapers in the AP are not “taxes”, but given that money is fungible, the loss of social security entitlements caused by having additional assets is effectively the same as a tax.
Figure 2 illustrates EMTRs for those who retain their assets and spend their income. It applies at any one time, and would apply over a lifetime to a single person and show the results of earning a real rate of interest of 3% and another earning 5%. The assets test creates a trough in income between about $300,000 and $700,000 in assessable assets. Within the assets testing range where the assets test produces a lower AP entitlement than the income test, annual income declines with increasing assets because the income from the marginal assets (whether returning 3% p.a. or 5% p.a.) is less than the AP foregone, which is 7.8% p.a. The calculations do not consider any investment volatility.
The asset trough for those who retain assets.
A more complete picture may be obtained by considering the impact of holding additional assets over the course of a retiree’s lifetime. We do this for a variety of asset levels and drawdown strategies. We also vary the following:
Assumed future real rates of investment return on assets
Drawdown strategy adopted
Demographic status (single male/single female/couple)
Initial level of assets held
For purpose of our calculations it may be helpful to define “lifetime EMTR” as follows:
where $X is the base level of assets held when the pensioner first becomes eligible for AP; $δ is an incremental amount of assets in addition to $X hypothetically held when the pensioner first becomes eligible for AP; DS refers to a specified Drawdown Strategy; PV (AP; $X; DS) is the present value of AP received over the lifetime of the single of couple pensioner assuming initial assets of $X and that the pensioner follows drawdown strategy DS.
In other words, the lifetime EMTR is the present value of the future loss of AP due to holding additional assets $δ at age pension eligibility age, as a percentage of those additional assets. A lifetime EMTR of zero means that the pensioner has incurred no loss of AP as a result of holding an additional $δ of assets, while a lifetime EMTR of 100% would mean that the pensioner has effectively received no net value from the additional $δ of assets.
For some of the results in this chapter (especially in Section 5.1 below) we have taken $X to be the lower assets testing threshold and $δ to be the width of the asset testing range (i.e. from the threshold to the level of assets where the AP is zero). The EMTR is therefore the impact of holding additional assets equal to the width of the asset testing range, relative to holding assets of an amount equal to the lower assets test threshold. We have also performed a set of calculations for smaller tranches of incremental assets, for drawdown strategies in the following specific forms:
Asset drawdown each year is the regulated minimum required as a proportion of the beginning of year assets. We have also calculated EMTRs for annual consumption expenditure from 1% to 5% higher than the minimum—in 1% increments.
Asset drawdown each year is a fixed percentage of the beginning of year assets. The fixed percentages for which we evaluated EMTRs were varied from 5% to 15% in multiples of 2.5%.
The asset testing range for a single pensioner is approximately $300,000 in total width (from $253,750 to approximately $552,000). We have taken $δ for single pensioner calculations to be $100,000, and have therefore calculated three separate EMTRs for the asset testing range. Similarly, the asset testing range for pensioner couples is very nearly $450,000 in total width and we have taken $δ for calculations involving couples to be $150,000.
In total we have done six computations of EMTRs for each drawdown strategy, demographic status and rate of real investment return considered, reflecting marginal lifetime losses of AP from holding an additional $100,000 of assets (for singles, and $150,000 for couples) at the date of becoming eligible for the AP. Three of the calculated EMTRs apply within the asset testing range and three to assets in excess of the asset testing range but where the additional assets held will result in the loss of AP not immediately, but after a period of time when the assets are depleted to an amount within the asset testing range.
Table 1 shows the parameters for each of the six sets of calculations.
Asset ranges.
The results of these detailed EMTR evaluations are reported in Section 5.2 below.
Table 2 summarises the assumed AP parameters that we have used for the purposes of the detailed calculations in this chapter. (The parameters in Table 2 were those that applied between September 2017 and March 2018; however we note that most of the parameters below change only gradually over time, due to indexation).
AP projection assumptions.
Also implicitly we have assumed, by using a real rate of investment return (where by “real” we mean relative to average weekly ordinary time earnings—AWE) that future rates of AP payment will be indexed to AWE and also that future lower and upper thresholds for the assets test and income test will also be indexed to AWE. Current practice is for AP payment amounts to be indexed normally to AWE but threshold amounts are indexed to CPI; nevertheless for simplicity of calculation, both payment amounts and thresholds have been assumed to be indexed to AWE. If we had used CPI, the EMTRs reported would still apply, but at slightly different levels of assets.
