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\r\n\tThe aim of this book project is to compile the updated research work on medicinal applications of noble metal complexes mainly focusing the structure activity relationship of metal complexes with targeting biological components.
Psychoanalysis and infant mental health research offer a large amount of knowledge about human development, pathology and interventions, which can partially be grounded in the findings of neuropsychoanalysis [1, 2]. These findings connect to what Stierlin conceptualized as relational individuation, or co-individuation (“Bezogene Individuation”: the principle that “the higher the level of individuation in a family member, family, or group is, the higher the level of personal relating becomes, and is required at the same time”) [3], a concept that originally aimed at psychic identities of members of a family system. The concept generally supports the principle of socialization modes in Lloyd deMause’s approach of psychogenetic personality development [4, 5]. The psychogenetic personality concept illuminates the modes of manifestation of transgenerational psychodynamics, and even takes into account physiologically based premature birth in humans [6]. The concept hints at the mutual interaction of individual and societal development [7], which will show in subjectivity and in socialization modes. Illuminating their organic substructure might be one of the challenges of future behavioral neuroscience, an interdisciplinary exchange of concepts and of mutual impregnation, the aim of future scientific cooperation. The question of how to bring together brain, mind, and the social will be one of the difficult tasks.
In the course of recent infant mental health research, fetal brain development has been examined from a bio-psychosocial perspective [8], as has been by Roth [9] from a neuroscientific one. In his depiction of prenatal and early postnatal processes of brain development, three levels in the limbic system correlate with temperament, with early experiencing, and with subsequent socialization, of which the latter may be responsive to compensatory intervention. Psyche, in the neuroscientific perspective, is strictly related to brain physiology, a controversial [10] still worthwhile approach, since it has been shown that early experiences will influence brain function and structure in humans [11]. What has mostly been accepted is that the concept of subject autonomy is generally challenged owing to Freud’s observation, “Der Reflexvorgang bleibt das Vorbild auch aller psychischen Leistung (The reflex act remains the type of every psychic activity as well),” [12] which he stated to put psychic mechanisms in connection with automatic reflex processing, in order to emphasize the predominance of unconscious psychic processes. Around 100 years later, the findings about intuitive responses being in middle position between innate reflex behavior and seemingly more “rational” behavior, have been brought up thanks to video microanalyses of dyadic interaction of infants and parents. In this context, parental competencies are referred to as intuitive competencies [13, 14, 15]. These are elicited within a time frame of 200–600 ms. Not only mothers, also fathers, children, and other relational objects have been observed to show these; they are universal and to be found in persons of any age, any gender, and in any culture [16].
Spitz, in the 1960s, observed that the physical presence of the mother, i.e., of one relational object, is the basic precondition for successful infant mental development [17, 18]. Severe social deprivation in hospitalized and institutionalized children, which grew up without responses to their needs showed compromised development in many aspects [19, 20]. By now, diagnostic approaches and options of treatment of infants and toddlers even encompass a psychodynamic concept [21], focusing on conflict, structure, and relation perspectives, thus paving the way for developing a rather focus-oriented treatment approach. This will probably be used more frequently in the future, just like operationalized psychodynamics in OPD-2 has increasingly been used in studies of the last years [22]. Although operationalized psychodynamics has widely improved the clinical view of human development, misconceptions have not been avoided: specific cultural and social influences on the infant’s development are still grossly neglected. Socioeconomic factors on mothers’ sensitivity and on family functioning have only begun to be examined [23].
The intrauterine development of the cerebral cortex occurs in exact stages. Each developmental step is a vulnerable period, which is sensitive to insults rendering the brain susceptible to structural malformations and functional impairments [8]. Neurogenesis shows billions of neurons being produced during the development of the central nervous system. It mainly occurs at the inner edge of the neural tube wall, later ventricles, and spinal cord. Cell division begins once the neural tube has closed at 4–5 weeks after conception, which is 6–7 weeks of gestation. Most neurons are formed at 12–18 weeks of gestation. Around 200 billion neurons are produced in the human brain, and 40 billion in the neocortex alone, of which the half are eliminated during the maturation process, resulting in a final number of 100 billion neurons at 40 weeks in full-term infants. Maternal stress during the first trimester has been linked to an increased risk of pathology, suggesting that the expression of genes in early fetal life is influenced by external factors, leading to behavioral and cognitive malfunction or to psychiatric disorder like schizophrenia [8]. Stress-induced reduction of neurons in late fetal life is probably associated with increased damage of neurons. Adding to it, the conspicuous findings on correlations of maternal mental disorders in pregnancy to the child’s subsequent psychic development can be examined from different perspectives, as can psychic development within a broader context.
From a psychoanalytic perspective, there is a perinatal constant of originary separation as inscription of lack within the ego. It is a separation of the ego from the developing subject through “objet petit a.” The object, the so-called other, is the object-cause of desire. It is the driving force, which makes the subject seek something, organically mirrored in the mesocortical and mesolimbic seeking systems of the frontal lobe. The subject in encountering the object experiences entering the Real beyond symbolization. If it was not for physiological prematurity in humans [24], one might argue that human seeking is merely for reasons of expansion, or exploring. Still, it is originary separation adding to physiological prematurity, which seems to induce primary “homelessness” in Homo sapiens [7]. The subject comes to exist through seeking only.
While German pioneer of psychosomatics Thure von Uexkuell gave point to the tuning of inner and outer world in animal life, in humans the relation to nature is flawed, or altered (“altéré”). It is altered, Lacan noticed, “through a certain dehiscence (déhiscence) of the organism internal, through a primordial discord (discorde) (…), as is shown in the signs of discontent and in physical incoordination in the first months of the newborn. The objective rationale of the anatomical imperfectness of the pyramidal system (…) confirms this view, which we formulate as obtaining true specific prematurity of birth in humans” [25]. Along such an anthropological constant, it should be common ground to assume biological and sociopsychological aspects to be relevant to human development.
The biological aspect refers to instinctual life in connection with separation. Anxiety is the most basic of experiences and can be reactualized at any time. Such a reactualization of anxiety figures in anxiety of the cut (“coupure”): it is in cutting, dissociation, separation [26], which is first and foremost in birth, and then in castration and punishment. Although the latter belong to the sphere of the Symbolic, they actualize the first, stemming from the sphere of the Imaginary. As Catherine Malabou points out, death is prefigured in castration. Castration anxiety does not primarily represent the loss of a specific object but rather the indeterminate threat of separation, of a cut. In connection with repetition compulsion and the “fort/da” game in “Beyond the Pleasure Principle” [27], the anticipation of separation from the self is a primal motive (“Ur-Angst”). Any trauma experienced is in terms of such psychodynamics, namely since probably “all events—even ‘real’ or traumatic events—ultimately occur at the heart of the psyche’s separation from itself (…)” [26].
The psychological aspect refers to symbolization through employing language in human development after the early mother-infant stage has been passed through. At that stage, it is about basic trust (“Ur-vertauen”) in order to overcome mechanistic thinking (“pensée opératoire”) and alexithymia in the infant, and the Imaginary has provided space for the infant to develop. Symbolization will increasingly enter the Imaginary, over-writing the experiences the infant has made before. Ludwig Janus has called attention to the concept of transcription, or transliteration (“Umschrift”), occurring from one developmental stage to another, which Freud in a letter to Wilhelm Fliess remarked in 1896 [28]. However, the failing of symbolical over-writing, i.e., of restructuring or rewriting of the Imaginary, can be a marker of psychosis [29], or, on the imaginary-organic pole, of asymbolic conversion [30]. In “The Interpretation of Dreams” [12], Freud describes dreams as expressions of the primary process, in which wish fulfillment is executed. Thus, dream, delusion, and confabulation and other psychosis-like disorders of thinking can be viewed as working temporarily in lieu of the demands of the frontal lobe control system.
From a psychoanalytic perspective, disorder is the result of quite a normal struggle for conflict solution in differing gradations of primary, i.e., preverbal, processual thinking, and secondary, i.e., verbal, processual thinking. Pathology can be read in gradations of normalcy. Outer stressors can trigger a reactualization of preverbal, i.e., pre- and postnatal affects [7]. These encompass many factors contributing to compromise conflict solution. Disorder will take the very gradation the subject is susceptible of, only to produce as little conflictive tension as possible. At preverbal stages, disorder will mainly be body disorder; conversion can take place before any symbolization is possible.
