Collection of various superconductors and common cooling agents.
\r\n\tVarious disciplines characterize the constituent components comprising mechatronics, which include physical systems modeling, sensors and actuators, signals and systems, computers and logic systems, and software and data acquisition.
\r\n\tMany new MEMS and Nanotechnology applications will emerge, expanding beyond that which is currently identified or known. Here are a few applications of current interest: new phenomena are addressed nowadays in science and technology.
\r\n\tIn this book, we will deal with physical systems modeling., discuss the physical phenomena involved, the adequate methodology to deal with them, and report a selection of papers recently published for possible applications for MEMS and Nanotechnology.
\r\n\r\n\tIn summary, Nano- and micro-electromechanical systems (NEMS/MEMS) are useful for applications ranging from: The design of MEMS accelerometers, gyroscopes, electrostatic actuators, and microresonators; Interfacial engineering for NEMS/MEMS; Biosensors, magnetic biochips, in vitro diagnostics, cell sorting, magnetic nanoparticles, spin electronic materials and sensors, magnetic inductive heads, and magnetic integrated inductors and transformer’s; Flexible substrates for electronics, sensors, and energy conversion platforms; Nanofabrication and nanopatterning technologies, including self-assembly for device fabrication.
\r\n\t
Electrokinetic measurements are very useful techniques to present the interactions between dispersed particles in an aqueous dispersion. Electrokinetic properties of materials are also important to prepare sedimentation problems of solved materials. Zeta (ζ)‐potential value is a surface charge of colloidal particles in an aqueous solution [1–3] and gives information about surface groups of colloidal particles and interaction between solid and liquid interfaces. It can be used for determination of some physical properties such as colloidal properties, Particle interactions and synthesis of charged polymeric composites. ζ‐Potential cannot be measured directly. It can be determined using electrokinetic techniques, such as streaming current or potential, electric conductivity and electrophoretic mobility [4, 5].
\nThe electrokinetic potential on surface of a solid particle in contact with a polar medium (i.e. H2O) is controlled by the dissociation of surface groups, the preferential adsorption of cations or anions, the adsorption of polyelectrolytes and surfactants, the isomorphic substitution of cations and anions [6]. Generally, descriptions of the charge distribution at solid/liquid interface assume the presence of an electrical double layer consisting of a fixed (Stern) layer and a diffuse layer [7]. Externally applied electrical force causes a relative movement between these layers (Figure 1).
Zeta potential on a charged particle.
The interface between a solid and a solution may be treated as a semi‐permeable membrane, which allows only the charged species common to both the solid and the pass through. These species are called potential determining ions and have the ability to affect the sign of the ζ‐potential. They are the major ions responsible for establishment of the surface charge of particle. On the other hand, some ions called indifferent ions are adsorbed by electrostatic attraction only thereby affecting the magnitude of ζ‐potential and not by the surface potential [8–11]. The indifferent ions remain within outer (diffuse) part of the electrical double layer and do not strongly adsorb at the solid particle\'s wall.
\nThe potential at this surface is called the ζ‐potential. IEP of dispersed particles and potential determining ions in a solution have important role to understand the adsorption mechanism of various ionic species onto the dispersed particles [12]. Also, they help for flotation or coagulation in various colloidal dispersions.
\nWhen the ζ‐potential is low, attraction of suspended particles to each other exceeds repulsion and the particles tend to aggregate. The ζ‐potential can be determined from measured electrophoretic mobility and Henry\'s function,
As shown in Figure 2, when ζ‐potential value of a dispersion is more positive than +30 mV or less negative than -30 mV, the dispersed particles will tend to be stable. Some parameters such as time, pH, ion and surfactant concentrations and types, and temperature may affect the value of ζ‐potential [16, 17].
Schematic illustration of change of zeta (ζ) potential with pH.
Conducting polymers have unique properties such as electrical stability, ease of synthesis and durability leading to a variety of potential applications. Conjugated polymers have attracted enormous attentions from both science and technology as semiconductors and electroactive materials for their applications in batteries, molecular electronic devices, sensors, solid phase extractions and light emitting diodes [18–21]. The most common conducting polymers are polypyrrole, polythiophene and polyaniline, as shown in Figure 3. The biggest advantage of these polymers is their processability, mainly by dispersion.
Chemical structures of some conjugated conducting polymers.
Polysaccharides are a major class of biomaterials, such as chitosan, chitin, starch, cellulose and alginate. Chitin is extracted from the shells of crustaceans like crabs and shrimps [22]. Chitosan [poly (β‐(1‐4)‐2‐amino‐2‐deoxy‐d‐glucan] is
Structures of chitin and chitosan.
The incorporation of conducting polymers into natural polymers can enhance the performance of both the ‘host’ and the ‘guest’ thereby leading to interesting physical and chemical properties [28]. Generally, fabrication of CP/CS composite is carried out by chemical polymerization of monomer such as aniline, pyrrole and thiophene using as initiator (FeCl3, APS, etc.) in the presence of 1% CS solution. The ζ‐potential measurements are performed with a Malvern Nano ZS which works with Laser Doppler Electrophoresis technique using folded capillary cell equipped with gold electrodes (Figure 5). Note that 0.1 g/L dispersions is taken and pH value is adjusted with 0.1 M HCl(aq) and 0.1 M NaOH(aq) solution.
Image of the Malvern Nano Zeta Sizer.
Zeta‐Sizer software is used for the ζ‐potential measurements of the dispersed particles. In aqueous medium, the ζ‐potential is determined by using the Smoluchowski model. The thickness of the electrical double layer, EDL (κ-1) is accepted to be smaller in comparison with the particle size. First, to measure surface potential, solid particles are dispersed in deionized water as 0.1 g/L concentration. This dispersion is subjected to ultrasonication for 30–60 min. And then the dispersion is left to establish equilibrium for 2–3 h. Finally, the supernatant liquid is taken for the ζ‐potential measurements. pH of the dispersion is adjusted with diluted HCl(aq) and NaOH(aq) solution by MPT‐2 autotitrator unit at 25°C. The effects of pH, electrolytes, surfactants and temperature on the ζ‐potentials of the colloidal dispersions can be investigated.