The results below show first the extent to which alternative strategies can contribute to significantly higher AP benefits over a lifetime. Then, in Section 5.2, we show the EMTRs that apply to retirees subject to different circumstances when they use the alternative strategies.
Figure 3 shows the lifetime effects (until age 109) of the various strategies for a single pensioner. We have assumed assets exactly equal to the top of the asset test level, which produces the largest impact—for illustration purposes.
Alternative retirement consumption patterns.
The first strategy is for the pensioner to draw down the minimum permitted by superannuation regulations. Her spending is shown as the unbroken Minimum drawdown line in Figure 3. This is the strategy we understand is adopted by approximately half of pensioners, more than any other strategy [10]. Its presence in regulations as a minimum gives it an implicit authority and we have taken it as an effective benchmark. Her spending pattern is however totally inappropriate—starting at $28,000 p.a. at 67 and rising to $48,000 at 85 before declining again. We have also calculated the actuarial present value of the benefits to the member, her dependents and as a reduction in AP. The value of her assets at the beginning of retirement is shared into roughly equal thirds: one to herself, one to her heirs, and one in fiscal savings. That means tests are structured to permit the heirs to inherit a third of the superannuation benefit represents a lack of targeting of superannuation and the means tests.
A second strategy is to give away enough of her assets to escape the asset test altogether, which the regulations require her to do before 62—five years before becoming entitled to the pension. She then draws down at the minimum rate. This dashed line shows somewhat bizarrely that, at 67, her income is $6000 p.a. (20%) higher than if she had not given the money away. This amount falls slightly after her mid-eighties, but it is reasonable level and appropriate. Her share of the benefits drops only slightly to 29%, because the savings to the fiscus is minimal, with its proportion dropping to 2% (via deemed income caught by the income test). The heirs’ share more than doubles to 69%—$260,000 of which they receive before the pensioner reaches the age of 62. This is by far the most fiscally efficient for the pensioner and family. Rather than be given away, the money could be invested in her residence or spent before the pension age. The alternatives, singly or in combination, would allow the pensioner to directly enjoy 98% of her savings.
A third alternative is for the pensioner to spend the money after retirement in order to maintain the “comfortable lifestyle” determined by the Association of Superannuation Funds of Australia (ASFA) [11] until she falls below the asset test threshold, after which she reverts to the minimum. The income is shown in the Comfortable line in Figure 3. She enjoys a 50% higher standard of living than the benchmark, and remains above it until her early eighties. Her share of her savings rises to a little over 50%, with her heirs and fiscal savings sharing the balance.
A final alternative therefore is a level lifetime annuity. The total income and the amount provided by the annuity plus Age Pension are shown by the dotted and dashed lines. The present value is shared 70% to the pensioner and the balance to the fiscus.
In addition to the broad calculations of EMTRs referred to in Section 5.1 above, we have computed EMTRs for smaller values of δ ($100,000 for singles and $150,000 for couples). The objective of these calculations was to gain additional insight into the extent to which asset-testing rules impacted EMTRs as a function of base asset levels, investment returns and drawdown strategy combinations.
For these more granular calculations a slightly different approach was taken to mortality assumptions than in the calculations underlying Appendix 1 and Section 5.1. In particular it was assumed that a single female would receive AP for 25 years and a single male would receive AP for 22 years. These durations are slightly higher than the life expectancies for a 65-year-old according to Australian Life Tables (ALT) 2010–2012, which are 22.05 and 19.22 years for females and males respectively. Ongoing improvement to mortality means that current age-specific mortality in Australia is lower than mortality rates that applied during the 2010–2012 triennium and is likely to continue to decline in future.
For couples, it was assumed that the couple rate of pension would be payable for 22 years and the single rate for a further 5 years. This is because the expected age at death of the last to die from a couple is greater than the expected age at death of either considered separately.
The drawdown strategies allowed for are those detailed in Section 4.3 above.
Figure 4 shows EMTRs for a single pensioner using the minimum drawdown strategy we use as a benchmark.
EMTRs based on drawing down the regulated minimum—single pensioners.
The curves show the EMTR of a marginal additional of $100,000 of assets at the eligibility age for the AP, valued over the lifetime of the pensioner. We note from Figure 4 that female EMTRs are slightly higher than the corresponding male EMTRs, due to the longer life expectancy of females. This means that they have more time to lose AP to the means tests.
