The methane gas adsorption capacity of various MOFs under different pressures conditions [38, 43, 44].
\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. 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Such once-in-a-generation or even once-in-a-century events have profound impact on our perception of the global
Composite word cloud depicting key terms and dominant concepts in the current book.
As much as we must acknowledge that humanity was deeply humbled by the ongoing pandemic, and that all-too-frequently we had to re-learn the collective lessons of declaring premature victory, we also need to emphasize the story of human resolve and our ability to “rise to the occasion” when facing overwhelming odds [5, 7, 8, 9]. The COVID-19 pandemic taught us much about being a true “global community” [10]. Within this general context, a thorough evaluation is warranted of the relationship between COVID-19 and IHS, including a detailed examination of all pertinent domains that directly or indirectly influence our ability to maintain human health and wellness. Using the expanded definition of ‘health security’ in the context of a global pandemic is especially important and central to highlighting the real-time impact of an emerging infectious disease (EID) on multiple other spheres of human life, with medical and direct healthcare aspects constituting only a small proportion of factors able to actively modulate wellness and health across the planet [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. In fact, one might argue that a more comprehensive, inclusive, and multi-dimensional approach to the current pandemic contributed to a significant reduction in both human and economic costs of this once-in-a-century global event. And even more importantly, the above is a true reflection of human resolve and a testament to our collective accomplishments when we all work together as a community.
Global challenges, including a devastating pandemic, often force our existing systems, established patterns, and the way we operate in general, to rapidly evolve and change in response. While it is generally acknowledged that there is often an inherent “reluctance to change,” especially in the presence of contentment with the
The early pandemic created a perfect milieu for various existing technologies to enter mainstream implementation and use [21]. Two particular technological advances worth mentioning in this context, both already well in the state of “transition into mainstream” irrespective of the ongoing pandemic, are tele-health and artificial intelligence [22, 23]. At the same time, the adoption process of novel technologies and approaches must also ensure that we carefully factor in appropriate patient safety considerations, any potential limitations, well-defined staff responsibilities, evolution of team roles, as well as adherence to protocols [24]. While such technologies very quickly become a part of the modern medical lexicon, widespread acceptance was often challenged, not just by individual human reluctance or aversion, but also by the simple reality that such digitial tools, despite the need for rapid and widespread implementation, have not quite matured for the intended role(s) they were originally conceived to fulfill.
Although current events make it challenging to clearly picture the post-COVID-19 future, it is likely just a matter of time before we enter this new and eagerly awaited “state of the planet.” It will hopefully be a state where politics, economic health, violence, acute and chronic disease, racial disparities, health care access, the viability of health care systems, delivery of care, mental health, homelessness, and aging are seriously re-evaluated and addressed. It will be critically important that this future is constructed in a manner that The United Nations proposed in their landmark document discussing 17 sustainable goals for the future [18]. These suggestions are a roadmap to assist in overcoming challenges such as poverty, environmental concerns, various socio-economic injustices, the climate change, among other agenda points. Within this context, we must ask, “Is the social, economic, and political infrastructure of the planet ready for such demands?” There is no doubt that community participation on local, regional, national and international levels will be necessary for a successful and sustainable outcome for the planet and for the humanity [25]. Of additional importance, it is also vital that the knowledge of pandemic preparedness fundamentals becomes an established competency for those holding or running for political office, where ignorance and complacency toward implementing viable solutions for problems with established political, social, economic, and scientific evidence is simply not acceptable [5].
As the pandemic continues beyond 2020 the world will likely see an imbalance between the vaccinated and the unvaccinated, the ‘pro-maskers’ and the ‘anti-maskers,’ the believers of science and the non-believers of science, the true warriors (health workers on the ground) and the media warriors (the speakers in media), the false news mongerers and the seekers of truth [11, 26, 27]. As we battled to save lives, the pandemic tested our resilience at an individual level and also tested our values as a global society. Sharing, caring, supporting, collaborating, empathy, compassion, resilience and resolve were actively tested, every minute of every day, at every location, and for every human being. Food, water, hospital beds, medications, and oxygen were simultaneously in high demand and in short supply [22].
Across intensive care units on every continent, critically ill patients fought for every breath, fought to live, fought for another opportunity to be with their loved ones. The entire humanity was fighting to survive as COVID-19 mercilessly affected individuals, families, nations, political and economic spheres. The pandemic changed geopolitical relationships, industry partnerships and economic projections. It changed and will continue to change the way things humans do well into the future, and potentially forever across some domains (e.g., pandemic preparedness and management) [5, 22].