At this point, the seemingly societal decline of symbolic references might make any structural framing, i.e., inner positioning, difficult to achieve [29]. Inner positioning can be taken as being connected to outer positioning in its literal sense: as an example, the ancient Greek “polis” would be a place of enabling positioning for—a few select—people to grow into thinkers like Plato and Aristotle. For them, it would provide space and structure to developing thought and concept. A frame would be provided in which personal relations could grow into becoming the background of successful development [31]. In contrast, today’s ever-existing interpellation to people manifests in a very concrete societal trend of commodified relations calling for even less inner positioning, adding to, and retroacting on, the withdrawal of sustained societal structure, rendering more and more impossible people participate in major social achievements [32]. Such a trend might also compromise psychic functioning of parents and mothers-to-be severely. It might be the phenomenon of “new morbidity” in infants, which is in the trend toward early functional and psychic disorders and toward chronification, closely associated with this societal trend. At any rate, biological and psychological aspects of human development show humans to be prone to dysfunctional internal conflict processing, probably even more when obscure personality traits seem to be promoted [33], while virtual media foster the loss of sense of reality [34]. Such depravation can be seen in the phenomenon that present-day western societies increasingly call for behavioral and experiential conformity: changing its character, the issue of diversity becomes an interpellation of conformity. Depravation retroacting on poor psychic structure in people might prevail for generations [15], especially when a societal mode of too much freedom in some areas and too much restraint in others takes effect. It would be worthwhile examining how the organic substructure of psychological functioning and societal superstructure are intertwined, and how the “culture of commodification” [35] affects the mother-infant relationship. Looking at research on mirror neurons [36], it is not out of the question that such processes affect subject development on a macrolevel beyond the microlevel of mother-infant relations.
On a microlevel, especially postpartum depression in mothers has been the subject of extensive research investigations [37, 38, 39]. As is widely known by now, in interaction with their newborns depressive mothers show decreased responsiveness, increased passivity and/or intrusiveness, increased withdrawal, and decreased expression of positive emotions, and they tend to regulate the effects of their newborns in an insufficient way. Moreover, Papoušek and von Hofacker [40] have generally pointed out the connection between psychopathology traits in mothers and maladaptive patterns in their intuitive competencies. Correlations of maternal mental disorders in pregnancy to the child’s subsequent psychic development [41] are often conspicuous, yet by no means automatic. Such are certainly individual and can be influenced. Infant mental health observations could show slight but distinct negative influences of infant crying and sleeping problems on the child’s subsequent social development [42]; infants’ regulatory problems contribute substantially to external and internal psychic problems in early childhood [43]. Adding to recent behavioral oxytocin research [44] of the human “attachment system,” from a perspective of behavioral neuroscience, it would be worthwhile exploring the testosterone-perspective of the human “lust system,” and the dopamine-perspective of the human “love system.”
Familial strain of different kinds can lead to dysfunctional relational patterns; missing or inadequate internal educational models in parents can have a similar effect [45]. As to intuitive parental competencies, it has become evident that intrapsychic and interpersonal factors can compromise the expression of these. Likewise, it must be assumed that the level of expressing such competencies might be dependent on social factors. This issue has widely gone unrecognized [15, 46]. Social factors viewed from a microperspective give way to a questionably individualized concept in which societal motion, e.g., toward fragmentation and irrationality through anomic tendencies, is neglected. It should not be surprising to see irrationality increase with too many choices [47]; any compromising of the formation of psychic function will lead to people’s attempts at escaping mentalization. Given mentalization is the key to at least some of parental competencies issues, more are still pending; e.g., the capability of executing ego-functions may have developed in an individual, but may not be expressed. At any rate, in a perspective of mentalization as basic ego-function, such capability is a precondition of role-taking and changing of perspectives. Empathy corresponds with this function and is often missing, especially in somatoform disorder. In practice, somatoform disorders are often diagnosed as functional syndromes [48]; i.e., somatization shows in body disorder. Alexithymia often accompanies somatoform disorder; it should also be viewed in a context of societally induced personality issues.
Parents´ cause attributions often reveal such a connection. In general somatoform disorder, from both older children and parents, psychosocial cause attributions are more often the case than in, e.g., asthma bronchiale to which rather genetic, external, and somatic causes are attributed [49]. Also, there are only moderate matches of subjective disorder beliefs in older children and parents: preframed attribution questionnaires generate higher scores of matches than half-open qualitative explorations do [50]. Generally, high diversity in parents’ knowledge and cause attributions of their children’s symptoms [51] invites to improve communication on many levels. Although it is obvious that pathological personality traits are associated with the ability to understand emotional states of others [52], social cognition aspects, of which mentalization is mostly in focus, are on a microperspective of family interaction. Although subscribing to a psychodynamic perspective, hereby only a small aspect is examined. In case that identity issues play a significant role, identification presupposes an original to identify by [53]. It has to meet requirements of highly differing concern [54] and has to do with subjective experience of identity [55].
Fedor-Freybergh, from a prenatal viewpoint, has rehearsed the problematic nature of increasing discontinuities emerging from social destabilization reaching back to early prenatal traces of memory [56, 57]. The general message seems to be that through the processes of neuronal migration, organization, wiring, myelination, shaping and eliminating of excess neurons [8], even earliest information is sustained. Still, an approach of the earlier the better in several aspects of intervention has not yet been fully realized, as can be derived from the findings of epigenetics and fetal programming [58].
In prenatal stages of increased neuronal plasticity, milieu factors influence protein synthesis and program reference input in biological systems such as the HPA axis. While early postnatal epigenetic alterations are still partially influenceable [59, 60], the Barker hypothesis [61, 62, 63] postulates highly probable influences from the fetal period on cardio-metabolic functioning [62] and on brain functioning [64]. Some pregnancy-associated disorders have shown to connect to fetal experiencing [65], which also hints at the fetal period to be highly important for psychosomatic development. At least, it can be said to be responsible for the development of an archetypal mode of bonding and ambivalence (“Urbindung” and “Urambivalenz”). Taking into account that regulatory disorders in infants are obviously correlated with insufficient dealings within the family system, especially the family but also institutional surroundings of early childhood like kindergarten and preschool play a significant role in influencing personality. Research findings on regulatory disorders [66, 67, 68, 69, 70] provide dyadic insights but do not tend to regard triads [71], let alone setting, context, or background [72]; that is why many findings of attachment research [73] need to be augmented by a more panoramic view of relations. Also, an intergenerational perspective of trauma impact [74] carries weight since it provides vertical insight into modes of re-traumatization.
The pivotal role in human developmental pathology is certainly played by violence, as it shows in externalized action with huge destructive potential. Individuals with violent behavior inflict injuries on others, either physically, psychically, or both. Individual; i.e., subjective violent behavior, as social scientists like Hurrelmann [75] have shown, is mainly to be understood as generated by intrapsychic, interpersonal and social conflicts. Still, even an obvious inclination to aggression must not be assessed pathological in general; aggression encompasses a zestful constituent part [76]; it goes heavy on libido, i.e., on the dopaminergic system. That is why violence must not be confused with aggression in the shape of expansion and initiative, which belong to the individual developmental process. In contrast, violence as a mode of destructive aggression will have to undergo a transformation into pro-social modes before it is realized. As is often the case, etiopathology of psychic disorders can only partially be traced back [77]. Yet, concepts of phenomenology like, e.g., pathogenetic situation [10, 39], can reasonably be applied, and diverse traits of complex trauma can be observed out of which violence emerges [78]. Traumatized children have problems with changing perspectives since persisting stress from complex trauma has severely compromised their modes of experiencing, adding to lifelong trauma-associated conditions like dissociation [78, 79]. Presently, a phenotypical similarity in dissociation and severe psychopathology like schizophrenia is being discussed [80].
It is obvious that high levels of interdisciplinary exchange will be necessary to meet the challenges of brain, mind, and social factors (cp. Figure 1). In order to conceptualize further research on their intertwining, subjectivity formation and social objectivity have to be differentiated. The following concepts are thus not along the differentiation of subjective and objective aspect in dual-aspect monism as in the conception of Kessler et al. [81] but describe the subject in a grid of collective predisposition into which it has to develop.
Bio-psychosocial factors model of violent behavior, modified after Schick 2017.