\nElectrokinetic properties of polyaniline, polypyrrole and polythiophene‐chitosan composites are given as a function of pH in Figure 6. It is shown that ζ‐potential values of the conducting polymers increase and shift to positive region due to positive surface charge of polycationic chitosan molecules in the composite structure. At the same time, it causes to an increase in colloidal stabilities of the dispersed particles. With the addition of HCl(aq) solution into the dispersion medium, concentration of hydronium cations increases in the aqueous dispersion, and the particle surfaces are surrounded by the hydronium ions. This causes to the protonation of the amino groups of CS or the selective adsorption of the hydronium cations on the surfaces of the dispersed colloidal particles. As a result, the ζ‐potential values of the particles gradually increase with decreasing pH values, as shown in Figure 6. ζ‐potential of CS molecules is related with number of -NH3+ ions [29]. With the addition of NaOH(aq) solution into the dispersion medium, number of hydronium ions reduces and the number of OH
Change of ζ‐potential with pH, 10-3 M NaCl,
Dispersed particles have zero surface charge at their isoelectric points. At this point, number of positive charges is equal to the number of negative charges. Therefore, the particles in a solution are only stabilized by steric effect. CS is deprotonated around pH 8.5 due to the zwitterionic structure of carboxyl groups in CS molecules. To signify the unique zwitterionic properties, the CS derivatives are named as zwitterionic chitosans. Conducting polymers may act as anion or cation exchangers [30–33].
\nThe effect of cationic and anionic electrolytes on ζ‐potentials of conducting polymers and their CS composites is presented in Figure 7. As can be seen, monovalent (Na+) and divalent (Ba2+) cations and divalent (SO42-) anions are indifferent ions which only compressed the electrical double layer. As shown in Figure 7, ζ‐potential values of colloidal particles shift to the positive regions in 1 M BaCl2 solution due to increasing valency of the cations. It can be attributed to the larger ionic radius of the Ba2+ ions, which makes difficult to exchange with the other ions such as Na+ present in the dispersion. On the other hand, with increasing valency of the anion, ζ‐potential of the colloidal dispersions shifts to more negative region. It can be attributed the presence of a Stern layer formed by negatively charged divalent counter ions (SO42-), over compensating the positive surface charge of the colloidal particles [34, 35]. Also, it was observed that IEP values of the dispersions shift to higher or lower pH values with increasing ionic strength of the cations and anions present in the dispersion medium, respectively.
Change of ζ‐potential with pH, 10-3 M BaCl2 and Na2SO4,
A small amount of surfactants could be adsorbed easily on the surfaces of the dispersed particles due to their hydrophobic surfaces and cause rapid ζ‐potential change. The changes in ζ‐potentials of the colloidal dispersions as a function of cationic (CTAB), anionic (SDS) and nonionic (Triton X‐100) surfactant concentrations are given in Figure 8. As shown, CTAB is added into the colloidal dispersion, ζ‐potential of the dispersions increases, without passing through an IEP. After the surface coverage is completed, ζ‐potential value slowly decreases and then similarly charged CTAB ions repulsive each other [36, 37]. With the addition of the anionic SDS molecules, the surface coverage of the particles increases with an increasing number of negatively charged SDS molecules. As a result, ζ‐potential of the particles in the dispersion shifts to negative values with passing through an IEP. It may be caused by the electrostatic interactions between the negatively charged SDS tails and the positively charged CP/CS surfaces [38]. On the other hand, with the addition of non‐ionic surfactant (Triton X‐100), ζ‐potential value of the colloidal dispersion is almost similar, as shown in Figure 8.
Effect of surfactant type on ζ‐potential of colloidal dispersions.
It is known that mobility of the dispersed particles increases with increasing temperature. When the ionic mobility increases, viscosity of dispersion decreases at higher temperatures [39, 40]. Therefore, the establishment of diffuse layer leading to the formation of ζ‐potential around the particles becomes difficult. Therefore, ζ‐potential value of the CP/CS dispersions decreases with increasing temperature.
\nThese results showed that the ζ‐potential of the both CP and CS can be changed with the synthesis of their CP/CS composites. Besides, the ζ‐potential of CP/CS colloidal dispersions can be altered by using different electrolytes, cationic or anionic surfactants and their colloidal stability can be improved. It is an important result from their industrial applications point of view.
Various metals exhibit modest electrical resistance owing to normal room temperatures, however, may be turned into superconductors by employing a frozen route towards absolute zero temperature. The very first metal presented in favor of superconductors was mercury that was discovered just after cryogenic refrigerator in 1908, attaining that temperature at which phase shift of helium may occur as liquid form showing 4.2 K = −452 °F. In addition, enveloping more than 60 years, further superconductor’s discoveries continued and proved to be high-quality superconductors at such low temperatures. Furthermore, during 1960s, specific niobium alloys were also turned into superconductors, however, at the temperature range 11–24 K. Subsequently, theoretical studies also showed and proved that there is no existence of superconductors above 30 K. Superconductors being non-resistive, are considered fast driving current carriers without voltage or electricity [1, 2, 3].
Starting current continuously flows for “geological” periods subject to keeping cold the relevant superconductors. Over a long time, chilling requirements for extremely low temperatures showed greater effect towards confinement of superconductivity in the territory of literature laboratories [4, 5]. The running expenditure attributed to superconducting current loop is evaluated subject to refrigeration cost i.e., $7 per liter that is mostly considered as liquid helium purchasing cast accordingly. As far as electromagnets are concerned, their application as a current loop is very important. However, it is more expensive electromagnet that may be made by utilizing copper wires. Further by 1970s, it has become more cost-effective in numerous cases in the form of paying price for freezing a superconductor rather than bearing utility bills for electricity used against resistance [6, 7]. Industrial level setup was evolved so far, in which high-quality superconducting magnets were launched towards versatile applications. The most familiar application is now in hospitals in the form of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), proving as standard-diagnostic-tool to diagnose dead cells in the human body by scanning it successfully. This is a low-cost running device as compared with the cost of “exploratory surgery” [8, 9].