When looking at the COVID-19 pandemic events from a truly global and comprehensive perspective, it is a giant test of how humans approach and embrace international health security. In the context of ‘health security,’ the actual degree of security is closely related to the overall degree of ‘health insecurity’ that exists around us. Maintenance of health security requires ongoing efforts and a constant focus on all mission-critical elements [18]. As this herculean task is being undertaken, the attainment of ‘health security’ thus becomes a careful balancing act that involves politics, competing interests, social, and economic considerations. Humanity plays a major role when we evision a ‘secured world.’ Here, IHS should be considered to be universal, and it should be the main sustainable goal that humans should strive to attain and work toward consistently. As such, ‘health security’ is a long journey with only a few periodic punctuations that provide just enough time for self-reflection and re-orientation.
Within the expanded IHS framework, the repose to the current pandemic has been a kind of one-size-fits-all public health policy without a strategic assessment of the local and regional situation. The relatively diminished capacity of peripheric surveillance and control systems has forced local governments to ‘copy and paste’ control strategies from abroad [22, 28]. However, when pursuing such course, we must remember that “one size does not fit all.” Moreover, quick, effective, and vigorous actions have been lacking.
Of importance, there is a tendency to extrapolate from previous scientific approaches to pandemic management that did not factor in the variables of the evolution of human social, political, medical, economic, and financial changes over time. Lessons of pandemic management in the 19th and 20th centuries, for example, need to factor in the reality that the 21st century IHS framework is vastly different and, inherently, more complex – both for better and for worse. Also, in the last few decades, there has been a dramatic disinvestment in the area of public health and the concept that investment in the workforce’s physical well being and mental health positively influences productivity has been either abandoned or significantly de-emphasized. Nevertheless, the immense costs for the global economy of the COVID-19 pandemic have changed this paradigm and forced all stakeholders to re-emphasize the need for robust and consistent public health funding. As a matter of fact, no other pandemic has affected the U.S. and the global economy with such historical precedent [29, 30], at least in absolute terms.
The expanded and redefined scope of International Health Security provides a unique opportunity for the public health community to embrace a more holistic approach toward an area that was traditionally much more narrow in scope [18]. Our current crisis reminds us, on a daily basis, how unprepared we continue to be for the events of a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) [23, 31, 32, 33]. As we tackle one of the greatest challenges to IHS in recent decades (if not of the past several centuries) – the novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic – it becomes increasingly important to shift our focus to a more global, yet significantly more granular and scientific, perspective on IHS threats and emergencies. Such a perspective permits quicker, more effective, and more equitable responses for future PHEICs. We hope that the foundation created by this Editorial team will provide a solid springboard for an insightful and captivating discussion in this rapidly developing and important area of academic international medicine and public health.
The well-known alternative fuels for crude oil-based liquid products are natural gas and hydrogen. Nevertheless, these gaseous fuels require a special storage technique for effective utilization due to their lower volumetric energy density values. Natural gas with wide availability and improved production technology is considered to be an important energy source for the future and a cleaner form of energy compared to that of the higher hydrocarbon-based fuels such as gasoline and diesel due to its low C/H ratio. This consists of mainly methane (55–98 vol%) as the primary component along with other gases such as ethane (2–4 vol%), propane (0.5–2 vol%), and butane (0.25–0.5 vol%) in minor amounts along with few acid gases in trace amounts [1]. An estimate has shown that natural gas produces 55.9 kg CO2/GJ of energy, which is lower than that of anthracite coal (91.3 CO2/GJ), gasoline (78.5 CO2/GJ), and diesel (73.3 CO2/GJ) [2]. Therefore, among the several areas of attention for further technological advances in the natural gas domain, storage, utilization, and supply chain are prominent in the downstream sector. The concept of natural gas storage is old and typically produced and, in some cases, the processed gas is stored in an underground facility in the vicinity of the supply center. The stored gas is regularly monitored for potential loss and emission reliability of the supply chain to meet the customer demand is an important parameter for this form of energy [3]. The current issues related to the environment has led to adopting effective measures to handle major pollution sources and the transportation sector is considered as one of the important one among these. The use of natural gas owing to wide availability and its lower carbon emission compared to that of the higher hydrocarbons as fuel for vehicular application is projected to control the pollution level to a certain extent. Natural gas in two forms are utilized as vehicle fuel, i.e. compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG). The CNG is especially important for light vehicle transport such as cars and other cargo transporting vehicles, whereas the LNG form is utilized in industries and manufacturing along with domestic applications. However, these systems suffer from the limitations of high cost, low storage efficiency, and safety issues.