The effect of different investment earnings is significantly greater than those for the two genders. For example, the 5% real interest curves fall away more steeply for base asset level of $553,000 or more (that is, at or above the upper assets test threshold). This occurs because the 5% real interest rate will tend to mean that, if assets are at or above the upper asset test threshold when the pensioner attains eligibility age, then the value of assets will remain above the upper threshold over the entire lifetime, and no further AP is foregone. However if assets are within the asset testing range at AP eligibility age, they will remain between the thresholds for longer so increasing the loss of AP. At lower rates of real interest, the asset values are depleted more quickly over time with the result that less AP is lost at lower starting balances. Assets over the upper threshold depreciate faster, so more is lost from an incremental $100,000.
Finally, the most significant observation is just how high the EMTRs are, throughout the asset testing range (especially in the middle and upper thirds of the asset testing range). Top marginal income tax rates in Australia are currently only 47%, so any EMTR in excess of this appears unfair and provides an incentive to adopt means test avoidance strategies. EMTRs in the range of 80%, 90%, 100%, or even higher represent a very powerful incentive to:
Give money away 5 years prior to attaining eligibility age;
Spend down rapidly in the first few years on pension;
Spend money on house renovations, or even purchase a more expensive property; or finally,
Not save in the first place. This can involve higher borrowing at younger ages to be repaid by superannuation lump sums, or retire early and draw them down before qualifying for the AP.
All of these are obviously distortions to the economic decisions that the pre-retiree would otherwise have made. Those who adopt such strategies will also be an increased burden on the public purse.
While the results will vary significantly depending on the underlying assumptions, one can draw three conclusions from these calculations:
Pensioners are penalised, and greater fiscal savings accrue, the longer pensioners retain their asset-testable assets.
The penalties can be reduced by giving money directly to heirs, by spending the money faster, and especially by investing in the family home. These actions are therefore incentivised.
There are very significant gains that can be made by adopting different drawdown strategies. Determining an optimal strategy is however complex for pensioners, made more difficult by ongoing changes in the means test rules. Forecasting is also difficult for government as pensioners change their strategies in response to the incentives.
We now consider whether the system meets the criteria set by the DSS.
The current structure of the asset test is not neutral when the rules are applied over a lifetime. Annuities do enjoy relatively favourable treatment relative to applying the minimum drawdown to an account-based pension, but the latter allows for flexibility that can be used to manipulate the rules to the point of avoiding the asset test entirely.
The current system creates significant inequities.
Horizontal inequity arises for people with the same level of wealth (which is at one level fungible). Non-homeowners with $1 million in assets will get no AP, while homeowners with a house of that value will draw the whole AP.
Vertical inequity arises when the differences in treatment applied to people are not proportional to the differences in their characteristics. The dramatically higher taper applied by the asset test does not seem proportionate, neither does the failure to differentiate between those with valuable houses and those with small apartments.
The asset test fails to provide vertical equity for those with different life expectancies. Most important is that they penalise younger retirees at the expense of older ones. A couple of 67 with $1 million in assets, which could generate investment income of about $50,000 p.a., cannot afford the ASFA comfortable retirement standard. A couple of 90 in the same position could afford to spend $100,000 p.a., well above the comfortable level.
Women also need more than men to maintain the same spending given their greater expected longevity. Arguably the assets tests are discriminatory as they advantage men (who require less) than women.
Regional differences in rent and the cost of living also create vertical inequities, although in this case people do have the ability to move to less expensive areas.
Those who can obtain appropriate advice and are able to act on the advice can avoid the worst consequences of the tests. Their complexity however makes it very difficult to make the right decisions. This means that the costs are borne by the less well informed, the cautious, and possibly by those who regard it as anti-social or degrading to be supported by welfare.
The current system completely fails the integrity test as defined by the DSS, quoted in Section 2.4 above. There is a clear failure to adequately address some of the most indigent whose rental costs leave little else to live on. It also fails to limit access to the AP by pensioners with significant housing assets.
It is also far too easy for retirees to adopt a range of strategies that mean that they will obtain a much greater share of the AP than those who are not so well advised or who do not wish to pursue the strategies we identified.