High-temperature superconductors (HTS) are strongly considered as defined materials behaving as superconductors at high temperatures (> 78 K) showing liquid nitrogen (boiling point), which is considered the simplest cryogenic- coolant [8, 10]. All types of superconductors are currently working nowadays at normal pressure but below ambient temperatures that require more cooling environment. However, most HTS behave such as ceramic type materials while metallic superconductors often work at temperature (< −200 °C), therefore referred to as LTS (low-temperature superconductors) [11, 12]. Furthermore, metals based superconductors are numerously identified as common superconductors owing to fine discovery as well as proper use before the introduction of high-temperature ones. Additionally, ceramic superconductors have also been proved to be suitable for practical application, rather they still show various fabricating issues since only very few examples of employment are on the screen up till now. Owing brittle nature of most ceramics they present behavior while fabricating wires from them for manufacturing superconductors [13, 14]. On the other hand, a major benefit belonging to high-temperature ceramic superconducting materials is their cooling through liquid-nitrogen on the contrary; metallic superconductors often need rare coolants that may be liquid helium [7, 15]. Unfortunately, a more common disadvantage is that no HTS may be refrigerated using dry ice, and none amongst those may work at room temperature as well as pressure. They can only work reasonably below the lowest-temperature measured on Earth’s surface. Necessarily, HTS sufficiently requires some cooling system at every cast. Superior high-temperature superconductors belong to only particular class of copper oxides. Another class of HTS is practically classified as iron-based compounds [6, 7, 15]. Magnesium diboride is considered another HTS because of easy manufacturing, however, working conditions under −230 °C (lower than triple point temperature of nitrogen) make it unsuitable concerning cooling with liquid nitrogen (below nitrogen triple-point-temperature). Ideally, liquid-helium can be used to achieve extremely lower temperatures for proper application. Various ceramic superconductors may also depict superconducting behavior owing to second type. The very first HTS has been discovered by Bednorz and Müller in 1986 [11, 12, 16] and obtained Nobel Prize (1987) for the “discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials”. Various high-pressure super-hydride chemical species are often incorporated in the realm of HTS. Indeed, much literature work containing HTS has been found owing to gases with high-pressure, however, unfavorable for synergetic applications. Finally, the latest critical temperature (TC) record holder is identified as carbon nature sulfur hydride, showing leading contribution leaving behind the previous record inherited in lanthanum deca-hydride (about 30 °C) [16, 17, 18].
Kamerlingh Onnes was one of researcher who introduced superconductivity in metal solid (1911). Researchers always struggled to make observations towards superconductivity at high temperatures [10, 19] for achieving goals of evaluating normal room temperature superconductors [20, 21]. Besides, superconductivity has been detected in various metallic compounds such as Nb containing compounds, for example (Nb3Ge, NbTi, and Nb3Sn) at much higher- temperatures as compared with elemental-metals, exceeding −253.2 °C (late 1970s). Moreover, in 1986, IBM research lab (Zurich) provided an opportunity to Bednorz and Müller who were working on superconductivity research route for generating a new class of ceramics (maybe cuprates as well as copper oxides). Bednorz discovered a zero resistance copper oxide at 35.1 K = −238 °C [22]. However, collected results were soon supported by numerous thoughts, notably Paul Chu and Shoji Tanaka at Houston and Tokyo universities one after others [23, 24], all the story illustrated in Figure 1 and Table 1. Very shortly after, Anderson worked at Princeton University and presented a new theoretical concept relating to these materials. The theoretical idea was based upon RVBT (resonating valence-bond theory) [43] however still, full exploring relevant to these materials is considered open-ended up-till now.
(a) Maximum known Tc of molecular (TMTSF and BEDTF-TTF), iron-based, metallic, and oxide superconductors. Metallic superconductors’ Tc increased from 4.2 K (Hg) to 23.2 K (Nb3Ge) from 1911 and 1974. However, after unexpected discovery of superconductivity in MgB2 in 2001, maximum Tc of 39 K was achieved. In 1986, highest Tc of oxides exceeded the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (77 K), after the discovery of high-Tc superconductivity in (La, Ba)2CuO4. (b) The first molecular superconductor was discovered in 1980 where high Tc of 40 K was discovered in Cs3C60 fullerene. From 2006 to 2013, the maximum known Tc of iron-based superconductors gradually increased from around 4 K for LaOFeP to 58 K for SmO0.74F0.26FeAs. Reproduced from Ref. [
Material (HTS) | Comments | ||
---|---|---|---|
287 | 14 | H2S + CH4 at 267 GPa | First room temperature superconductor [26] |
250 | −23 | LaH10 at 170 GPa | Metallic superconductor with one of the highest known critical temperature [27] |
203 | −70 | High-pressure phase of hydrogen sulfide at 100 GPa | Mechanism unclear, observable isotope effect [28] |
138 | −135 | Hg12Tl3Ba30Ca30Cu45O127 | High-temperature superconductors with Copper oxide with relatively high critical temperatures [25, 29, 30, 31] |
110 | −163 | Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10 (BSCCO) | |
92 | −181 | YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) | |
45 | −228 | SmFeAsO0.85F0.15 | Low-temperature superconductors with relatively high critical temperatures [32, 33] |
41 | −232 | CeOFeAs | |
39 | −234 | MgB2 | Metallic superconductor with relatively high critical temperature at atmospheric pressure [34, 35] |
30 | −243 | La2 − xBaxCuO4 | First high-temperature superconductor with copper oxide, discovered by Bednorz and Müller [36, 37] |
18 | −255 | Nb3Sn | Metallic low-temperature superconductors with technical relevance [38, 39, 40] |
9.2 | −264.0 | NbTi | |
4.15 | −269.00 | Hg | Metallic low-temperature superconductors [41, 42] |
1.09 | −272.06 | Ga |
Collection of various superconductors and common cooling agents.
Above mentioned superconductors may possess identical d-wave pair. The very first suggestion in favor of high-temperature cuprate superconductors d-wave pair symmetry was offered by Scalettar, Scalapino, and Bickers [44], which was associated with theories presented in 1988 by famous researchers known as Hirschfeld, Doniach, Inui, and Ruckenstein [45], they used spin fluctuation theory. Additionally, Rice, Gros, Zhang, and Poilblan [46], and Kotliar, as well as Liu, identified pairing concept representing usual consequence based on RVBT [47]. On the other hand, d-wave shape attributing cuprate superconductors was observed by many experiments. Further, the involvement of d-wave nodes was observed directly during excitation-spectrum by employing Angle-Resolved Photoemission-Spectroscopy. Half-integer flux observation was indicated through tunneling experiments whereas indirect temperature-dependence related to penetration depth, and that of specific heat as well as thermal conductivity. Some superconductors possessing high transition- temperature but at ambient pressure, were declared as cuprate of elements such as mercury and calcium at around temperature (133 K) [48, 49]. Among superconductors some are, showing higher transition- temperatures like lanthanum super-hydride at around 250 K, whereas these may often occur at high-pressures [27, 50]. Resultantly, source of high-temperature- superconductivity of conductors is out of range. However, it seems to be conventional superconductivity in the form of an electron–phonon mechanism as well as by antiferromagnetic correlation mechanism. Again instead of conventional, pure s-wave pairing symmetry which is identified as exotic pairing symmetry is considered to be involved. Subsequently (2014), evidence relevant to fractional particles was presented in favor of the occurrence of quasi-2d magnetic-materials. EPFL scientists discovered these materials [51] which supported “Anderson’s theory” based on HT superconductivity [51].