To improve the efficiency of the process, the concept of adsorbed natural gas (ANG) originated, in which the natural gas was stored in a comparatively high amount in a porous adsorbent system under ambient temperature conditions. In this process, the methane is believed to be adsorbed in molecular form in the nanosized pores of the adsorbent network and the density in the adsorbed form exceeds the bulk density. The adsorption process being exothermic typically depended on the thermodynamic conditions. The amount of adsorption increased with a decrease in temperature and an increase in pressure. The ANG is considered to be a cost-effective alternative compared to that of liquefaction and energy-intensive compression. The storage pressure in this scenario can be decreased to ~35 bar compared to that of the utilized in CNG technology (200 bar) [4]. The target set by the Department of Energy (DOE) is 263 cm3/cm3 working capacity under standard conditions for the adsorbent material to be commercially viable. The value is gravimetrically equivalent to 0.5 g/g of adsorbent and amount of CNG at 200 bar and 25°C pressure and temperature respectively. Furthermore, the low energy density value of the natural gas also requires improvement which may be achieved by high-density packing so that it mimics the energy density value of LNG, i.e. ~22.2 MJ/L. Therefore, efficient adsorbents with high adsorption and desorption efficiency are desirable to utilize this ANG technology in an affordable manner for commercial implementation.
The selection of a suitable adsorbent is one of the most important criteria for the utilization of the technology for successful commercial application. An adsorbent with high surface area, large pore volume, narrow micropore distribution, the pore size of 1–1.2 nm, and high density is required to achieve the ambitious ANG storage target for vehicular application set by the US DOE. The porous materials studied in recent literature for adsorption based natural gas storage at relatively low pressure compared to that of the CNG and ambient temperature conditions are resins, zeolites [5], xerogels [6], aerogels, carbon-based materials [7] such as carbon nanotubes and fibers, metal organic frameworks (MOF) and covalent organic frameworks (COF). The methane adsorption efficiency is known to be linearly dependent on the surface area of the adsorbent (Figure 1) [8]. Earlier studies have revealed that Zeolites exhibiting adsorption capacity up to 100 V/V storage capacity are not suitable to reach the target set by the DOE and the interest has shifted to the carbon-based materials and 3D frameworks [4].
Schematics showing the effect of the surface of the carbon-based adsorbents on the methane uptake capacity, the red squares represent the carbon in granular powder form and the green circles represent the coal samples.
The volumetric storage capacity of the adsorbed natural gas may be calculated in a simple manner by following the equation given below;
where, nstg is the volumetric storage capacity, nexc is the excess amount of adsorbate per volume of adsorbent, ρgas, ρpack, and ρHe is the gas, packing and helium density respectively.
Porous carbon materials are one of the widely studied systems for said application. In general carbon-based materials have exhibited higher adsorption capacity compared to that of the other studied porous materials possessing similar surface area due to their slit-shaped pore structure [9]. The packing density of activated carbon-based materials is also known to exhibit a linear dependence on the applied pressure and the value reaches up to 0.8 g/cm3 on applying pressure till 980 MPa [10]. Furthermore, the activated carbon-based materials can be easily synthesized from readily available low-cost starting materials such as wooden materials, corns, different fossil fuels, and polymer and are cost-effective. These materials can be easily physically activated using steam or CO2 and chemically activated in an industrial scale using acids and bases under high-temperature conditions [11]. Earlier studies on carbon-based adsorbent for the natural gas storage application was based on the single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT). The Monte Carlo simulation-based theoretical studies predicted that the SWCNT bundles may be suitable for methane storage under moderate pressure conditions [12]. However, experimental studies afterward suggested that the adsorption capacity is limited to 0.11 g/g in these systems at 60 bar and 30°C [13]. The activated carbon-based materials have been successful in achieving excess gravimetric methane uptake till 0.2 g/g at 35 bar and ambient temperature conditions and in this case the delivery capacity was 170 V/V at 65 bar pressure [14]. Further increase in pressure to 100 bar improved the adsorption capacity to 263 V/V, which surpassed the target set by DOE. However, the deliverable capacity of carbon-based materials is reported to be inferior, which limits the utilization of these materials for storage applications. The carbon nanotube (CNT) though has shown promise to achieve high adsorption capacity, the experimental value is limited to 160 V/V at 35 bar and 25°C [15].