The desired level of fiscal expenditures could be maintained by incorporating the principal residence into the assets test and adapting the quantum of the AP and the parameters governing the means tests. In times of fiscal constraints, all Australians should expect to bear some of the burden and pensioners as much as anyone should expect smallish reductions in their standard of living at times. Transitional arrangements should apply for some limited period to mitigate the impact of the changes on those most adversely affected by the changes.
Benefits cannot be targeted precisely at those that need them. Needs are complex and fluctuating; evaluation methods inevitably somewhat simplistic, limited to a particular time and prone to error. Bradshaw and Finch [12] looked at three different approaches to measuring poverty; “lacking socially perceived necessities; being subjectively poor and having a relatively low income… we have found that there is little overlap in the group of people defined as poor by these dimensions.”
The different levels of AP and associated supplements, and permutations of the means tests create an entirely spurious impression of targeting needs. The trivial nature of some of the supplements and concessions, such as the lower deeming rate for the income test, are not only wasteful of energy but bring the whole system into disrepute. This is particularly true when material differences such as housing are not taken into account.
Maeda [13] suggests that the three laws of simplification are reduce, organise and save time. Reduction and saving time are obvious. Organisation may not be. For instance, Schedule 7 of the Superannuation Industry (Supervision) Regulations 1994 (SIS Regulations), which has 7 categories for minimum drawdown amounts for different age bands, can be seen as more complex than Schedule 1A, which has 80 categories for each age from 20 to 100. This is because one cannot remember all 7 categories so that they both have to be looked up, but changing the factor each year is more intuitive and so easier to understand, to administer and creates a smoother cash flow.
The suggestions made below in Section 7, would not only be simpler, but more clearly meet the criteria that have been mentioned: neutrality, equity, integrity and resilience.
Failure to meet these principles creates perverse outcomes. We have shown that there is a strong incentive to draw down quickly or move assets into the family home. It appears retirees do both. While only 19% of couple pensioners are subject to the asset test, rough calculations suggest that over a third of those over 65 should be in this category. An analysis of Centrelink data suggested that those pensioners subject to the asset test draw down their assets up to 10% faster [14].
We suggest the following remedies for the problems identified.
One policy option would be to revert to the former 3.9% asset test taper rate that applied between 2007 and 2016. Such a solution would mitigate the extremely high EMTRs that currently apply especially in the upper parts of the asset testing range and therefore reduce the attractiveness of strategies designed to increase age pension entitlements.
If the taper rate were reverted to 3.9%, there would need to be changes in the upper and/or lower assets test thresholds. For example the thresholds could revert to something like the pre-2016 asset testing thresholds (but with indexation adjustments). However if the opportunity were taken to include the principal residence in the means tests, then the lower threshold should be increased markedly, by something like the value of a basic home.
A simpler solution is to abolish the asset test, which so contorts the retirement system and the lives of most Australian pensioners. Assets should be converted into a lifetime income (for the couple and other dependents if relevant). This can be done by dividing annually the value of assets by the Pension Valuation Factors (PVFs) in Column 4 of Schedule 1A of the SIS Regulations for singles, and using higher PVFs for couples.
This would lead to higher AP costs in the short run, but there would be no increase in AP payments as people age and the thresholds could be calibrated for the change to be fiscally neutral.
The additional fiscal costs in the short term can also be covered by including the value of the principal residence at an imputed rent. Rent assistance would be payable to everyone, further simplifying the system. The net impact would be felt most by people with low financial assets and expensive houses. Assuming an annuity rate of 7.5% at age 65, a deeming rate of 4% and a doubling of rental assistance, Table 3 shows the annual gains and losses.
Potential gains and losses due to proposed changes.
Single renters of moderate means would be the main winners. There are however very few of them currently, but removing the incentive to hold onto a home might well increase numbers.
The main losers would be homeowners with minimal financial assets. Their loss of spending power could be addressed by an expanded Pension Loans Scheme. Under the existing scheme, part pensioners can be lent the difference between 150% of the full AP and the part AP for which they qualify. Centrelink would take ownership of a proportion of the value of the home that this represents. As the loss of pension is only 2% of the value of the house (under the second proposed scenario), they could borrow for many years before exhausting the value of the house. A “no negative equity” guarantee would have a trivial cost.
The problems with the existing system are clear. It cannot be justified, but the dire state of much current political debate means that the problems remain running sores. There is a clear need for bi-partisan agreement not to resort to irrational sound bites. Such an agreement needs to include the major industry players and media commentators. Those who exploit the uncertainty that will naturally be felt by many pensioners need to be openly and quickly rebuked. The current awareness of the damage caused by manipulated outrage may offer an opportunity for sensible discussion.