As for physical properties, attributing to high-temperature superconductors are concerned, these are purely based upon behavior of conventional and metallic superconductors. In this literature, properties owing to superconducting state are widely described in the sense of detailed properties of simple and metallic superconductors. It was observed that below critical temperature (Tc), electrical resistance decreases to zero for SCs. However, Tc (critical temperature) is an important parameter for superconductors that are still in question mark. More apparently for pure metals, it was evaluated that zero-resistance-state may have reached in the range of a few mK as shown in Figure 2a. Moreover, for complex cuprate high critical temperature superconducting materials, transition state corresponding to superconducting state, observed is not sharp as compared with metallic SCs having low values of Tc. Transition-width possessing single-phase-cuprate SCs are critically identified as 1 K. Results indicate that critical temperature slightly belongs to the criteria that were used to specify (Tc). Various criteria support as suggested in Figure 2b. Whereas at observed transition temperature, resistance-drop has typically been searched corresponding to numerous orders of magnitude [25, 52].
(a) Plot of resistance as a function of temperature for mercury generated by Heike Kammerlingh Onnes. (b) Resistance-temperature plot for a multicore wire of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8/Ag labeled with Tc referring to different definitions of transition temperature. The width of the transition ∆Tc = Tc(90%)-Tc(10%) is ≈ 1.2 k Reproduced from Ref. [
Besides, it may be in the form of principle and not still possible to prove experimentally; that ideal resistance corresponding to superconducting state may become zero. t Subsequently, it was proved that the most effective technique determining the peak value of the resistance, is evaluated in detecting decay-state owing to magnetic fields, produced by those currents that were induced during an SC loop. Peak resistivity values occurred ranging from 2 × 10−18 [25, 53] to 7 × 10−23 Ωcm [54] were reported for YBa2Cu3O7 that is identified as high (Tc) superconductor, and whereas 3.6 × 10−23 Ωcm value was found to be low (Tc) superconductors of type-I [25]. The aforementioned resistivity limits are considered to be several orders of magnitude indicating minute resistivity valuating 10 × 10−10 Ωcm (at 4.2 K), which was achievable at annealing state about pure metals. Therefore, it was strongly justified to make assure of zero-resistance, however, below (Tc) in all experimental work. While next extraordinary property belonging to superconducting state was diagnosed as perfect diamagnetism. More interestingly magnetic-behavior of superconductors may be understood through two variety of situations as shown in Figure 3. Firstly, the superconductor is made zero field-cooled below Tc. Secondly, superconductor is again cooled, however below Tc by applying magnetic field in this case. Both approaches are followed without incorporating magnetic flux in the interior of superconductor [20, 29].
On the other hand, screening-currents induced through surface-layer of superconductor will produce magnetic flux but in opposite direction to the applied field. In this case, magnetic flux density becomes zero throughout the superconductor. Whereas outside the superconducting-sphere, magnetic field increases caused by superposition of flux generated due to applied field as well as of screening currents. However, in both states, superconductor is observed to be un-magnetized whenever a magnetic field accidentally vanishes. Resultantly when superconductor is cooled without applying magnetic field, its behavior may be identified only in the form of screening effect but still caused by perfect-conductivity. While contrary to screening effect magnetic flux expulsion arising out from the Meissner effect has not still been explained (perfect conductivity) [55, 56]. Additionally, varied behaviors attributed to field-cooled perfect- conductor have also been illustrated in Figure 3a-c. Relative magnetic-permeability found by different repeated experiments was evaluated close to unity comparatively owing to non-ferromagnetic metals. Resultantly, magnetic flux that was observed within the metal is.
(a) The magnetic flux is excluded from the interior of a superconductor, (b) in the presence and absence of field-cooling, (c) In contrast, a field-cooled perfect conductor shows presence of interior magnetic flux. Reproduced from Ref. [
analogous to an external magnetic field. Since dB/dt is zero in this case, and therefore no screening currents arise eventually. Consequently, no magnetic flux is extracted within perfect conductor’s interior region at low kelvin temperatures. When magnetic field i.e., dB/dt becomes non-zero, then magnetization has occurred relevant to perfect conductor. The superconductivity may be diminished by applying large amount of magnetic field. The B-field at which superconductivity of the material is lost is termed as Bc (critical field) under consideration [57, 58]. Temperature-dependent critical-magnetic-field is mathematically described by the well-known Eq. (1).
Where Tc and Bc0 are critical temperatures as well as critical field at T = 0, respectively. Bc is considered as temperature-dependent function as depicted in Figure 4 corresponding to different metallic SCs. The Bc(T) graphs differentiate the normal and superconducting state of Scs. Furthermore, the Meissner effect confirms arising properties that are observed during superconducting state, and also proved independent order of the final conditions reached to applied-magnetic-field as well as temperature [25].
Critical field as a function of temperature plots for selected metallic superconductors. The Bc0 values vary from ≈10 − ≈ 80 mT. Reproduced from Ref. [
Layered material cuprates consisting of copper-oxide superconducting-layers (Figure 5), which are separated by spacer-layers is an interesting field of research also. The crystal structure of cuprates is closely related to the structure of two-dimensional materials. The superconductivity of these materials is evaluated by electrons randomly moving within intercalated layers of copper oxide (CuO2) that are weakly coupled in nature. However, other layers containing metal and non-metal ions (lanthanum, strontium, and barium atoms) perform an active role to stabilize the structure through doping process of electrons/holes upon copper oxide layers. On the other hand, the undoped materials such as mott insulators are identified as of long-range order of magnitudes of antiferromagnetic atoms at relatively low temperatures. However, single-band-models describe electronic properties other than unique behavior [47, 60, 61, 62]. The hole-doped HTS presenting a region of antiferromagnetic behavior ordering at low
Schematic geometry of a cuprate HTS superconductor. Reproduced from Ref. [
Furthermore, cuprates superconductors possess unique perovskite structures. Copper oxide planes indicate checkerboard lattices in square shape oxide (O2− ions) as well as cupric (Cu2+ ions) residing at centers of squares. Unit cells are rotated through 45° angles from these squares. Chemical formulae corresponding to each superconductor possess fractional numbers to represent required doping necessary for sufficient superconductivity. Cuprate superconductors have been classified into several families with respect to containing elements as well as the number of layers of copper-oxide attributed to every superconducting block. As an example, YBCO may be referred to as Y123 and BSCCO as Bi2201/Bi2212/Bi2223 alternatively which depends on contribution of each layer to every superconducting block (n). Optimum Tc was evaluated against optimum doping of
Superconductivity related to cuprates is still a continuously researchable subject and considerable debate obviously for further research. Considerable aspects common to superconducting materials are to be diagnosed. Common characteristics of antiferromagnetic materials indicate low-temperature state containing undoped material whereas superconducting state has emerged upon doped material. Primarily Cu2+ ions (
Region of antiferromagnetic (AF) ordering at low p and superconductivity (SC) at higher doping observed in the universal phase diagram for hole-doped HTS superconductors. Reproduced from Ref. [
Electronic structure, indicating not isotropic nature of superconducting cuprates is illustrated in Figure 1 that is highly anisotropic such as of YBCO/BSCCO. Hence, HTS fermi-surface is observed near to multi-planes of CuO2 (doped) in the form of multi-layer structured cuprates which may appear over 2D momentum space corresponding to CuO2 lattice space. Moreover, It might be extracted from measurements of band structure as well as from ARPES (angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy) analysis. Figure 7 presents BSCCO Fermi surface, which is evaluated through ARPES. Consequently, results were obtained corresponding to in-plane anisotropic nature correspond to electronic properties relevant to HTS.