One of the advantages of these carbon-based materials is that these can be synthesized from renewable, polymeric, and cost-effective sources and activated via multiple routes. For example, olive stones were utilized to prepare carbon-based materials, which on carbonization at 500°C under inert atmosphere produced the carbon material. The sample was activated using KOH at a high temperature of 800°C [16]. The sample exhibited 3551 m2/g BET surface area and 215 V/V methane uptake capacity at 100 bar with a working capacity of 135 V/V. In another instance, polyacrylonitrile beads were pyrolyzed at 600°C to synthesize carbon flowers. The carbon flowers were then activated with KOH by heating the mixture at 800°C. The flowers were also activated by heating these under CO2 flow at 850°C. The resulting carbon materials exhibited a BET surface area of 1077 m2/g and methane adsorption capacity of 196 V/V at 65 bar [17]. Other biomass precursors for the synthesis of porous carbon materials include coconut shells [18], corn straws [19], banana peels [20], and soya [21]. Xiao and coworkers published a summary on the use of various biomass for the synthesis of porous carbon materials and the surface area of the resulting materials [22]. The review also summarized the different activation methods utilized to activate the carbon materials such as strong inorganic bases [23], lewis acid [24], and H3PO4 [25] based procedures to optimize the pore structure further and enhance their adsorption performance. Templating is another useful technique utilized in literature to achieve highly ordered and large surface area carbon materials. Both soft and hard templating can be used for this purpose. Hard templates could be a various nanoparticles, silica, and molecular sieves. For example, mesoporous silica sieve hard templates in presence of 1,10-phenanthroline ligand were utilized to synthesize Co immobilized nitrogen-doped porous carbon materials for catalytic applications. The calcination for the material synthesis was carried out at 800°C [26]. Typically, in the case of the soft templating method, the polymers or surfactant self-assemble into a particular ordered shape, which is then immobilized into the mesoporous material to be synthesized. Subsequently, the templates are removed to expose the pores and obtain the porous material. Ionic liquid and self-assembled block polymers have been utilized as the soft templates for this purpose [27, 28]. Direct carbonization of ordered nanostructures is also becoming another attractive option to generate porous carbon materials. For example, the MOF can be utilized as precursors to directly synthesize porous carbon materials via pyrolysis under an inert environment [29]. The presence of various organic ligands may also serve as the carbon source for the above synthesis, whereas the metal nodes often help to control the pore structure and control the physical properties of the carbon material. For example, Yamaguchi and coworkers utilized a Zn and Co-based bimetallic MOF to synthesize nanoporous carbon by pyrolyzing the precursor under an inert atmosphere at 900°C [30]. The shape of the precursor was replicated in the carbon material produced as can be shown in Figure 2 below. Metal such as Zn evaporates at a high temperature allowing the formation of pores in the resulting carbon product. In some cases, the metal ions convert to the corresponding nanoparticles and serve as a catalytic site for further applications. The type of metal, the metal content, and ligand type play important role in developing nanoporous carbon structures.
(a) The crystal structure of Zn and Co-based bimetallic MOF, (b) the photographs of solutions possessing different molar ratios of Co2+ to Zn2+, (c and d) the TEM and (e) SEM images of the MOF and produced nanoporous carbon., Reproduced with permission from
In this regard, the MOFs have gained strong interest in their ability to reversibly store natural gas for vehicular application. MOFs are a wide family of reticular and highly porous coordination polymers formed by the coordination self-assembly of the metal center with multidentate organic building blocks [32, 33]. The MOFs are reported to exhibit ultra-high surface area up to 10,000 m2/g, and tunable pore sizes with the possibility to functionalize them [34]. A number of MOF materials such as MIL-74, CAU-8, Zn6(H2O)3(BTP)4, Zn-MOF-74, 3W-ROD-1, and Ni-MOF-74 are studied towards their ability to store natural gas (Figure 3) [31]. Similarly, Pore size optimization is one of the important targets in the field of MOF materials. The effective way to address the same is by gradually changing the length of the organic linker and introducing functionality into the linker. For example, the introduction of sulfone and carbonyl groups notably improved the CO2 absorption capacity compared to that of the un-functionalized one (Figure 4) [35].
Structure of some of the rod MOFs synthesized in recent literature. Reproduced with permission from [
Effect of ligand size on the pore structure of the resulting MOFs. Reproduced with permission from [
For an adsorbent to exhibit adequate adsorption ability, the system should maintain a balance between gravimetric (SAG) and volumetric surface area (SAV) along with high porosity. Often the normalized value of the product of SAG and SAV is utilized to suggest the above. It is known that the helium void fraction displays a volcano relationship with the largest pore diameter. The NU-1500; Al and PET-based MOF systems exhibit void fraction and largest pore diameter values of 0.76 and 12.7 Å respectively and display high CH4 storage capacity. A similar system with Fe at the coordinating center, the NU-1501 series displayed increased VF values of 0.87 and an LPD value of 18.8 Å [36]. The MOF series based on extended PET system and Al metal displayed SAG and SAV of 7310 m2/g and 2060 m2/cm3 respectively. The corresponding Fe-based system showed a somewhat lower SAG value (7140 m2/g) and comparable SAV value (2130 m2/cm3). The study showed that the SAG and SAV values can be controlled further to significantly improve the gravimetric uptake capacity while retaining the volumetric storage capacity.
The gas adsorption capacity and separation performance of the MOFs may be optimized further by suitably modifying the organic building blocks with functional groups using simple organic transformation. The presence of polar functional groups in the mainframe of MOFs effectively improves the CO2 capture and separation abilities. For example, MOF is based on flexible hexadentate ligands containing amide groups, N-tris-isophthalic acid-1,3,5-benzenetricarboxamide (TPBTM) such as [Cu24(TPBTM6−)8(H2O)24](Cu-TPBTM) with high surface area [37]. The pore structure of the resulting MOFs depended on the size, structure, and functionality of the organic building blocks as shown inFigure 5 for representative purposes.