The mirror stage in the infant’s development provides no coherent experience of the image in the mirror. Anamorphic as it is, it tends to convey rather fragmented than coherent aspects of the personality-to-be. That is why Lacan considered coherence an illusion, also owing to the fact that infantile dependence and helplessness are not conveyed in the mirror image. In referring to physiological prematurity, Lacan is close to Otto Rank’s concept in which the whole self (“Total-Ich”) precedes the partial self (“Partial-Ich”). Anything which is postnatal will only remain partial. Along birth, any wholeness will inevitably be lost: this is what humans will have to accept in life [82]. Here, we have a deceptive case of anthropology: there is not any totality possible. Infantile identification with the mirror image brings about alienation, or alteration, to the emerging subject, as well as dehiscence and discord—seemingly biological yet a specifically human feature [83]. Basic vulnerability stems from this stage; it can shake the infant when it is confronted with outer objects. Any identification, e.g., with parents, siblings, or teachers bears refractions.
When the mother reflects the infant, the infant creates an imaginary space through projecting his own reflected bodily self [30]. It is eventually connected to the fantasy, or anticipation, of separation by a cut. This phenomenon is linked to the illusion of coherence, which provides stability; on the other hand, there is a subversion-proneness due to an inherent amount of fictitiousness and externality within the developmental process. In the course, the outer world is perceived more coherent, more indisputable than it really is. More often than not, those objects out there are experienced as identifiable egos having unity, permanence and, first of all, substance. But those objects generally comprise a fair share of ourselves, which we tend to have abdicated ambivalence and fragmentation: after all, we wonder why those objects are that fragile. So, imaginary coherence provides people with anxiety too. The earliest developmental stages, pre- and postnatal, are gateways to imaginary formations of ideals via identification and reproduction of social roles. Taking on societal relations that begin at this point, the subject remaining is prone to ideological indoctrination. Social environment might fill the subjects’ fantasies at worst distracting the subject from recognizing reality, eventually leading to escapism [84]. The infant’s bewilderedness at that stage makes for irritation, and for readiness to fetch interpellation.
Violent behavior is to be called subjective violence, as it is clearly visible and shows in acts of crime. Yet, the location of subjective conflict is not necessarily identical with the location of expressed violence. Children often enact at-home-conflicts in school or kindergarten. Experiences of victimization and conflict may be brought back home, leading to aggressive behavior, e.g., in sibling or in parent interaction. At any rate, violent behavior may be used as a personal solution within a given structure, thus subjective acting manifests as violent acting. What is known is that in families with high psychic dysfunctionality parents are not capable of taking enough care of their children, either physically or psychically. Subjectively violent individuals often seem to have such a background [85], and they have often been victims of violence themselves [86]. Sometimes there has been a lack of attachment in mother-infant-relations existing from birth onwards, or there are disorders of early attachment that have developed in the infant’s first year of age, or different sorts of subjective psychopathology in parents affect the infant’s emotional development. Still, social status and the status of societal development may compromise psychic competencies, as can be concluded from very different research perspectives [33, 34, 87]. Dysfunctional and noncoherent educational practices in some families, which can puzzle and disturb children and direct their development toward dysfunctional modes of behavior may even be amplified by the loss of societal structure; at least it may disturb families in developing consistent educational modes [15, 46]. Some findings on subjective violence indicate an early lack of empathy in children, a lack of impulse control, and a lack of anger management in connection with early deprivation phenomena. Deviant behavior in the shape of criminal behavior can be viewed as developmental pathology, especially if lack of empathy or lack of emotional reactivity [88] can be diagnosed. Even when in offenders lack of reflective functioning [89] seems to be the key to their violent acting, and their experiences of abuse and violent behavior can be linked to their lack of individual mentalization [90], an important role in socialization must also be seen in educational institutions’ repressive force, which mostly will not support empathy but competition. Competition may not be bad, still empathy needs to be supported as levels of empathy indicate the levels of pro-social behavior [91]. Moreover, any subjective behavior can be viewed as a solution-type compromise that is workable on a personal level and is due to the dialectics of acquiescence and resistance in the process of subjectivity formation. Even when such behavior may only be one among several psychic solutions of the individual, it cannot be surprising when some children react violently according to their personal biographic experiencing (cp. Figure 2)—which would be a long-term and somewhat functional mode of behavior [92].
Subjective and objective factors model of violent behavior.
While zestful aggression makes for what can be called anthropology of the political [76] that does not deny subjective libidinous aggression aspects, violence must be viewed from a perspective of multifactorial subjective and objective connection. Objective violence is to be differentiated from the subjective kind [93, 94]. Contrary to subjective violence, which is committed by individuals and groups, objective violence emerges through objective reality itself; it is systemic, anonymous violence that is seemingly without reason but conceptual, more uncanny than direct precapitalist socioideological violence, which could be imputed to individuals’ intentions [94]. Objective violence stems from the generated frame in which people exist and act. It is the societal background in which ideology evolves in the subject. Individuals expressing subjective violence in this context have to be viewed being subjectively and objectively motivated. From an objective perspective, violent acts might be an attempt at realizing representation [32]; from a subjective perspective that would be the wish for reality—which turns out to be second reality [32, 34]. That would be a matter of substructure hitting upon superstructure, as is brain hitting upon societal commodification demands [95]. The contours of society are not only shaped by continuous interpellation through societal systems of economics and politics but the seemingly smooth functioning of society is at the same time obliged to generate outbursts of individual, i.e., subjective violence. What may be conceptualized as personal shortcomings in individuals can also be traced back to objective violent structure characterized by societal depravation. What may appear as solely internal conflicts the subject has to solve seems co-determined by the ideological structure that dominates their surroundings.
As there are cultural differences in societies, which are said to be quite similar—a mundane example is that Americans show higher scores of body image dissatisfaction than Italians [96]—it is that what may look like internal processes only should also be viewed as the result of internalized societal relations of which an individually processed relation of the subject to their surroundings is formed. This relation may either, more or less, remain on a fantasmatic level tending to repress reality, or develop toward a rather realistic level. More than enough, human readiness for projective processing [97], i.e., for fantasmatic modes of creating personal reality, is an anthropological constant, which seems due to physiological prematurity in humans in the course of evolution. Adding severely to it, subject-object-differentiation nowadays is increasingly blurred owing to the loss of representation in virtualized surroundings [32]. That is why it is not possible to retrieve authenticity, if ever there was one. As people tend to hang on to the concept of authenticity especially in highly virtualized surroundings, “one always wishes to see the other act naturally, but this eludes him and thus becomes an object of fetish and intrigue” [55].
Fundamental issues of identification and representation still go unresolved [53]. Societal motion may seem detached from individual action at first but is not. It has strong effects on everyday dealings. Objective societal structure, at least in Western Europe, is currently dominated by high degrees of personal freedom and its concurrent, restraint, at the same time. The shibboleth of absolving societal structure from its responsibility of taking effect on human living conditions [98] promotes such a motion. Instead, bio-psychosocial environment viewed as a result of early interaction combined with societal interpellation hitting upon organic substructure provides a reasonable framework to work with. Certainly, given the inevitable entanglement of the individual in the socialization process confronting multiple determinants [71], the question must be raised whether or not a subject can be a subject undamaged at all [99]. Peter Zima ascertains the subject to be inherently pending between rejection and indispensability, between subjugation and freedom [100]. Still, as Resch and Parzer point out, it is not subjective realities and interpretations that will prevail but phenomena like death, pain, and poverty. Such phenomena cannot be misread, cannot be reframed [101]. They belong to objectivity. Only some of deprivation phenomena are man-made, while others are not.
Early communication influences development and learning processes in children [102]. On a microlevel, Papoušek has described the significance of communicative acting for early emotional relatedness [103]. On a macrolevel, phylogenetic human development concepts have augmented ontogenetic aspects of prenatal and perinatal development, broadening the concepts of postnatal development. Examples of how prenatal psychosomatic factors in mothers-to-be can affect their experiencing and retroact on gestation and delivery have often shown congruence, all the more those with a focus on imminent preterm delivery [65, 104], which is an issue with high significance as preterm infants require special treatment [105]. The issue of neurodevelopmental outcome in preterm newborns is still highly problematic and connected with new morbidity [70, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110], therefore new approaches in neonatal intensive care units have been developed and implemented [14, 70]. Recent findings that, e.g., preterm delivery correlates with infant eating disorders [111] should not be surprising; other findings indicate prenatal and perinatal factors in new morbidity [58]. Today’s zeitgeist has only begun to be examined: it tends to favor noncommitment [101], pointing to the connection of new morbidity with societal motion [97].