The phase diagram of cuprate based on either the presence or absence of sharp peak and/or spectral gap. The latter represents the presence of well-defined quasi-particulate excitations. Reproduced from Ref. [
Contrast properties of hole-doped cuprates as compared with electron-doped cuprate superconductors are:
Pseudogap phase existence upto optimal doping is observed.
Different behaviors attributing to Uemura plot transition-temperature towards superfluid-density. London penetration depth inverse square effect appears proportional to be an as critical temperature that is for cuprate superconductors during doping process; however, proportionality constant is different for hole-doped as well as electron-doped cuprate superconductors. Linear trends strongly indicate material physics, which is logically 2d.
Neutron diffraction (inelastic) is used to evaluate universal hourglass quality during spin excitations of cuprates.
“Nernst effect” is evident with superconductivity as well as pseudogap phases [68, 69, 70].
For the fabrication of high Tc-superconducting materials, the easiest approach which involves mixing sintering is thermochemical (solid-state) reaction. Precursors, generally oxides and carbonates, in stoichiometric ratios are mixed and ground in fine powder through a Ball mill. Alternative methods to achieve a homogeneous mixture include coprecipitation, freeze-drying [71], and sol–gel techniques. The resulted in a homogeneous mixture is then subjected to an elevated temperature of about 800–950 °C for various hours and cooled down till room temperature, reground, and put to calcination again. To ensure homogeneity of extract repeat this process several times and afterward, powder is transformed into compact pellets for sintering. The key factor to synthesize better quality superconductors is sintering conditions such as annealing temperature, time, and rate of cooling [71, 72, 73].
A quaternary compound with composition YBa2Cu3O7 − x; was synthesized by calcination and sintering of precursor metal oxides Y2O3, CuO, and carbonate BaCO3 mixed and milled in an appropriate molar ratio. The reaction was carried out at 900–950 °C and sintered in an oxygen environment (950 °C). Appropriate stoichiometry of oxygen is essential to fabricate this superconducting YBa2Cu3O7 − x compound. During sintering, a semiconducting tetragonal phase of YBa2Cu3O6 is formed which converts into superconducting YBa2Cu3O7 − x material on gradual cooling in an oxygen atmosphere. The addition and removal of oxygen in YBa2Cu3O7 − x compound is a reversible process as a result both oxygenated orthorhombic YBa2Cu3O7 − x and deoxygenated tetragonal YBa2Cu3O6 phases are interchangeable at 700 °C [71, 74, 75]. Bi, Tl, and Hg-based HTS are difficult to prepare as compared to the synthesis of YBCO system. This hassle is attributed to the formation of similar layered structures in different phases of these compounds which results in the introduction of intergrowth (syntactic) and faults produced during synthesis which make isolation of single superconducting phase impossible. In case of Bi–Sr–Ca–Cu–O system, Bi-2212 (Tc ≈ 85 K) is easier to form as compared to Bi-2223 single-phase (Tc ≈ 110 K). Sintering for few hours at 860–870 °C is sufficient to prepare Bi-2212 phase while the formation of Bi-2223 phase requires extensive heating at 870 °C for more than one week [76]. It has been proposed that Pb substitution in Bi–Sr–Ca–Cu–O composites enhance growth of high-Tc phase, [77] but extended sintering for long-duration continues to be required.
Films of HTS can be synthesized both via in-situ and ex-situ methods. During in-situ techniques, direct epitaxial crystallization takes place under applied conditions. In case of ex-situ synthesis, initially, low temperature is used to deposit films but this low temperature is not suitable for the required crystalline phase, thus deposited films are subjected to sintering under an oxygen environment to secure the necessary crystalline structure. Various physical means to deposit films inclusive evaporation and scattering are discussed here [71]:
As layers of HTS are precipitated they are evaporated by various sources like electron beam guns or resistive evaporators. This method applies to two-step synthesis [71].
This is an efficient technique for HTS thin film deposition. The main benefit of this method is same rate of evaporation for all chemicals present in a compound [78, 79]. Likewise, there are some disadvantages too such as (a) small portions of stoichiometric film are deposited (b) non-uniform film thickness, and (c) surface irregularity.
Magnetron Scattering is used for one-stage HTS (YBCO films) deposition with the advantages of having a smooth surface and homogeneous thickness. In this method plasma with high energy electron and ions is generated which compensates the high-temperature requirement and helps to attain one-stage HTS films [80, 81].
In this technique from the stream of volatile metal–organic compounds, metallic components are mixed with gaseous oxidizer in a reactor. This stream of volatile mixture is transported further and oxide film precipitates on the substrate. This method has following advantages over the previous ones:
More chance to get a homogeneous film with a large surface area of unplanned conformation
enhanced rate of condensation with better quality
flexibility at initial stage of technical system [82].
Other most widely used techniques are as follow:
Electro-phoretic deposition [84].
MOCVD (Metal–organic chemical vapor deposition) [85].
Coated conductors synthesis via MOD (metal–organic deposition) [86].
Buffer layer can be prepared by surface oxidation epitaxy (SOE) [87, 88], electron beam evaporation, laser ablation, [89, 90, 91], ion beam sputtering [92, 93], and Rf-sputtering [94, 95].
Melt-processing, electrophoretic deposition, dip-coating, doctor-bladed, and organic precursor film are some techniques helpful in synthesizing Bi-2212 thick films over Ag and MgO substrates. In doctor-bladed practice, before heat treatment, a plane film is formed over the surface of glass slab. For this purpose slurry of powder blend is poured over the glass plate and is spread with the help of a straight-edge blade attached to the plate to form a smooth film. In dip-coating method, Ag foil is dipped in mixture, and film is set down over it. To prepare organic precursor films, organometallic compounds (Bi, Ca, Sr., and Cu) solutions are deposited on Ag foil. An extra solvent is evaporated through burning and process is repeated until the desired thickness is achieved [71, 96, 97].