The Cu-TPNTM MOFs and their pore structure is depicted above. Reproduced with permission from [
These class of materials are reported to exhibit adsorption capacity up to 180 V/V. For example, the HKUST-1 based on Cu metal and 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylate organic linker exhibits surface area up to 1800 m2/g with adequate stability [37]. Similarly, a MOF system based on Cu and a hexadentate linker 3,3′,3″,5,5′,5″-benzene-1,3,5-triyl-hexabenzoic acid exhibited BET surface area up to 6240 m2/g [39]. The open metal site in these MOFs serves as the site to bind to the methane molecule. At 100 bar pressure and 25°C, these MOFs display storage capacity up to 330 V/V. The issue with this MOF system towards practical applications is that higher hydrocarbons, such as ethane and propane adsorb more strongly compared to that of the methane and tend to block the pore site [40]. Seki reported a MOF system, based on copper and triethylenediamine (TED), [Cu-(O2CRCO2)·1/2TED}n] [R = 4,4′-C6H4C6H4 (1)] which recorded a volumetric storage capacity for methane up to 225 V/V [41]. For the synthesis of MOFs for said application, key factors such as the number of coordinating sites, size, shape, and geometric configuration of organic linkers require careful attention, which determines the self-assembled structure and gas adsorption performance of MOFs. Typically, the coordinating sites of the organic building blocks consist of electron-donating elements such as O, S, and N. Among the corresponding coordinating functionalities, the carboxylic acid groups tend to form stable MOFs. A set of crystalline MOFs based on 4,4′,4″-[benzene-1,3,5-triyl-tris(ethyne-2,1-diyl)]tribenzoate organic linker and Zn4O(CO2)6 was synthesized that exhibited non-interpenetrating 3D crystal structures with pores of ~48 Å sizes [42]. The MOF displayed an extremely high BET surface area of 6240 m2/g. A table summarizing the adsorption capacity under given temperature and pressure conditions for various MOFs is included for reference (Table 1) [43].
MOFs | BET | Pressure | Capacity (cm3/g) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
(m2/g) | (bar) | |||
NU-1500-Al | 3650 | 100 | 549.1 | [43] |
MOF-177 | 4500 | 65 | 475 | [38] |
NU-1501-Al | 7310 | 100 | 929.7 | [43] |
PCN-46 | 2500 | 65 | 310.7 | [43] |
PCN-61 | 3000 | 65 | 366.8 | [43] |
PCN-66 | 4000 | 65 | 397.9 | [43] |
PCN-68 | 5109 | 65 | 465.2 | [43] |
UTSA-61 | 2171 | 65 | 337 | [43] |
UTSA-20 | 1620 | 65 | 252.7 | [43] |
NOTT-119 | 4118 | 65 | 426.6 | [43] |
NU-111 | 4930 | 65 | 503 | [43] |
NU-125 | 3286 | 65 | 395 | [43] |
NU-140 | 4300 | 65 | 451.5 | [43] |
NOTT-100 | 1661 | 35 | 210 | [43] |
NOTT-102 | 3342 | 35 | 308 | [38] |
UTSA-110 | 3241 | 65 | 402 | [44] |
UTSA-76 | 2820 | 65 | 363 | [44] |
NJU-Bai-43 | 3090 | 65 | 396 | [44] |
LIFM-82 | 1624 | 65 | 267 | [44] |
MFM-38 | 2022 | 65 | 346 | [44] |
MFM-115a | 3394 | 65 | 389 | [44] |
MIL-53 (Cr) | 1500 (Langmuir) | 35 | 159 | [38] |
SNU-77 | 3670 | 35 | 250 | [38] |
PCN-68 | 5109 | 35 | 332 | [38] |
IRMOF | 1102 | 35 | 163 | [38] |
DUT-4 | 1308 | 35 | 158 | [38] |
FJI-1 | 4043 | 35 | 273 | [38] |
DUT-13 | 5570 (Langmuir) | 35 | 250 | [38] |
MOF-210 | 6240 | 35 | 331 | [38] |
DUT-8 (Co) | 1400 | 35 | 78 | [38] |
Considering the gas density in the pores of the adsorbent to be considerably higher compared to that of the bulk density, the optimization of void space becomes important to maximize the adsorption capacity. Therefore, monoliths of MOFs are prepared using compression, binder, and polymeric additives [45]. However, the use of additives though known to improve the mechanical strength has their drawback as these tend to block the pore space and decrease the uptake capacity [46]. Therefore, preparation of pure monolith of MOF using compression has been pursued in literature. Even mechanical compression notably decreased the uptake capacity possibly due to the collapse of the pore structure. For example, the uptake capacity of Ni2(1,4-dioxido-2,5-benzenedicarboxylate) based MOF decreased from 230 to 100 V/V at 34 bar and 30°C after palletization [47]. Another way to handle the issue is to use a sol-gel technology in which gradual evaporation of solvent from the monoliths without destroying the pore structure. Recently, HKUST-1 monolith prepared using sol-gel technique exhibited uptake capacity of 259 V/V at 65 bar and 25°C [48].