At the very least, if change is to be made, politicians and commentators will need to be courageous and to make a stand for what it right rather than attempt to score points.
The means tests in their current format make it exceptionally difficult to plan for any pattern of spending in retirement—as the Age Pension increases with reductions in assets and income in a way that is difficult to understand and model over a retired lifetime. They also provide very strong incentives for pre-retirees to engage in a range of strategies to maximise their age pension. Apart from the unnecessary fiscal burden that such strategies impose on taxpayers, they also distort savings and consumption decisions and asset prices (especially of the principal residence) and cry out for change.
This chapter is an extension of [15], a public submission in response to the Department of Social Services discussion paper [3]. Quotations from the earlier paper are therefore not marked.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen Compacts provide a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines. Compacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues or broader topics on the research subject.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Compacts",metaDescription:"IntechOpen Compacts present a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs and covers content across all scientific disciplines.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/compacts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\\n\\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\\n\\nCOST
\\n\\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n\\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nOptional Services
\\n\\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\\n\\nFUNDING
\\n\\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\\n\\nBENEFITS
\\n\\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\\n\\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\\n\\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\\n\\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\\n\\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\n\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\n\nCOST
\n\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nOptional Services
\n\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\n\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\n\nFUNDING
\n\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\n\nBENEFITS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\n\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5698},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10243},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15647}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9496",title:"Dyslipidemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1d1174ff4ed8ad553c944e99add28154",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Wilbert S. Aronow",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9496.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"164597",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilbert S.",surname:"Aronow",slug:"wilbert-s.-aronow",fullName:"Wilbert S. Aronow"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10585",title:"Interleukin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d4ebb087fdb199287bc765704246b60",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Payam Behzadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10585.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10300",title:"Breast Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bcf3738b16b0a4de6066853ab38b801c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mani T. Valarmathi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10300.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",surname:"Valarmathi",slug:"mani-t.-valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9589",title:"Depigmentation as a Disease or Therapeutic Goal",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3e1efdb1fc8c403c402da09b242496c6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Tae-Heung Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9589.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"121353",title:"Dr.",name:"Tae-Heung",surname:"Kim",slug:"tae-heung-kim",fullName:"Tae-Heung Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9608",title:"Myasthenia Gravis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"db6c84e3aa58f3873e1298add7042c44",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Nizar Souayah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9608.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"162634",title:"Dr.",name:"Nizar",surname:"Souayah",slug:"nizar-souayah",fullName:"Nizar Souayah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8485",title:"Weather Forecasting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eadbd6f9c26be844062ce5cd3b3eb573",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Muhammad Saifullah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8485.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"320968",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saifullah",slug:"muhammad-saifullah",fullName:"Muhammad Saifullah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10542",title:"Molecular Epidemiology Study of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Complex",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"29279e34f971687dc28de62534335ac4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10542.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10552",title:"Montmorillonite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c4a279761f0bb046af95ecd32ab09e51",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Faheem Uddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10552.