Unique properties of HTS make them very attractive from an application point of view due to continuous enhancement in their properties (Figure 8). Semiconductor sciences have been consistently depriving of novel applications of superconducting materials for quite a time now. Owing to their large persistent current, ever since their discovery, SC coils have always been envisioned to be used for sturdy magnetic field production. However, a major challenge faced by Type-I (first generation) HTSs was the suppression of superconductivity by magnetic fields induced within the materials by injected current. This ceased Type-I SC’s application in fields involving high current and high fields. To overcome this problem, a new class of SC materials naming Type-II (second generation) HTSs having longer magnetic penetration as compared to coherence length were fabricated. Longer penetration depths favor the presence of superconductivity even in magnetic fields presence up to a critical value (Hc2) of induced field. Another modification in HTSs was the control of power dissipation caused by Lorentz force, by properly engineered “pinning centers” that modulate the magnetic flux generated in the system [71].
Schematic overview of possible applications of HTSs. Reproduced from Ref. [
Extremely low resistance values make HTSs an ideal candidate for transmitting commercial power to the cities. However, high cost and practically impossible implication of cryogenic temperatures to such lengthy cables limit their application for very short distances. One example of above-mentioned application was the transmission of electricity using HTSs to 150,000 citizens of Copenhagen, Denmark back in May 2001. The transmission cable was only 30 m in length which proved to be sufficient for testing. This was the first-ever commercial power transmission using superconducting cables in history. Later, USA and Japan successfully fabricated superconducting transformers using HTSC windings. Fault currents produced can be limited by Super-Foam which is produced from YBa2Cu3Oz [13, 98].
Another important application of HTSs is in the medical field for diagnostic purposes. Non-penetrating procedures are required in the field of bio-medicine to retrieve internal information of living body. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has been frequently used for this purpose where a strong magnetic field has impinged into the body which imposes precessional motion of H2 atoms present in the body. After removal of an external magnetic field, exciting H2 atoms release energy which is detected and graphically presented by computer. Use of SC’s can enhance MRI performance owing to high magnetic field induced in them due to large current flow. Before superconductor technology, it almost took 5 hours to produce single-image initially when MRI was discovered (July 3, 1977) [71].
Developments in fusion energy department have been made after the introduction of high-temperature superconductor (HTS) based technologies that imply high magnetic field induction (>18 T) for compact experiments in fusion power plants. Operation in high magnetic fields, large current densities, higher value of cryogenic temperature, and ability to withhold extreme tensile stress make HTS a suitable candidate as compared to LTS (Low-Temperature Superconductors). A large operating magnetic field range opens new opportunities to fabricate novel magnetic designs and improved magnetic confinement can be achieved for higher magnetic fields (> 16 T) with the help of HTS [99]. A maximum achievable induced field that depends upon current density present in HTSs has been a primary factor in fabrication of magnetic devices for fusion reactors as explained in basic tokamak design, in-depth studies, system codes, and tokamak magnet designs [100]. HTS offers a significant increase (~7.5 to 10–12 T) in on-axis BT in tokamak reactor which allows a significant increase in an applicable field in coil from 16 T to >20 T) as compared to LTS. Other advantages of HTS technology in fusion energy department include:
Small Burning Plasma: In mid-1980s, U.S. planted burning plasma-based fusion reactor based on the implication of SC’s ability to induce large magnetic fields at a small size. The phenomenon has been successfully explained with the help of Alcator devices [99].
A lot of research work proposed that such small sized high field devices for burning plasma can be fabricated using copper-based magnets. Even smaller sizes can be achieved for such high field copper-based devices with the help of HTS reducing their heating and structural issues as well [101].
Performance: High power density and energy gain can be attained in small-sized devices based on B3-B4 dependence for commercial realization of such fusion reactors. However, heat exhaust and diverter limit reduction in size and high power density.
Operational Robustness: Compact high-field devices suffer no typical intrinsic limits (density, pressure) as they operate in normalized plasma domains. Currently, operative devices demonstrate such operating domains including safety factor (q), normalized beta (βN), and confinement enhancement factor (H).
Steady-State Physics: A blend of high-field, compact size, improved current profile, and high value of safety factor will generate a device having steady-state operation and high gain with good control over external current [101, 102].
As previously mentioned, HTS technology is enriched with many novel applications with medical diagnostics and energy transport/harvesting being top of the list (Figure 8). A major challenge faced by HTS technology is the need for extremely low temperature which is generally achieved with the help of liquid nitrogen or helium which is much costly. On the other hand, the use of H2S for cooling purposes requires high values of pressure. Fabrication of superconductors having critical temperature (Tc) values in room temperature (RT) range with easily employable materials is a challenging task. The unavailability of any predictive route and no unique agreement on pairing mechanism of HTS technology limit the scope of this search. Apart from this drawback, low manufacturing cost is another challenge that can be overcome with use of materials existing abundantly on this planet. Stability, easy fabrication procedures, and flexibility are also required. Novel and advanced approaches need to be developed to meet all these challenges for a sustainable future [103, 104].
Although seems difficult, current scientific knowledge proposes a high probability of realizing fabrication of RT superconductors in near future. Successful manufacturing of such devices will open a vast field of applications especially in the field of energy production and transport at low cost (at ambient pressure). The development of novel technologies and advanced devices could be realized and different Gedanken experiments would be applicable with the help of RT superconductors. Imagine a conducting cable having almost zero energy losses where electrical current can flow forever with no power loss. Advanced high power generating grids could be installed using RT superconductivity technology to fabricate improved transformers, fault current limiters, and novel synchronous condensers. Moreover, a wire with never depleting current could also be used as an RT SMES (superconducting magnetic energy storage) device. RT SMES device, as opposed to other typical storage devices, would offer everlasting storage of energy with negligible losses [105].
Another similar application of RT superconductors is the development of advanced bearings to be used in flywheel energy storage. Other applications include production of high-field superconducting magnets for scientific and technical use while cost-effective and improved MRI scanners would be available for medical applications. Compact and simplified fabrication (no cooling required) of rotating motors, generators, and other electromechanical devices would also be possible with RTS technology. This would open new opportunities for the production of electric motor cars and electric storage devices in the future. In transport department, a significant enhancement in levitating trains technology is also expected where superconducting magnetic levitation phenomenon could be employed. Improvement in low-power technologies like SQUIDS, detectors, filters, and sensors is also expected with the use of RT superconductors which would bring revolutionary changes in medical and information technology. Lastly, realization of compact and efficient quantum and Josephson computers will also become possible with this novel technology [59, 60, 106, 107].