The methane binding sites were studied in the literature on Zn-based MOF samples using low-temperature synchrotron analysis. The data revealed two primary adsorption sites and one secondary adsorption site. The primary adsorption sites were located near the Zn complex paddlewheel and the center of the small windows was recognized as the second primary adsorption site. At these sites, the methane interacted with the phenyl units and paddlewheel units. The secondary adsorption site was recognized as the center of the cavity [49]. However, still, the interaction of functional groups with methane is not very clear. More studies with support from spectroscopic tools may be necessary for future to completely ascertain the mechanism of methane storage. Using flexible MOFs is attractive to improve desorption capacity and minimize the loss during desorption. Considering the desorption pressure of the working engine is fixed at 4.8 bar by DoE, the reported flexible MOFs are known to absorb ANG at between 35 and 65 bar and release most of the gas at ~5 bar pressure [50, 51]. The type of metal center in the MOF also controls the uptake capacity and thermal management of the system. For example, Co(bdp) and Fe(bdp) based MOFs through exhibit comparable methane uptake capacity, Fe-based system has desorption steps at higher pressures of 10 bar compared to that of the Co-based system [52]. Similarly, in terms of intrinsic thermal management, the amount of heat released by Fe(bdp) based system (64.3 kJ/L) is 12% compared to that of the Co(bdp) (73.4 kJ/L) based system. Overall, the challenge with these systems lies with the fact that the 3D structure to be produced in such a way that the aromatic rings are exposed for the CH4 interaction. However, expansion of the organic linkers leads to fragile materials and allows for the self-interpenetration of lattices. Furthermore, the thermal stability of the coordination linkage, low heat of adsorption, and high packing density are also important from the perspective of commercial viability. Keeping in view of the above, suitable MOFs with high surface area and porosity may be designed and synthesized for the ANG storage application.
Another exciting avenue for reversible storage of CH4 is the covalent organic frameworks (COFs). The COFs are nanoporous materials formed by the covalent crosslinking of organic functional groups. These are lightweight materials with large pore volume, low density, and presence of hydrocarbon frames that enhances the interaction towards CH4 and improve the uptake capacity. Importantly, these possess high thermal stability and low molecular weight. For example, the COFs based on boronic acid linkage exhibited high thermal stability till 500°C and surface area up to 1590 cm2/g [53]. The surface area of boronic acid-based COFs increased further by restructuring the pore structure through the incorporation of two nodes, i.e. triangular (ctn) and tetrahedral (bor). The surface area of the COFs was measured to be 4210 cm2/g [54]. Earlier studies have proposed to minimize the methane COF interaction and increase the heat of adsorption to enhance the delivery efficiency of methane. These studies have further proposed that substitution on the phenyl ring does not alter the binding ability in the samples [55].
A study based on aromatic imine networks revealed that sub-stoichiometric construction of COFs hexagonal building blocks with four connecting sites, where the two unreacted sites can be used to enhance the selectivity of hydrocarbon adsorption [56]. The COF displayed a high BET surface area up to 3478 m2/g and methane adsorption capacity of 11.2 cm3/g. Similarly, another sub-stoichiometric COFs based on imines displaying bex net topology synthesized using tri- and tetratopic linkers are reported in the literature [57]. Topology control in COF is another important aspect to control the uptake capacity. For example, recently an N,N-dimethyl acetamide and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene based imine-COF was synthesized that displayed two different types of triangular micropores of different pore dimensions. The diameter of the pores was 11.3 and 15.2 Å respectively [58]. The COFs with tbo topology have been reported in the literature by using planar porphyrin with four coordinating sites and 3 coordinating trigonal aldehydes of a triphenylamine. The COFs are arranged into a
COFs possessing pcu topology have been synthesized using distorted aromatic compounds serving as triangular antiprismatic nodes [60]. Imine-based COFs possessing fjh topology was synthesized by coupling a triangular linker with a square building block [61]. Triptycene-based COFs displaying a non-interpenetrated ceq or acs topology was synthesized using a combination of a triangular prism and planar triangle nodes [44]. The sample displayed methane adsorption capacity up to 48 cm3/g at 0°C and 1 bar. The COF exhibited a BET surface area value of 2650 m2/g. Overall, studies have shown that the organic building block structure and functionality can be utilized as a control to develop COFs with controlled pore size, pore structure, and topology. The functionality in the COF system may be introduced to enhance the selectivity of such systems towards methane adsorption compared to that of the polar gases. The stoichiometry also serves as one of the handles to control the topology of the COFs. Several studies have shown that these materials possessing adequate thermal stability and binding ability towards methane may be a useful option for methane storage applications.