Although for decades there have been efforts reaching out to prenatal aspects of mental health [112], structured programs are relatively new in Germany. As to overall parenting and early childhood, interdisciplinary and cross-cultural collaborations have emerged [113, 114]. On an individual level of childhood education, structured programs have successfully been established in many educational institutions in Germany [115, 116, 117]. The majority of early intervention programs available have mostly been adaptations from the USA. Comparisons between USA and German programs have proven to be difficult due to structural differences in health services [118]. In Germany, they mostly focus on the mother-infant-relationship [114], when a focus on postpartum depression and anxiety would be equally relevant. Recent meta-analyses show that programs starting during pregnancy were evaluated as the best when they had a high frequency of home visits [119, 120]. There are findings of advantages of close and personal relating to one another, which comes close to a therapeutic setting. Moreover, maternal symptom burden was relieved the most in a setting with psychotherapeutic elements established for mothers having to cope with preterm delivery [121]. Generally, maternal symptom burden relief has been the most observed effect in programs while there were only small effects in interventions on maternal competencies re-enforcement. Also, only small effects on child development have been observed, and these have been lower and more heterogeneous than the effects on mothers-to-be. Then again, having more than 20 sessions has proven helpful for the infant’s physical development [119].
The early intervention approaches depicted below are not supposed to be therapy for mothers and infants. Instead, these are psychodynamics-oriented programs and concepts, which focus on potentially significant topics in pre- and postnatal stages of development. They have evolved from many of the findings above and have purposely been designed to support mental health of parents and children: from the unborn during pregnancy to the newborn and after, and to parenting in general. The programs take care of the microlevel of inner family issues. Here they are presented in order of diachronic developmental aspects reaching from prenatal to postnatal development.
Mother-infant bonding analysis [122, 123] is a procedure of accompanying women in pregnancy enabling them to get in contact with their unborn; an approach for which Phyllis Klaus’s work paved the way [124]. It is not a structured program in the narrow sense of the word but a fairly structured interventional sequence of individual sessions. By these, early before delivery first steps of building a relation between mothers-to-be and their unborn are encouraged. Through relaxation on a couch, women focus on their perception of signals from the unborn. These will show in the shape of emotions, images, thoughts, and fantasies on a so-called “inner screen,” which both unborn and mother are related to. This communicative channel can be seen as “umbilical cord” of psyche, enabling a dialog, which is supposed to promote the intrauterine development of the unborn. The bonding analyst will support mothers-to-be get in contact with the unborn by encouraging them, by interpreting, and by helping to overcome blockades if necessary. Twenty to thirty sessions during the second half of pregnancy are usually taken, that is from twentieth to fortieth gestational week. Exactly this time frame is known as the unborn’s highest brain sensitivity and vulnerability period [125]. The history of mother-infant bonding analysis goes back to the early 1990s when Budapest-based Jenö Raffai recognized in his work with patients the importance of the prenatal mother-unborn-relationship for the infant’s and the adult’s further development. Together with the Hungarian psychoanalyst György Hidas, he conceptualized a research and treatment method that developed into bonding analysis. Especially the focus on children’s personality development through the well-being of mothers in pregnancy and birth-giving might serve as the prenatal reference to autobiographical memory [126].
The structured program “SAFE”—Sichere Ausbildung für Eltern (Secure Education for Parents) [127] aims at what is best for mothers in pregnancy, during delivery, and in parenting issues. The main issue of the program is to avoid transferring of traumatic childhood experiences toward the infant. “SAFE” helps parents-to-be develop confidence in dealings with the infant. As early as in pregnancy they learn to recognize and react appropriately to the signals the infant shows. This is helpful in developing a secure mode of attachment in infants since securely attached infants show more capability of empathy, are more creative, and are more capable of cognitive processing, as well as they search easier for help when needed. The well-examined program also addresses real-life issues like; e.g. “do parents have to be always present?” or, “what to do when parents are having different needs from those the baby does,” and “when does pampering start, and which limits does an infant need, and when?” The program is for parents-to-be up to the seventh month of pregnancy, and it is continued after delivery until baby’s first birthday; parents may continue up to the second or third birthday. There is a training of sensitivity toward the infant within a group in 10 days of class. Groups are run by two mentors in whole day seminars, 4 days during pregnancy, six after delivery. Stabilization and imagination exercises in stressful situations are conducted, especially in adaptation phase after delivery. A parental sensitivity training video supports the reading of signals and needs of the baby. A scientific foundation via attachment interviews with parents, diagnostic questionnaires, and other evaluation tools has recently led to first results [128].
An early experience of the infant’s feedback is very important not only for intuitive parenting regulation but also for parental attachment behavior. The mother’s feeling of self-efficacy evoked by the infant’s feedback paves the way for relying on her intuitive competencies. One successful method to moderate early and unexpected separation of the infant from the mother’s body, which can make both child and parents tend to insecure modes of bonding [129], is “skin-to-skin care,” or “kangaroo care.” Kangaroo care originally stems from the 1970s when Colombian mothers were advised to take their babies home and carry them on their chests for days and weeks. Through this intervention, infants were supplied with warmth and fed with milk [130]. Adapted to newborn intensive care unit (NICU) application, and incorporated in the NICU setting, “kangaroo care” became one of the most important care standards in developed countries nowadays [14, 131]. In the meantime, there have been many findings on the advantages of continuous bodily contact and on interaction between infant and parents. Recent findings on oxytocin and bonding add to a perspective of incorporating bodily and psychic factors; a recent study found lower depression scores in parents after giving neonatal massage [132]. It seems that people’s ancient intuitive knowledge about bodily contact can be said to have been verified again and again; skin contact turned out to be highly important [58].
“NIDCAP®,” i.e., Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program has been developed by Heidelise Als and her team members at Boston Children’s Hospital. By distinguishing normal from abnormal neonatal behavior and in trying to obtain some prognostic conclusions about long-term development from newborn period behavior, Als became aware of the enormous influence that intensive care does have on the behavior of full-term and preterm newborn infants. Starting with these observations, the entire concept that should enable optimal development of each premature infant through individual care, and in spite of interfering intensive care treatment influences, was developed and patented [133, 134]. Neonatal care according to “NIDCAP®” principles has become more and more popular all over the world; it has been imported and implemented in Europe and is applied in the NICU at the Neonatology Unit at the University of Heidelberg, Germany. It has been designed for professionals that deal with preterm infants and their parents; its main issue is “reading the preterm infant” [135]. The individual intervention consists of daily (7 days a week) observation and evaluation of the infant’s behavior, of support for care-givers in understanding the infant’s stress and comfort signals, and of suggestions for parents and staff in terms of ways to support the infant’s development, i.e., adjust their care according to these signals. The concept treats infants as active participants in the care provided, which is certainly most reasonable [14].
“Das Baby verstehen” [136] is a structured program for expectant mothers and their partners. Couples are supported through a midwife who will focus on the overall life situation of the family-to-be. Everyday communication between parents and their babies is illustrated in the instructions. The “reading” of the infant is at the center of most of the course lessons. Live video tapes support the instructions. Playful exercises will focus on the personal well-being of parents-to-be as well as on how to remain a couple when there will be three of them. In 2003 and 2004 the program was developed at the University of Heidelberg, followed by a revision in 2005, with accompanying evaluation in a German county district. The strengths and shortcomings of the expert trainings as well as of the courses for parents were explored, aiming at an integrative package of counseling for parents with infants up to the age of three. In this way, potential development of dysfunctional interaction in families is avoided early in order to prevent bodily and mental disorders in infants. The underlying concept has been depicted in a textbook of basic findings [137].
Empathy as well as the competence to change one’s perspective are key issues in the prevention of violent acting. In Germany, Mollenhauer et al. [54] elaborated on such in what can still be called a basic reference textbook on how socialization in family and society works, i.e., from a psychosocially integrated perspective. The second International Conference on Social-Emotional Learning, which took place at the University of Heidelberg [138] reactivated that perspective exploring both differences and similarities in countries and cultures, so that a multinational background makes sure concepts are compatible with each other [139].