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10281",title:"Nanopores",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"73c465d2d70f8deca04b05d7ecae26c4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sadia Ameen, Dr. M. Shaheer Akhtar and Prof. Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10281.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10304",title:"Giant-Cell Arteritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b144271ebc5d331aab73de18a7f9f4f5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Imtiaz A. Chaudhry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10304.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"66603",title:"Dr.",name:"Imtiaz",surname:"Chaudhry",slug:"imtiaz-chaudhry",fullName:"Imtiaz Chaudhry"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10539",title:"Ginseng in Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f388543a066b617d2c52bd4c027c272",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Christophe Hano and Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10539.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Prof.",name:"Christophe",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10482",title:"Human Teeth – Structure and Composition of Dental Hard Tissues and Developmental Dental Defects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"82a91346a98d34805e30511d6504bd4c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ana Gil De Bona and Dr. Hakan Karaaslan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10482.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"203919",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Gil De Bona",slug:"ana-gil-de-bona",fullName:"Ana Gil De Bona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:62},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:164},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5141},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"271",title:"Immigration",slug:"immigration",parent:{title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:32,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"immigration",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5598",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",subtitle:"Risks, Challenges and Benefits",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"34b65e63d50ff8998006a76b46081adf",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",bookSignature:"Ingrid Muenstermann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5598.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"53700",doi:"10.5772/67013",title:"Migration and Health from a Public Health Perspective",slug:"migration-and-health-from-a-public-health-perspective",totalDownloads:1578,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Maurizio Marceca",authors:[{id:"192600",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Marceca",slug:"maurizio-marceca",fullName:"Maurizio Marceca"}]},{id:"53589",doi:"10.5772/66931",title:"Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) among Elderly Turkish and Polish Migrants and German Natives: The Role of Age, Gender, Income, Discrimination and Social Support",slug:"health-related-quality-of-life-hrqol-among-elderly-turkish-and-polish-migrants-and-german-natives-th",totalDownloads:1139,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Johanna Buchcik, Joachim Westenhöfer, Mick Fleming and Colin R.\nMartin",authors:[{id:"192396",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Johanna",middleName:null,surname:"Buchcik",slug:"johanna-buchcik",fullName:"Johanna Buchcik"},{id:"193514",title:"Prof.",name:"Joachim",middleName:null,surname:"Westenhöfer",slug:"joachim-westenhofer",fullName:"Joachim Westenhöfer"},{id:"193515",title:"Prof.",name:"Mick",middleName:null,surname:"Fleming",slug:"mick-fleming",fullName:"Mick Fleming"},{id:"193516",title:"Prof.",name:"Colin R.",middleName:null,surname:"Martin",slug:"colin-r.-martin",fullName:"Colin R. Martin"}]},{id:"53671",doi:"10.5772/67004",title:"The New Actors of International Migration: A Comparative Analysis of Foreign Students’ Experiences in a Medium-Sized City in Turkey",slug:"the-new-actors-of-international-migration-a-comparative-analysis-of-foreign-students-experiences-in-",totalDownloads:940,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Serdar Ünal",authors:[{id:"192402",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Ünal",slug:"serdar-unal",fullName:"Serdar Ünal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53700",title:"Migration and Health from a Public Health Perspective",slug:"migration-and-health-from-a-public-health-perspective",totalDownloads:1578,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Maurizio Marceca",authors:[{id:"192600",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Marceca",slug:"maurizio-marceca",fullName:"Maurizio Marceca"}]},{id:"53647",title:"Why Do Immigrants to Norway Leave the Country or Move Domestically? Some Important Facts",slug:"why-do-immigrants-to-norway-leave-the-country-or-move-domestically-some-important-facts",totalDownloads:1010,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Tom Kornstad, Terje Skjerpen and Lasse Sigbjørn Stambøl",authors:[{id:"193167",title:"Mr.",name:"Terje",middleName:null,surname:"Skjerpen",slug:"terje-skjerpen",fullName:"Terje Skjerpen"},{id:"193169",title:"Dr.",name:"Tom",middleName:null,surname:"Kornstad",slug:"tom-kornstad",fullName:"Tom Kornstad"},{id:"193170",title:"Mr.",name:"Lasse",middleName:null,surname:"Stambøl",slug:"lasse-stambol",fullName:"Lasse Stambøl"}]},{id:"53486",title:"Immigration and Food Insecurity: The Canadian Experience—A Literature Review",slug:"immigration-and-food-insecurity-the-canadian-experience-a-literature-review",totalDownloads:1766,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Diana