To summarize, ANG holds strong promise in the area of fuel for transportation and other consumer sectors. The affordability depends on the availability of cost-effective adsorbents with high storage capacity with optimized deliverability. Though porous carbon, metal-organic framework, and covalent organic framework have shown promise, the target set by the DOE is yet to be complied with optimum deliverability. Selective compositions have been successful in achieving the storage capacity limits, the cost-effective and large scale production of such materials is under ways to materialize a commercializable product. These porous nanostructures are predicted to reach a high surface area up to 4000 m2/g and beyond. A greater understanding of the pore structure, synthetic process, and mechanism of formation, pore controlling factors during synthesis and factors contributing towards the pore uniformity and stability would notably help towards the development of nonporous materials with high surface area and controlled pore structure. Therefore, the development of new cost-effective, thermally stable adsorbents with high uptake capacity and material strength is still desirable to further fulfill the commercial viability aspect of the technology.
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As the science gets more advanced and the information about these two points becomes clearer, the view of this information might modify our understanding to these processes. Then, some topics might be dropped, and others might be raised or become more obvious. However, the feeding of halophyte forages as per se has several drawbacks and therefore, they have to be fed in mixed rations, fortifying these rations with energy supplements.",book:{id:"5978",slug:"new-perspectives-in-forage-crops",title:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops",fullTitle:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops"},signatures:"Salah A. 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CW has been successfully applied as an adsorbent for removing pollutants from wastewater and gas, a precursor for obtaining activated carbon, and a feedstock for producing energy and valuable products using mono-process extraction and biorefinery.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Felipe J. Cerino-Córdova, Nancy E. Dávila-Guzmán, Azucena M. García León, Jacob J. Salazar-Rabago and Eduardo Soto-Regalado",authors:null},{id:"56029",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69614",title:"Production of Spineless Cactus in Brazilian Semiarid",slug:"production-of-spineless-cactus-in-brazilian-semiarid",totalDownloads:1901,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The term “spineless cactus” is used in Brazil to designate cultivars of Opuntia ficus indica Mill and Nopalea cochenillifera Salm Dyck. The spineless cactus was consolidated in Brazilian semiarid as a strategic fundamental food resource in several production livestock systems, constituting a plant with enormous productive potential. Thus, the spineless cactus has been widely cultivated and used for several decades, by enabling the animal feeding in critical periods of year because of its characteristics, morpho‐anatomical and physiological (CAM), which makes it tolerant to long droughts, being a crop that presents high productivity in droughts conditions, when compared to other forages. Nevertheless, the spineless cactus is a crop relatively picky about soil and climate characteristics of region, presenting greater growth in fertile soils, as well as in regions where nighttime temperatures are cool and the air humidity is relatively high. Although the crop be adapted to long droughts periods, many times it’s necessary to perform irrigation in its production system, mainly in regions of low rainfall, for to supply its water needs, thus ensuring productivity and survival of crop. Therefore, the knowledge of characteristics of plant, as well as of appropriate management techniques to crop, is essential for the good performance of spineless cactus.",book:{id:"5978",slug:"new-perspectives-in-forage-crops",title:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops",fullTitle:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops"},signatures:"Wilma Cristina Cavalcante dos Santos Sá, Edson Mauro Santos,\nJuliana Silva de Oliveira and Alexandre Fernandes Perazzo",authors:[{id:"139631",title:"Dr.",name:"Edson Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"edson-mauro-santos",fullName:"Edson Mauro Santos"},{id:"180036",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"juliana-oliveira",fullName:"Juliana Oliveira"},{id:"203022",title:"MSc.",name:"Wilma",middleName:null,surname:"Sá",slug:"wilma-sa",fullName:"Wilma Sá"},{id:"207265",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Perazzo",slug:"alexandre-perazzo",fullName:"Alexandre Perazzo"}]},{id:"70151",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89224",title:"The Harvest and Post-Harvest Management Practices’ Impact on Coffee Quality",slug:"the-harvest-and-post-harvest-management-practices-impact-on-coffee-quality",totalDownloads:1858,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most important agricultural commodities in the world. The coffee quality is associated with pre-harvest and post-harvest management activities. Each step starting from selecting the best coffee variety for plantation until the final coffee drink preparation determines the cupping quality. The overall coffee quality influenced by the factors which involve in changes the physicochemical properties and sensorial attributes, including the post-harvest operations. The post-harvest processing activities contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. The post-harvest operations include pulping, processing, drying, hulling, cleaning, sorting, grading, storage, roasting, grinding, and cupping. This chapter comprises the harvest and post-harvest operations of coffee and their impacts on coffee quality.