A program for kindergartens like “Faustlos” [140, 141, 142], which has been designed for four-to-six-year-olds, seems to be most effective in preschoolers, yet even younger children participating in it will benefit as well. It is an adaptation of Seattle-based program, “Second Step” [143], translated to German-speaking countries as “no fists.” The program has been developed and evaluated at the University of Heidelberg [144, 145]; a pre/post randomized control trial behavioral study proved the program to be effective especially as to a decrease of verbal aggression in children [15, 115, 116, 146, 147]. Competencies of self-regulation turned out to be of paramount importance, something, which is especially difficult in traumatized and insecurely attached children. Though not replacing therapy, “Faustlos” offers a wide variety of techniques and strategies for children to learn how to cope with inner impulses. Also, the program is conducted by constant relational persons in a closed group cycle of 1 year. This gives children a secure realm of learning and transfer in which no-one is excluded from the group. Instead, children learn from one another how to apply “Faustlos” competencies and dicta in everyday life. In order to increase favorable effects intergenerationally, the program makes use of involving parents reaching out to improve dealings with their children, regardless of age. Social-emotional learning aims at skills and competencies to be learned within an interactional framework. At the heart of “Faustlos” there are three issues to be transferred to children: getting to know empathy and the training to be empathic, learning to be capable of controlling one’s impulses, and dealing with emotions of anger and rage. These issues are playfully dealt with by way of 28 continuous lessons. Each lesson contains a story that is told by the educator and is illustrated by an accompanying picture. Each lesson is structured the same way: at first, the topic of the lesson is outlined by playfully fantasying what the lesson will bring. Moreover, hand puppets (a toy dog and a toy snail) open up getting in contact with each other, further illustrating the issue of the lesson to come. This is followed by the actual lesson in which the story is told, is shown in the picture, and is discussed with the group. Role-playing, or alternative exercises at the end of the lesson will make sure the transfer to everyday life of children is initiated. Additionally, the educator is advised to return to the contents of the lesson during the following week. Ideally, one lesson per week is conducted. Since children learn how to cope with inner impulses, the range of possible reactions in stressful and conflict situations is broadened. Moreover, the aspect of mastering transitional stages seems quite important to both boys and girls participating in the program, which in the face of missing rites has a point in its own right [148, 149]. While male and female processes of individuation as reflected in ancient robinsonades show the male one to be rather abrupt and sometimes revolutionary, the female rather processual and preserving—still it is transformation proper [7]—in programs like this, transition as a developmental process should be examined.
Along the diachronic developmental perspective of the approaches depicted above, aside from “NIDCAP®,” the “Faustlos” program for children has probably been evaluated the most, leading to augmentations in elementary and secondary education [141, 150, 151]. As to the kindergarten curriculum, identifying emotions turned out to be easier for children who took part in the program than for those who did not; the same for pro-social dealings with conflicts. The change of perspective through stories seen from different personal viewpoints is strongly supported in the program; something which has regularly been reported as revelatory [152, 153] as it calls attention to divergent experiencing. Generally, a specific anxiety-reducing effect supporting the transfer of competencies to everyday life has been shown in the program [154], which is highly important since effects on the level of intrapsychic emotion entail even more appropriate interpersonal pro-social behavior [91, 153]. Moreover, it has widely been well-accepted and therefore has been implemented at many kindergartens in Germany.
Practically, maternal symptom burden relief remains a highly important goal of intervention in the other approaches above. As has been shown, symptom relief has direct impact on the infant’s development [120]. Personal reactivation and repetition of one’s own experiences, such as preverbal, maybe even intrauterine [123] strain and other conflict formations leave their imprint on mothers-to-be: what can be said is that programs starting prenatally will approach mothers-to-be relatively early. This holds true for “SAFE” and “Das Baby verstehen,” which are well-structured and designed for parents, and tend to address important everyday dealings with the infant such as the reading of signals in a closed or half-open group setting, with different emphases, respectively [128, 137]. Somewhat different from these, “Mutter-Kind-Bindungsanalyse” has been conceptualized as an individually shaped setting in which the emotionality of mothers-to-be and their empathic dealing with the unborn are approached in mid-pregnancy. Regarding this concept, the main case study results are promising [123, 155]. Especially combining of any of the structured programs with mother-infant bonding analysis would be worth studied. As there is much diversity in parents’ perceptions of cause of children’s symptoms [51], especially an early introspective psychosomatic intervention like mother-infant bonding analysis is promising. It has been recommended in particular by neonatology experts that have intensely applied “skin-to-skin/kangaroo care” or “NIDCAP®” [8]. The most important benefit from “skin-to-skin/kangaroo care,” as studies have shown, is a change in the mother’s perception of her child, attributable to the skin-to-skin contact (“bonding effect”), which supports and promotes attachment between infant and mother. Mothers in “skin-to-skin/kangaroo care” feel more competent (“resilience effect”) in stressful situations in the NICU [14, 156, 157, 158], and mother-infant relations develop better; a tendency to less interaction disorders and less crying at the age of 6 months has been observed.
“NIDCAP®” has shown to have numerous positive effects on both the somatic and the neurological short-term development as well as on long-term developmental outcome of preterm infants such as motor and mental development, development of intelligence, behavioral development, and mother-infant interaction [159, 160, 161, 162]. It also showed the first in vivo evidence of positive effects of early postnatal experience on brain development, i.e., of enhanced brain function and structure [11, 14]. This study demonstrated that the quality of the unborn’s experiencing influences brain development significantly. Recently, further studies in the field have been conducted, such as on the effects of music and the mother’s voice [14, 131, 163].
From perspectives of pre- and postnatal development, further research should be in what Panksepp termed affective neuroscience [164], an approach that does not deny drive and instinct and is most compatible with a psychoanalytic perspective. The findings of psychoanalysis and mental health research view affect as pivotal driving force in human development. That is why an ethological perspective will be helpful too, like in attachment research [165], or in the behavioral biology of Csikszentmihalyi showing that psychic satisfaction is in the process of pursuing, i.e., in anticipation itself [166]. Savoring the anticipation of something ahead is constitutive of the psychoanalytic process [167]; it is in itself psychotherapeutic, and it might be an effective factor in the programs depicted above. Still cognitive perspectives must be taken into account, on grounds of relational and phenomenological approaches [168] in connection with setting, context, and background [72].
There have been illuminating descriptions of the processes taking place in psychoanalysis [29, 81, 167]; many of these might analogously be examined in order to conceptualize objective processes of how subjectivity formation is affected by social objectivity [95]. It is not out of the question that the findings on mirror neurons can contribute to depicting such connection [36]. It should also be obvious that both biological factors and cultural upbringing have effect on the subject’s development. The well-known problems of recent subjectivity formation have been documented culturally and clinically. We are dealing with the paradox of an inherent incompatibility in the “subiectum,” in that it is underlying and at the same time subjugated; this means any absolutization will lead to aporia [100]. The question of scientific approaches, which at the time are dominated by relatively strict empiricist accesses and default interpretive accesses reveals limitations. A good balancing of quantitative and qualitative findings will be necessary to meet what can truly be called comprehensive psychology of human behavior, which lies in a combination of neuroscience and interpretation on grounds of reasonable concepts.
Bioremediation and natural reduction are also seen as a solution for emerging contaminant problems; microbes are very helpful to remediate the contaminated environment. Number of microbes including aerobic, anaerobic bacteria and fungi are involved in bioremediation process. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. There are two types of factors these are biotic and abiotic conditions are determine rate of degradation. Currently, different methods and strategies are applied for bioremediation process.
Environmental pollution has been on the rise in the past few decades due to increased human activities such as population explosion, unsafe agricultural practices, unplanned urbanization, deforestation, rapid industrialization and non-judicious use of energy reservoirs and other anthropogenic activities. Among the pollutants that are of environmental and public health concerns due to their toxicities are: chemical fertilizer, heavy metals, nuclear wastes, pesticides, herbicides, insecticides greenhouse gases, and hydrocarbons. Thousands of hazardous waste sites have been identified and estimated is that more will be identified in the coming decades. Release of pollutants into the environment comes from illegal dumping by chemical companies and industries. Many of the techniques utilized for site clean-up in the past, such as digging up the contaminated soil and hauling it away to be land filled or incinerated have been prohibitively expensive and do not provide permanent solution. More recent techniques such as vapor extraction and soil venting are cost effective but incomplete solution.