Around the world, a neglected hope exists to reduce energy costs using superconductivity in power transmissions. In the nearby future of transportation, Mag-1 eV trains use superconductivity for eliminating friction to poise train cars above the rail. Who knows? Maybe one-day smartphones with long-lasting battery timing up to months or more would be manufactured based on superconductivity electronics. High-Tc era exposed remarkable production with a new superconductor family (Tc ≥ 23 K) discovered every few years in its first 25 years. Prediction of future discoveries is difficult as each class is chemically distinct from the others but some indicators are quite obvious. Future HTSCs are incredible having considerable (≥50%) nonmetal content based on known materials with high-Tc. ‘Metal-nonmetal’ group associates very high Tc’s having nonmetal contents of 40–60% with simple ionic bond considerations. Since 2008, none of any element in previous high-Tc families had featured except Fe. Spin–Spin fluctuations are necessary for the superconducting mechanism of cuprates and iron arsenide materials with highest-Tc, where transition metals are required in heavy-fermion (intermetallic) superconductor PuCoGa (Tc = 18 K) with f-block magnetism [29, 108]. In near future, such materials doped with nonmetals would lead towards tremendous discoveries. Other electronic instabilities may arise on basis of non-magnetic mechanisms, as suppression of charge disproportionation for the bismuthate superconductors. In metal-nonmetal families, chemical doping is prescribed to put an end to spin/charge-ordered ground state inducing superconductivity. This may happen due to incidental band overlap (as in YBa2Cu3O7) but sometimes by non-aliovalent substitutions of non-stoichiometry. However, disorders in metal-nonmetal’s networks lead to subduing superconductivity. To obtain high-Tc’s, chemical tuning of additional parts of the network (charge reservoir) manifested via difference between maximum Tc for BaBi1-xPbxO3 (13 K, essential Bi sites doping) and for Ba1-xKxBiO3 (30 K, secondary Ba sites doping). Another high-Tc materials class is portrayed by bonding among metals and nonmetals which is attributed to high content values of nonmetals (100% in case of pure organic SCs). Elements forming strong covalent bonds and networks, B and C are restricted to this group but similar nonmetals (O, N, S, P, Si) can act as dopants as well. Highest obtained Tc (41 K) so far, owing to predictions from optimal BCS (weak-coupling) and superconductivity acts like BCS in this group. For A3C60 and MgB2 (and also YPd2B2C) with proper stoichiometry, the optimal electronic structure for superconductivity is attained while Tc isn’t affected by chemical doping.
Authors have declared no ‘conflict of interest’.
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Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"63322",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80355",title:"Challenges to Hygiene Improvement in Developing Countries",slug:"challenges-to-hygiene-improvement-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:2647,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Hygiene is defined as conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and preventing disease. Hygiene has been shown to reduce diarrheal diseases and assist to improve social outcomes in the community. Improving hygiene faces several problems especially in countries with low income per capita of population. Currently, many developing countries already struggle to cope with consistent water shortages and rapid urbanization causing more pressure to limited resources which in turn result in poor hygienic practices in the communities. The common types of hygiene include personal hygiene, water hygiene, food hygiene, and hygiene during waste handling. Different nongovernmental and governmental organizations face different challenges in achieving high levels of hygiene in communities. Some of these challenges include poverty, lack of political commitment, lack of full community participation, inadequate gender inclusion, inadequate data, lack of coordination among actors, and behavioral issues. To reduce these challenges, several measures have been proposed including community empowerment, pushing for equitable access to hygiene needs, advocating for political commitment, promoting gender equity, and enhancing youth involvement.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Save Kumwenda",authors:[{id:"233913",title:"Mr.",name:"Save",middleName:null,surname:"Kumwenda",slug:"save-kumwenda",fullName:"Save Kumwenda"}]},{id:"52475",doi:"10.5772/65462",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8239,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"75646",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96039",title:"Neurological Complications in COVID-19: Implications on International Health Security and Possible Interventions of Phytochemicals",slug:"neurological-complications-in-covid-19-implications-on-international-health-security-and-possible-in",totalDownloads:266,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Global health security or international health security (IHS) includes any natural or man-made phenomenon that challenged human health and well-being including emerging infectious diseases such as the current global pandemic: COVID-19. Since the sudden outburst of COVID-19 pandemic in 2019, many COVID-19 patients have exhibited neurological symptoms and signs. Till now, there is no known effective established drug against the highly contagious COVID-19 infection despite the frightening associated mortality rate. This chapter aims to present the mechanism of action of coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the clinical neurological manifestations displayed by COVID-19 patients, impact on the global health system and present phytochemicals with neuroprotective ability that can offer beneficial effects against COVID-19 mediated neuropathology. Reports from COVID-19 clinical studies, case reports, and other related literature were evaluated. Neurological complications of COVID-19 include anosmia, acute cerebrovascular disease, acute disseminated post-infectious encephalomyelitis, encephalitis, etc. Also, SARS-CoV-2 соuld be a neurotropic vіruѕ due to its iѕоlаtіоn from сеrеbrоѕріnаl fluіd. Multірlе nеurоlоgісаl dаmаgе displayed by COVID-19 patients might be due to hyperinflammation associated with SARS-CoV-2 infections. Kolaviron, resveratrol, vernodalin, vernodalol, and apigenin are natural phytochemicals with proven anti-inflammatory and therapeutic properties that could extenuate the adverse effects of COVID-19. The phytochemicals have been documented to suppress JNK and MAPK pathways which are essential in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. They also showed significant inhibitory activities against SARS-CoV-2 main protease. Taken together, these phytochemicals may offer neuroprotective benefits against COVID-19 mediated neuropathology and suppress the burden of the pandemic on IHS.",book:{id:"10624",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-2",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",fullTitle:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security - Volume 2"},signatures:"Johnson Olaleye Oladele, Oluwaseun Titilope Oladele, Oyedotun M. Oyeleke and Adenike T. Oladiji",authors:[{id:"335880",title:"Dr.",name:"Johnson Olaleye",middleName:null,surname:"Oladele",slug:"johnson-olaleye-oladele",fullName:"Johnson Olaleye Oladele"},{id:"342648",title:"Mrs.",name:"Oluwaseun Titilope",middleName:null,surname:"Oladele",slug:"oluwaseun-titilope-oladele",fullName:"Oluwaseun Titilope Oladele"},{id:"342649",title:"Prof.",name:"Adenike T.",middleName:null,surname:"Oladiji",slug:"adenike-t.-oladiji",fullName:"Adenike T. Oladiji"},{id:"346531",title:"Dr.",name:"Oyedotun M.",middleName:null,surname:"Oyeleke",slug:"oyedotun-m.