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Mesfin Haile and Won Hee Kang",authors:null},{id:"69900",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89508",title:"Coffee By-Products: Nowadays and Perspectives",slug:"coffee-by-products-nowadays-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1160,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most consumed products around the world; 2.25 billions of coffee cup are consumed everyday in the world. For coffee crop production, different by-products are produced, such as coffee peel, coffee husk, parchment, and spent coffee grounds. These by-products have several problems associated at the final disposition. In this book chapter, we study the main coffee varieties produced in the world, the by-products produced, and its composition and finally assess the potential of supramolecular solvents (SUPRAS) and water as green solvents for high-added-value compound extractions. Bioactive compounds were extracted from fresh and dried coffee peel in an acceptable rate for industrial applications. SUPRAS offer advantages in terms of rapidity (5 min) and simplicity (stirring and centrifugation at room temperature), thus avoiding costly processes based on high pressure and temperature. Extractions carried out using water as solvent is another technique of extraction mixing temperature (above 60°C) and time (4.5 min) obtained a beverage or solution with presence a bioactive compounds how caffeine, chlorogenic acid and polyphenols.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Laura Sofía Torres-Valenzuela, Johanna Andrea Serna-Jiménez and Katherine Martínez",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71528",title:"A Detail Chemistry of Coffee and Its Analysis",slug:"a-detail-chemistry-of-coffee-and-its-analysis",totalDownloads:2394,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This review article highlights the detailed chemistry of coffee including its components; chemical constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and caffeine; aromatic principles; oil and waxes; and minerals and acids. The high extent of caffeine can be found in the coffee plants; hence, in the second part of the study, various analytical methods are designed for the proper identification, separation, optimization, purification, and determination of caffeine present in coffee, tea, and marketed coffee. These analytical methods are appropriated for the separation and quantification of caffeine. The various analytical methods include spectroscopy methods like UV, IR, and NMR spectroscopy; chromatographic methods like paper, TLC, column, HPLC, and gas chromatography; and hyphenated techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS, and GC–MS/MS. This article compares and contrasts the amount of caffeine by various analytical methods.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Hemraj Sharma",authors:null},{id:"70151",title:"The Harvest and Post-Harvest Management Practices’ Impact on Coffee Quality",slug:"the-harvest-and-post-harvest-management-practices-impact-on-coffee-quality",totalDownloads:1858,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most important agricultural commodities in the world. The coffee quality is associated with pre-harvest and post-harvest management activities. Each step starting from selecting the best coffee variety for plantation until the final coffee drink preparation determines the cupping quality. The overall coffee quality influenced by the factors which involve in changes the physicochemical properties and sensorial attributes, including the post-harvest operations. The post-harvest processing activities contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. The post-harvest operations include pulping, processing, drying, hulling, cleaning, sorting, grading, storage, roasting, grinding, and cupping. This chapter comprises the harvest and post-harvest operations of coffee and their impacts on coffee quality.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Mesfin Haile and Won Hee Kang",authors:null},{id:"72400",title:"Factors Affecting Efficiency of Vegetable Production in Nigeria: A Review",slug:"factors-affecting-efficiency-of-vegetable-production-in-nigeria-a-review",totalDownloads:815,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vegetables are important for maintenance of good health; their production and marketing are veritable sources of employment and livelihood. To promote vegetables’ contribution to the above, there is a need for sustainable and efficient production process. The paper reviewed production, socioeconomic factors, and constraint affecting efficiency of production of three important vegetables (tomato, pepper, and onion). The review showed that socioeconomic factors found to increase technical efficiency in vegetable production were educational level, extension contact, and household size. Influence of farmer age on technical efficiency was inconclusive due to varied opinions. Increase in farm size, quantity of seed, amount of fertilizer, and agrochemical were found to have positive influence on output. Majority of the literature reviewed opined that increase in quantity of labour raises productivity; however, it must be utilized efficiently. The mean technical efficiency of the vegetables varied from the southern to the northern part of the country. The cross cutting constraints in vegetables production are pest and diseases, inadequate storage facilities, and high cost of improved inputs. The study recommends increase awareness and sensitization on optimum levels of resource use for increased productivity and appropriate intervention to constraints in the value chain.",book:{id:"10142",slug:"agricultural-economics",title:"Agricultural Economics",fullTitle:"Agricultural Economics"},signatures:"Iyabo Bosede Adeoye",authors:[{id:"317695",title:"Dr.",name:"Iyabo Bosede",middleName:null,surname:"Adeoye",slug:"iyabo-bosede-adeoye",fullName:"Iyabo Bosede Adeoye"}]},{id:"65591",title:"Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System",slug:"insect-pest-management-in-organic-farming-system",totalDownloads:2645,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Due to the regulations of organic farming, few options remain for organic farmers to manage pests and diseases in their crops compared to conventional farming. However, major pests could still be managed through manipulation of the agroecosystem processes in advantage of the crops and disadvantage of pests. The limited number of active plant protection substances authorized for use in organic farming can provide support to natural and biological control agents in suppression of pests and diseases. This chapter highlights the principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming, the cultural practices adopted, the active substances allowed for use to suppress pests, and the impacts on faunal and floral biodiversity. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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