Bioremediation is a process where biological organisms are used to remove or neutralize an environmental pollutant by metabolic process. The “biological” organisms include microscopic organisms, such as fungi, algae and bacteria, and the “remediation”—treating the situation.
In the Earth’s biosphere, microorganisms grow in the widest range of habitats. They grow in soil, water, plants, animals, deep sea, and freezing ice environment. Their absolute numbers and their appetite for a wide range of chemicals make microorganisms the perfect candidate for acting as our environmental caretakers.
“Bioremediation is a waste management technique that includes the use of living organisms to eradicate or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site.”
“Bioremediation is a ‘treatment techniques’ that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down harmful materials into less toxic or non-toxic materials.”
Bioremediation technologies came into extensive usage and continue growing today at an exponential rate. Remediation of polluted sites using microbial process (bioremediation) has proven effective and reliable due to its eco-friendly features. In the past two decades, there have been recent developments in bioremediation techniques with the decisive goal being to successfully restore polluted environments in an economic, eco-friendly approach. Researchers have developed different bioremediation techniques that restore polluted environments. The micro-organisms used in bioremediation can be either indigenous or non-indigenous added to the contaminated site. Indigenous microorganisms present in polluted environments hold the key to solving most of the challenges associated with biodegradation and bioremediation of pollutant [1]. Environmentally friendly and cost effective are among the major advantages of bioremediation compared to both chemical and physical methods of remediation.
A mechanism of bioremediation is to reduce, detoxify, degrade, mineralize or transform more toxic pollutants to a less toxic. The pollutant removal process depends mainly on the pollutant nature, which includes pesticides, agrochemicals, chlorinated compounds, heavy metals, xenobiotic compounds, organic halogens, greenhouse gases, hydrocarbons, nuclear waste, dyes plastics and sludge. Cleaning technique apply to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms (Figure 1).
Bioremediation approaches for environmental clean-up.
Microorganisms play an important role on nutritional chains that are important part of the biological balance in life. Bioremediation involves the removal of the contaminated materials with the help of bacteria, fungi, algae and yeast. Microbes can grow at below zero temperature as well as extreme heat in the presence of hazardous compounds or any waste stream. The two characters of microbes are adaptability and biological system made them suitable for remediation process [2]. Carbon is the main requirement for microbial activity. Bioremediation process was carried out by microbial consortium in different environments. These microorganisms comprise Achromobacter, Arthrobacter, Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Corynebacterium, Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Mycobacterium, Nitrosomonas, Xanthobacter, etc. [3].
There are groups of microbes which are used in bioremediation such as:
Aerobic: aerobic bacteria have degradative capacities to degrade the complex compounds such as Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Sphingomonas, Nocardia, Flavobacterium, Rhodococcus, and Mycobacterium. These microbes have been reported to degrade pesticides, hydrocarbons, alkanes, and polyaromatic compounds. Many of these bacteria use the contaminants as carbon and energy source.
Anaerobic: anaerobic bacteria are not as regularly used as aerobic bacteria. There is an increasing interest in aerobic bacteria used for bioremediation of chlorinated aromatic compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls, and dechlorination of the solvent trichloroethylene and chloroform, degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms.
Bioremediation process is degrading, removing, changing, immobilizing, or detoxifying various chemicals and physical pollutants from the environment through the activity of bacteria, fungi, algae and plants. Enzymatic metabolic pathways of microorganisms facilitate the progress of biochemical reactions that help in degradation of the pollutant. Microorganisms are act on the pollutants only when they have contact to the compounds which help them to generate energy and nutrients to multiply cells. The effectiveness of bioremediation depends on many factors; including, the chemical nature and concentration of pollutants, the physicochemical characteristics of the environment, and their accessibility to existing microorganisms [4].
The factors are mainly microbial population for degrading the pollutants, the accessibility of contaminants to the microbial population and environment factors like type of soils, pH, temperature, oxygen and nutrients.
Biotic factors are helpful for the degradation of organic compounds by microorganisms with insufficient carbon sources, antagonistic interactions among microorganisms or the protozoa and bacteriophages. The rate of contaminant degradation is frequently dependent on the concentration of the contaminant and the amount of catalyst present in biochemical reaction. The major biological factors are included enzyme activity, interaction (competition, succession, and predation), mutation, horizontal gene transfer, its growth for biomass production, population size and its composition [5, 6].
The interaction of environmental contaminants with metabolic activity, physicochemical properties of the microorganisms targeted during the process. The successful interaction between the microbes and pollutant depends on the environmental situations. Microbial growth and activity are depended on temperature, pH, moisture, soil structure, water solubility, nutrients, site conditions, oxygen content and redox potential, deficiency of resources and physico-chemical bioavailability of pollutants, concentration, chemical structure, type, solubility and toxicity. This above factors are control degradation kinetics [5, 7].
Biodegradation of pollutant can occur under range of pH (6.5–8.5) is generally optimal for biodegradation in most aquatic and terrestrial environment. Moisture affects the metabolism of contaminant because it depends on the kind and amount of soluble constituents that are accessible as well as the pH and osmotic pressure of terrestrial and aquatic systems [8].
Superficially, bioremediation techniques can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ site of application (Figure 1). Pollutant nature, depth and amount of pollution, type of environment, location, cost, and environmental policies are the selection standards that are considered for selecting any bioremediation technique. Performance based on oxygen and nutrient concentrations, temperature, pH, and other abiotic factors that determine the success of bioremediation processes [9, 10].
Ex-situ bioremediation techniques involve digging pollutants from polluted sites and successively transporting them to another site for treatment. Ex-situ bioremediation techniques are regularly considered based on the depth of pollution, type of pollutant, degree of pollution, cost of treatment and geographical location of the polluted site. Performance standards also regulate the choice of ex-situ bioremediation techniques.
Solid-phase treatment
Solid-phase bioremediation is an ex-situ technology in which the contaminated soil is excavated and placed into piles. It is also includes organic waste like leaves, animal manures and agriculture wastes, domestic, industrial wastes and municipal wastes. Bacterial growth is moved through pipes that are distributed throughout the piles. Air pulling through the pipes is necessary for ventilation and microbial respiration. Solid-phase system required huge amount of space and cleanups require more time to complete as compared to slurry-phase processes. Solid-phase treatment processes include biopiles, windrows, land farming, composting, etc. [11].
Slurry-phase bioremediation
Slurry-phase bioremediation is a relative more rapid process compared to the other treatment processes. Contaminated soil is combined with water, nutrient and oxygen in the bioreactor to create the optimum environment for the microorganisms to degrade the contaminants which are present in soil. This processing involves the separation of stones and rubbles from the contaminated soil. The added water concentration depends on the concentration of pollutants, the biodegradation process rate and the physicochemical properties of the soil. After completion of this process the soil is removed and dried up by using vacuum filters, pressure filters and centrifuges. The subsequent procedure is soil disposition and advance treatment of the resultant fluids.
There are far more than nine types of bioremediation, but the following are the most common ways in which it is used.
Bioremediation includes above-ground piling of dug polluted soil, followed by aeration and nutrient amendment to improve bioremediation by microbial metabolic activities. This technique comprises aeration, irrigation, nutrients, leachate collection and treatment bed systems. This specific ex-situ technique is progressively being measured due to its useful features with cost effectiveness, which allows operative biodegradation conditions includes pH, nutrient, temperature and aeration are effectively controlled. The biopile use to treat volatile low molecular weight pollutants; it can also be used effectively to remediate polluted very cold extreme environments [12, 13, 14]. The flexibility of biopile allows remediation time to be shortened as heating system can be integrated into biopile design to increase microbial activities and contaminant availability thus increasing the rate of biodegradation [15]. Additionally, heated air can be injected into biopile design to deliver air and heat in tandem, in order to facilitate enhanced bioremediation. Bulking agents such as straw saw dust, bark or wood chips and other organic materials have been added to enhance remediation process in a biopile construct. Although biopile systems connected to additional field ex-situ bioremediation techniques, such as land farming, bioventing, biosparging, robust engineering, maintenance and operation cost, lack of power supply at remote sites, which would facilitate constant air circulation in contaminated piled soil through air pump. Additional, extreme heating of air can lead to soil drying undertaking bioremediation, which will inhibit microbial activities and which stimulate volatilization than biodegradation [16].