-oyeleke",fullName:"Oyedotun M. Oyeleke"}]},{id:"63191",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80392",title:"Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya",slug:"household-water-handling-practices-in-the-arid-and-semi-arid-lands-in-kenya",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Utilisation of water from unimproved water sources coupled with inadequate access to sanitation can adversely affect human health. This study undertaken from November 2014 to March, 2015 sought to assess the household water handling practices and relate them to the prevalent diseases in Baringo Central and South, Kenya. A Household sanitary survey was conducted and questionnaires were administered to 100 household heads within the study area. The data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated that 72% of the households (n = 100) collected water for cooking and drinking from the water pans. Only 34% of the households treated water commonly using boiling (19%), filtration with cloth (2%), chlorine (11%) before using it for drinking. There was a positive correlation between methods used in accessing water from drinking water storage containers and water related diseases prevalent in the study area (p < 0.05). Household drinking water in the study area did not meet the WHO drinking water quality guidelines mainly due to poor handling practices at the household level. There is a need to promote water, sanitation and hygiene campaigns in the study area to prevent water related diseases at the household level.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Edith J. Kurui, George M. Ogendi, Wilkister N. Moturi\nand Dishon O. Nyawanga",authors:[{id:"78236",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilkister",middleName:null,surname:"Moturi",slug:"wilkister-moturi",fullName:"Wilkister Moturi"},{id:"234029",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Edith",middleName:"Jepchirchir",surname:"Kurui",slug:"edith-kurui",fullName:"Edith Kurui"},{id:"247927",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Ogendi",slug:"george-ogendi",fullName:"George Ogendi"},{id:"247930",title:"Mr.",name:"Dishon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyawanga",slug:"dishon-nyawanga",fullName:"Dishon Nyawanga"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8225,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"73634",title:"Supply Chain Management and Restart of Economy in Post COVID-19",slug:"supply-chain-management-and-restart-of-economy-in-post-covid-19",totalDownloads:741,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The increase in World Trade has led to significant growth in world GDP over last 100 years particularly. Supply chains have become the major enablers of world trade and the world is connected through supply chains. Any disruptions in any part of the world has led to disruptions in supply chains and economic recessions. Crisis like Tsunamis, earthquakes, 911 terror attacks, epidemics/pandemics like COVID-19 etc. have affected the businesses worldwide. COVID-19 pandemic has precipitated economic crisis due to disruption of supply chains and suppressed demand for many products and services worldwide. International Monetary Fund (IMF) has projected global economic growth to be negative 4.9%. This economic crisis has resulted in substantial erosion of market capitalization across the globe. The impact of COVID-19 is very significant on both health of the people and economy worldwide. Almost all businesses and governments are trying its best to save people from health and economic crisis. This requires rebuilding of supply chains through appropriate configuration with reliable sources of supply, collaboration, manufacturing and distribution of goods and services. Sectors like essential items, pharmaceutical, e-commerce have started early recovery of economy. However, other sectors require suitable interventions from government, business organizations in their policies and practices and use of digital technologies for economic recovery.",book:{id:"10624",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-2",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",fullTitle:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security - Volume 2"},signatures:"Venkataramanaiah Saddikuti, Sagar Galwankar and Akilesh Sai Saddikuti Venkat",authors:[{id:"292211",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Venkataramanaiah",middleName:null,surname:"Saddikuti",slug:"venkataramanaiah-saddikuti",fullName:"Venkataramanaiah Saddikuti"},{id:"293168",title:"Dr.",name:"Sagar C.",middleName:null,surname:"Galwankar",slug:"sagar-c.-galwankar",fullName:"Sagar C. Galwankar"},{id:"321650",title:"Mr.",name:"Akilesh Sai",middleName:null,surname:"S V",slug:"akilesh-sai-s-v",fullName:"Akilesh Sai S V"}]},{id:"63707",title:"Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries",slug:"drinking-water-treatment-and-challenges-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:7979,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Safe drinking water remains inaccessible to many humans in the developing countries. Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"74995",title:"Death Penalty: A Human Rights Issue for South Africa",slug:"death-penalty-a-human-rights-issue-for-south-africa",totalDownloads:624,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In South Africa, the death penalty has been repealed just after the arrival of democracy in 1994. At present, due to numerous daily murders, especially farm murders, this issue is being debated once again seriously – by ordinary citizens, politicians, theologians, and others. In the media, in particular, it gets a lot of attention and in view of the extent of violent crime in our country, the reinstatement of the death penalty is again supported by many. The death penalty as such will always be contentious because it is about the reasoned termination of someone’s life – which is a radical act. Between 2009 and 2013 I did research on the death penalty in South African prisons (the first of its kind as far as we could determine), in all 9 our country’s provinces. The content of this study, gathered from 467 convicted murderers, and several other core aspects of why the reinstatement of the death penalty particularly in South Africa, should not be an option, will be discussed with reference to supporting international and authoritative research.",book:{id:"9537",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",fullTitle:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World"},signatures:"Chris Jones",authors:[{id:"274281",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Jones",slug:"chris-jones",fullName:"Chris Jones"}]},{id:"63322",title:"Challenges to Hygiene Improvement in Developing Countries",slug:"challenges-to-hygiene-improvement-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:2642,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Hygiene is defined as conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and preventing disease. Hygiene has been shown to reduce diarrheal diseases and assist to improve social outcomes in the community. Improving hygiene faces several problems especially in countries with low income per capita of population. Currently, many developing countries already struggle to cope with consistent water shortages and rapid urbanization causing more pressure to limited resources which in turn result in poor hygienic practices in the communities. The common types of hygiene include personal hygiene, water hygiene, food hygiene, and hygiene during waste handling. Different nongovernmental and governmental organizations face different challenges in achieving high levels of hygiene in communities. Some of these challenges include poverty, lack of political commitment, lack of full community participation, inadequate gender inclusion, inadequate data, lack of coordination among actors, and behavioral issues. To reduce these challenges, several measures have been proposed including community empowerment, pushing for equitable access to hygiene needs, advocating for political commitment, promoting gender equity, and enhancing youth involvement.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Save Kumwenda",authors:[{id:"233913",title:"Mr.",name:"Save",middleName:null,surname:"Kumwenda",slug:"save-kumwenda",fullName:"Save Kumwenda"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"277",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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