Tarraf, Dia Sanou and Isabelle Giroux",authors:[{id:"192842",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Tarraf",slug:"diana-tarraf",fullName:"Diana Tarraf"},{id:"193533",title:"Dr.",name:"Dia",middleName:null,surname:"Sanou",slug:"dia-sanou",fullName:"Dia Sanou"},{id:"193603",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Giroux",slug:"isabelle-giroux",fullName:"Isabelle Giroux"}]},{id:"53574",title:"The Impact of Tuberculosis among Immigrants: Epidemiology and Strategies of Control in High-Income Countries—Current Data and Literature Review",slug:"the-impact-of-tuberculosis-among-immigrants-epidemiology-and-strategies-of-control-in-high-income-co",totalDownloads:1448,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Carlo Contini, Martina Maritati, Marachiara di Nuzzo, Lorenzo\nMassoli, Sara Lomenzo and Anastasio Grilli",authors:[{id:"192625",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlo",middleName:null,surname:"Contini",slug:"carlo-contini",fullName:"Carlo Contini"}]},{id:"53589",title:"Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) among Elderly Turkish and Polish Migrants and German Natives: The Role of Age, Gender, Income, Discrimination and Social Support",slug:"health-related-quality-of-life-hrqol-among-elderly-turkish-and-polish-migrants-and-german-natives-th",totalDownloads:1139,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Johanna Buchcik, Joachim Westenhöfer, Mick Fleming and Colin R.\nMartin",authors:[{id:"192396",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Johanna",middleName:null,surname:"Buchcik",slug:"johanna-buchcik",fullName:"Johanna Buchcik"},{id:"193514",title:"Prof.",name:"Joachim",middleName:null,surname:"Westenhöfer",slug:"joachim-westenhofer",fullName:"Joachim Westenhöfer"},{id:"193515",title:"Prof.",name:"Mick",middleName:null,surname:"Fleming",slug:"mick-fleming",fullName:"Mick Fleming"},{id:"193516",title:"Prof.",name:"Colin R.",middleName:null,surname:"Martin",slug:"colin-r.-martin",fullName:"Colin R. Martin"}]},{id:"53701",title:"The Immigrant Experience in V.S. Naipaul's The Enigma of Arrival and Z. Smith's White Teeth: An Exploration of Homi Bhabha's Postcolonial Theory",slug:"the-immigrant-experience-in-v-s-naipaul-s-the-enigma-of-arrival-and-z-smith-s-white-teeth-an-explora",totalDownloads:1409,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Berna Köseoğlu",authors:[{id:"148215",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",middleName:null,surname:"Köseoğlu",slug:"berna-koseoglu",fullName:"Berna Köseoğlu"}]},{id:"53506",title:"The Voice of Trailing Women in the Decision to Relocate: Is it Really a Choice?",slug:"the-voice-of-trailing-women-in-the-decision-to-relocate-is-it-really-a-choice-",totalDownloads:989,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Ortal Slobodin",authors:[{id:"192385",title:"Dr.",name:"Ortal",middleName:null,surname:"Slobodin",slug:"ortal-slobodin",fullName:"Ortal Slobodin"}]},{id:"53859",title:"Introductory Chapter: People's Movements in the 21st Century",slug:"introductory-chapter-people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:962,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Ingrid Muenstermann",authors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann"}]},{id:"53657",title:"Asians as Model Minorities: A Myth or Reality among Scientists and Engineers in Academia",slug:"asians-as-model-minorities-a-myth-or-reality-among-scientists-and-engineers-in-academia",totalDownloads:967,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Meghna Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"192631",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meghna",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"meghna-sabharwal",fullName:"Meghna Sabharwal"}]},{id:"53707",title:"Suicidal Behaviors in Patients Admitted to Emergency Department for Psychiatric Consultation: A Comparison of the Migrant and Native Italian Populations Between 2008 and 2015",slug:"suicidal-behaviors-in-patients-admitted-to-emergency-department-for-psychiatric-consultation-a-compa",totalDownloads:701,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Carla Gramaglia, Eleonora Gambaro, Fabrizio Bert, Claudia Delicato,\nGiancarlo Avanzi, Luigi Mario Castello, Roberta Siliquini and Patrizia\nZeppegno",authors:[{id:"179172",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrizia",middleName:null,surname:"Zeppegno",slug:"patrizia-zeppegno",fullName:"Patrizia Zeppegno"},{id:"180447",title:"Dr.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Gramaglia",slug:"carla-gramaglia",fullName:"Carla Gramaglia"},{id:"196749",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleonora",middleName:null,surname:"Gambaro",slug:"eleonora-gambaro",fullName:"Eleonora Gambaro"},{id:"196750",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Delicato",slug:"claudia-delicato",fullName:"Claudia Delicato"},{id:"196751",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrizio",middleName:null,surname:"Bert",slug:"fabrizio-bert",fullName:"Fabrizio Bert"},{id:"196752",title:"Prof.",name:"Giancarlo",middleName:null,surname:"Avanzi",slug:"giancarlo-avanzi",fullName:"Giancarlo Avanzi"},{id:"196753",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Castello",slug:"luigi-castello",fullName:"Luigi Castello"},{id:"196754",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Siliquini",slug:"roberta-siliquini",fullName:"Roberta Siliquini"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"immigration",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/125885/albert-roso",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"125885",slug:"albert-roso"},fullPath:"/profiles/125885/albert-roso",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()