Windrows is bioremediation techniques depends on periodic rotating the piled polluted soil to improve bioremediation by increasing microbial degradation activities of native and transient hydrocarbonoclastic present in polluted soil. The periodic turning of polluted soil increase in aeration with addition of water, uniform distribution of nutrients, pollutants and microbial degradation activities, accordingly increase the rate of bioremediation, which can be proficient through acclimatization, biotransformation and mineralization. Windrow treatment as compared to biopile treatment, showed higher rate of hydrocarbon removal however, the effectiveness of the windrow for hydrocarbon removal from the soil [17]. However, periodic turning associated with windrow treatment not the best selection method to implement in bioremediation of soil polluted with toxic volatiles compounds. The use of windrow treatment has been associated in greenhouse gas (CH4) release due to formation of anaerobic zone inside piled polluted soil, which frequently reduced aeration [18].
Land farming is the simplest, outstanding bioremediation techniques due to its low cost and less equipment requirement for operation. It is mostly observed in ex-situ bioremediation, while in some cases of in-situ bioremediation technique. This consideration is due to the site of treatment. Pollutant depth is important in land farming which can be carried out ex-situ or in-situ. In land farming, polluted soils are regularly excavated and tilled and site of treatment speciously regulates the type of bioremediation. When excavated polluted soil is treated on-site, it is ex-situ as it has more in common than other ex-situ bioremediation techniques. Generally, excavated polluted soils are carefully applied on a fixed layer support above the ground surface to allow aerobic biodegradation of pollutant by autochthonous microorganisms [19]. Over all, land farming bioremediation technique is very simple to design and implement, requires low capital input and can be used to treat large volume of polluted soil with minimal environmental impact and energy requirement [20].
Bioreactor is a vessel in which raw materials are converted to specific product(s) following series of biological reactions. There are different operational modes of bioreactors, which include: batch, fed-batch, sequencing batch, continuous and multistage. Bioreactor provides optimal growth conditions for bioremediation. Bioreactor filled with polluted samples for remediation process. The bioreactor based treatment of polluted soil has several advantages as compared to ex-situ bioremediation procedures. Bioreactor-based bioremediation process having excellent control of pH, temperature, agitation and aeration, substrate and inoculum concentrations efficiently reduces bioremediation time. The ability to control and manipulate process parameters in a bioreactor implies that biological reactions. The flexible nature of bioreactor designs allows maximum biological degradation while minimizing abiotic losses [21].
Advantages of ex-situ bioremediation
Suitable for a wide range of contaminants
Suitability relatively simple to assess from site investigation data
Biodegradation are greater in a bioreactor system than or in solid-phase systems because the contaminated environment is more manageable and more controllable and predictable.
Disadvantages
Not applicable to heavy metal contamination or chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene.
Non-permeable soil requires additional processing.
The contaminant can be stripped from soil via soil washing or physical extraction before being placed in bioreactor.
These techniques comprise treating polluted substances at the pollution site. It does not need any excavation and by little or no disturbance in soil construction. Perfectly, these techniques should to be cost effective compared to ex-situ bioremediation techniques. Some in-situ bioremediation techniques like bioventing, biosparging and phytoremediation may be enhanced, while others may be progress without any form of improvement such as intrinsic bioremediation or natural attenuation. In-situ bioremediation techniques have been effectively used to treat chlorinated solvents, heavy metals, dyes, and hydrocarbons polluted sites [22, 23, 24].
In-situ bioremediation is two types; these are intrinsic and engineered bioremediation.
Intrinsic bioremediation
Intrinsic bioremediation also known as natural reduction is an in-situ bioremediation technique, which involves passive remediation of polluted sites, without any external force (human intervention). This process deals with stimulation of indigenous or naturally occurring microbial population. The process based on both microbial aerobic and anaerobic processes to biodegrade polluting constituents containing those that are recalcitrant. The absence of external force implies that the technique is less expensive compared to other in-situ techniques.
Engineered in-situ bioremediation
The second approach involves the introduction of certain microorganism to the site of contamination. Genetically Engineered microorganisms used in the in-situ bioremediation accelerate the degradation process by enhancing the physicochemical conditions to encourage the growth of microorganisms.
Bioventing techniques involve controlled stimulation of airflow by delivering oxygen to unsaturated (vadose) zone in order to increase activities of indigenous microbes for bioremediation. In bioventing, amendments are made by adding nutrients and moisture to increase bioremediation. That will achieve microbial transformation of pollutants to a harmless state. This technique has gained popularity among other in-situ bioremediation techniques [25].
This technique combines vacuum-enhanced pumping, soil vapor extraction and bioventing to achieve soil and ground water remediation by indirect providing of oxygen and stimulation of contaminant biodegradation [26]. This technique is planned for products recovery from remediating capillary, light non-aqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs), unsaturated and saturated zones. This technique used to remediate soils which are contaminated with volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds. The method uses a “slurp” that spreads into the free product layer, which pulls up liquids from this layer. The pumping machine transports LNAPLs to the surface by upward movement, where it becomes separated from air and water. In this technique, soil moisture bounds air permeability and declines oxygen transfer rate, which reducing microbial activities. Although this technique is not suitable for low permeable soil remediation, it is cost effective operation procedure due to less amount of ground water, minimizes storage, treatment and disposal costs.
This technique is similar to bioventing in this air is injected into soil subsurface to improve microbial activities which stimulate pollutant removal from polluted sites. However, in bioventing, air is injected in saturated zone, which can help in upward movement of volatile organic compounds to the unsaturated zone to stimulate biodegradation process. The efficiency of biosparging depends on two major factors specifically soil permeability and pollutant biodegradability. In bioventing and soil vapor extraction (SVE), biosparing operation is closely correlated technique known as in-situ air sparging (IAS), which depend on high air-flow rates for volatilization of pollutant, whereas biosparging stimulates biodegradation. Biosparging has been generally used in treating aquifers contaminated with diesel and kerosene.
Phytoremediation is depolluting the contaminated soils. This technique based on plant interactions like physical, chemical, biological, microbiological and biochemical in contaminated sites to diminish the toxic properties of pollutants. Which is depending on pollutant amount and nature, there are several mechanisms such as extraction, degradation, filtration, accumulation, stabilization and volatilization involved in phytoremediation. Pollutants like heavy metals and radionuclides are commonly removed by extraction, transformation and sequestration. Organic pollutants hydrocarbons and chlorinated compounds are mostly removed by degradation, rhizoremediation, stabilization and volatilization, with mineralization being possible when some plants such as willow and alfalfa are used [27, 28].
Some important factors of plant as a phytoremediator include: root system, which may be fibrous or tap depending on the depth of pollutant, above ground biomass, toxicity of pollutant to plant, plant existence and its adaptability to predominant environmental conditions, plant growth rate, site monitoring and above all, time mandatory to achieve the preferred level of cleanliness. In addition, the plant must be resistant to diseases and pests [29]. In phytoremediation removal of pollutant includes uptake, translocation from roots to shoots. Further, translocation and accumulation depends on transpiration and partitioning [30]. However, the process is possible to change, depending on other factors such as nature of contaminant and plant. The mostly plants growing in any polluted site are good phytoremediators. Therefore, the success of any phytoremediation method mainly depends on improving the remediation potentials of native plants growing in polluted sites either by bioaugmentation with endogenous or exogenous plant. One of the major advantages of using plants to remediate polluted site is that some precious metals can bioaccumulate in some plants and recovered after remediation, a process known as phytomining.
This technique is commonly observed as a physical method for remediating contaminated groundwater. However, biological mechanisms are precipitation degradation and sorption of pollutant removal used in PRB method. The substitute terms such as biological PRB, bio-enhanced PRB, passive bioreactive barrier, have been suggested to accommodate the biotechnology and bioremediation aspect of the technique. In general, PRB is an in-situ technique used for remediating heavy metals and chlorinated compounds in groundwater pollution [31, 32].
In-situ bioremediation methods do not required excavation of the contaminated soil.
This method provides volumetric treatment, treating both dissolved and solid contaminants.
The time required to treat sub-surface pollution using accelerated in-situ bioremediation can often be faster than pump and treat processes.
It may be possible to completely transform organic contaminants to innocuous substances like carbon dioxide, water and ethane.
It is a cost effective method because there is minimal site disruption.
Depending on specific site, some contaminants may not be absolutely transformed to harmless products.
If transformation stops at an intermediate compound, the intermediate may be more toxic and/or mobile than parent compound some are recalcitrant contaminants cannot be biodegradable.
When incorrectly applied, injection wells may become blocked by profuse microbial growth due to addition of nutrients, electron donor and electron acceptor.
Heavy metals and organic compounds concentration inhibit activity of indigenous microorganisms.
In-situ bioremediation usually required microorganism’s acclimatization, which may not develop for spills and recalcitrant compounds.
Bioremediation techniques are varied and have demonstrated effective in restoring polluted sites. Microorganisms play fundamental role in bioremediation; consequently, their diversity, abundance and community structure in polluted environments offer insight into the chance of any bioremediation technique providing other environmental factors, which can inhibit microbial activities. Advanced Molecular techniques such as ‘Omics’ includes genomics, proteomics, metabolomics and transcriptomics have contributed towards microbial identification, functions, metabolic and catabolic pathways, with microbial based methods. Nutrient availability, low population or absence of microbes with degradative capabilities, and pollutant bioavailability may delay the achievement of bioremediation. Since bioremediation depends on microbial process, biostimulation and bioaugmentation approaches speed up microbial activities in polluted sites. Biostimulation increase microbial activities by the addition of nutrients to a polluted sample. Microorganisms are abundantly present in different type of environmental condition, it is noticeable that pollutant degrading microbes are naturally present in polluted contaminated sites, their growth and metabolic activities may depends on pollutant type and concentration; later, we can use of agro-industrial wastes, which contains nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium as a nutrient source most polluted sites. Microbial consortium has been reported to degrade pollutants more efficiently than pure isolates [33].
This activity due to metabolic diversities of individual isolates, which potency create from their isolation source, adaptation process, pollutant composition, and synergistic effects, which may lead to complete and rapid degradation of pollutants when such isolates are mixed together [34]. Additional so, both bioaugmentation and biostimulation were effective in removing pollutant such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from heavily polluted sample compared to non-amended setup (control) [35].
Although bioaugmentation has recognized effective method, it has been shown to increase the degradation of many compounds. If proper biodegrading microorganisms are not present in soil or if microbial populations decreased because of contaminant toxicity, specific microorganisms can be added as “introduced organisms” to improve the current populations and the possibility that the inoculated microorganisms may not survive in the new environment make bioaugmentation a very uncertain method. This process is known as bioaugmentation. Bioremediation technique in which natural or genetically engineered bacteria with unique metabolic profiles are used to treat sewage or contaminated water or soil. The use of alginate, agar, agarose, gelatin, gellan gum and polyurethane as carrier materials solve some of the challenges associated with bioaugmentation [36].
Biosurfactants are chemical equivalents having ecofriendly and biodegradable properties. However, high construction cost and low scalability application of biosurfactants to polluted site are uneconomical. Agro-industrial wastes combination are nutrient sources for development of biosurfactant producers during fermentation process. Application of several bioremediation techniques will help increase remediation efficiency [37].
Enhancing bioremediation ability with organized use of genetically engineered microorganisms (GEM) is a favorable approach. This is due to possibility of engineering a designer biocatalyst target pollutant including recalcitrant compounds by combining a novel and efficient metabolic pathways, widening the substrate range of existing pathways and increasing stability of catabolic activity [38].
However, parallel gene transfer and multiplication of GEM in an environmental application are encouraging approach. Bacterial containment systems, in which any GEM escaping an environment to reconstruct polluted environment.
Further, derivative pathway of genetically engineering microorganisms with a target polluted compound using biological approach could increase bioremediation efficiency. Nanomaterials decline the toxicity of pollutant to microorganisms because nanomaterials having increase surface area and lower activation energy, which reduce time and cost of bioremediation [39].
Bioremediation must be considered as appropriate methods that can applied to all states of matter in the environment
Solids (soils, sediment and sludge)
Liquids (ground water, surface water and industrial waste water
Gases (industrial air emissions)
Sub-surface environments (saturated and vadose zones).
The general approaches to bioremediation are the (i) intrinsic (natural) bioremediation, (ii) biosimulation (environmental modifications, through nutrient application and aeration, and (iii) bioaugmentation (addition of microbes).
The biological community exploited for bioremediation generally consists of the native soil microflora. However, higher plants can also be manipulated to enhance toxicant removal (phytoremediation), especially for remediation of metal contaminated soils.
All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.
It is a natural process; it takes a little time, as an adequate waste treatment process for contaminated material such as soil. Microbes able to degrade the contaminant, the biodegradative populations become reduced. The treatment products are commonly harmless including cell biomass, water and carbon dioxide.
It needs a very less effort and can commonly carry out on site, regularly without disturbing normal microbial activities. This also eradicates the transport amount of waste off site and the possible threats to human health and the environment.
It is functional in a cost effective process as comparison to other conventional methods that are used for clean-up of toxic hazardous waste regularly for the treatment of oil contaminated sites. It also supports in complete degradation of the pollutants; many of the toxic hazardous compounds can be transformed to less harmful products and disposal of contaminated material.
It does not use any dangerous chemicals. Nutrients especially fertilizers added to make active and fast microbial growth. Because of bioremediation change harmful chemicals into water and harmless gases, the harmful chemicals are completely destroyed.
Simple, less labor intensive and cheap due to their natural role in the environment.
Contaminants are destroyed, not simply transferred to different environmental.
Nonintrusive, possibly allowing for continued site use.
Current way of remediating environment from large contaminates and acts as ecofriendly sustainable opportunities.
It is restricted for biodegradable compounds. Not all compounds are disposed to quick and complete degradation process.
There are particular new products of biodegradation may be more toxic than the initial compounds and persist in environment.
Biological processes are highly specific, ecofriendly which includes the presence of metabolically active microbial populations, suitable environmental growth conditions and availability of nutrients and contaminants.
It is demanding to encourage the process from bench and pilot-scale to large-scale field operations. Contaminants may be present as solids, liquids and gases. It often takes longer than other treatment preferences, such as excavation and removal of soil or incineration.
Research is needed to develop and engineer bioremediation technologies that are appropriate for sites with complex mixtures of contaminants that are not evenly dispersed in the environment.
Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. This method is susceptible to rapid and complete degradation. Products of biodegradation may be more persistent or toxic than the parent compound in the environment.
Specificity
Biological processes are highly specific. Important site factors mandatory for success include the presence of metabolically capable microbial populations, suitable environmental growth conditions, and appropriate levels of nutrients and contaminants.
Scale up limitation
It is difficult to scale up bioremediation process from batch and pilot scale studies applicable to large scale field operations.
Technological advancement
More research is required to develop modern engineer bioremediation technologies that are suitable for sites with composite combinations of contaminants that are not equally distributed in the environment. It may be present as solids, liquids and gases forms.
Time taking process
Bioremediation takes longer time compare to other treatment options, such as excavation and removal of soil from contaminated site.
Regulatory uncertainty
We are not certain to say that remediation is 100% completed, as there is no accepted definition of clean. Due to that performance evaluation of bioremediation is difficult, and there is no acceptable endpoint for bioremediation treatments.
Biodegradation is very fruitful and attractive option to remediating, cleaning, managing and recovering technique for solving polluted environment through microbial activity. The speed of undesirable waste substances degradation is determined in competition with in biological agents like fungi, bacterial, algae inadequate supply with essential nutrient, uncomfortable external abiotic conditions (aeration, moisture, pH, temperature), and low bioavailability. Bioremediation depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type and concentration of pollutants. The leading step to a successful bioremediation is site description, which helps create the most suitable and promising bioremediation technique (ex-situ or in-situ). Ex-situ bioremediation techniques tend to be more costly due to excavation and transportation from archeological site. However, they can be used to treat wider range of pollutants. In contrast, in-situ techniques have no extra cost for excavation; however, on-site installation cost of equipment, attached with effectively and control the subsurface of polluted site can reduce some ineffective in-situ bioremediation methods. Geological characteristics of polluted sites comprising soil, pollutant type and depth, human habitation site and performance of every bioremediation technique should be integrated in determining the most appropriate and operative bioremediation technique to successfully treatment of polluted sites.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\\n\\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
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\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
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\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
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\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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