The morphology of the LNO films deposited on SiO2/Si at different oxygen ratios and postannealed at 700°C.
\r\n\tWe must not forget that farming requires quite different approaches and animal feeding conditions in different farming systems. It is not the same having a larger number of animals or small herds just for family needs.
\r\n\r\n\tHowever, one thing should be common and most important: animal “well-being”, knowledge of the health status of animals, continuous monitoring and, if necessary, healing and treatment of animals. Without this knowledge, infectious diseases, feed-borne diseases and resistance to individual drugs cannot be traced, which can lead to very serious problems and, in some cases, tragedies.
",isbn:"978-1-78984-709-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-708-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-193-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e5d45badb49806d949ad1475e3a0ef0",bookSignature:"Prof. Sándor Kukovics",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9706.jpg",keywords:"Goats and Environment, Stress Factors, Goats Feed, Goats and Society, Economy, Meat, Skin, Fibre, Milk, Human Health Benefits, Goat Health, Goat Management",numberOfDownloads:13,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kukovics is the President of the Hungarian Sheep and Goat Dairying Public Utility Association. He has been the Executive Manager of Sheep and Goat Products’ Board and Inter-professional Organisation since 2010. Between 2015 and 2019 he served as Vice President of the EU COPA-COGECA Working Party on Sheep and Goats and he has been a member of the Board of Directors of the International Goat Association since 2016.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"25894",title:"Prof.",name:"Sándor",middleName:null,surname:"Kukovics",slug:"sandor-kukovics",fullName:"Sándor Kukovics",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25894/images/system/25894.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Sándor Kukovics spent 40 years at the Research Institute\nfor Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Herceghalom, Hungary)\nbeing responsible for the small ruminants sector. He also edited\n30 books, published more than 1,000 articles and has licences\nfor 4 products. Besides research work, he has been taking part in\nundergraduate and further education from various universities (in\nDebrecen, Mosonmagyaróvár, Gödöllő, Kaposvár). Since 1996 he\nhas been the President of the Hungarian Sheep and Goat Dairying Public Utility Association. He has been the Executive Manager of Sheep and Goat Products’ Board and\nInter-professional Organisation since 2010. Between 2015 and 2019 he served as Vice\nPresident of the EU COPA-COGECA Working Party on Sheep and Goats and he has\nbeen a member of the Board of Directors of the International Goat Association since\n2016. As an expert he has been taking part in the activities of several special groups in\nthe EU working with small ruminants since 2004.",institutionString:"Hungarian Sheep and Goat Dairying Public Utility Association",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"75448",title:"Goat - a Sustainable and Holistic Approach in Addressing Triple Challenges of Gender Inequality, Climate Change Effects, Food and Nutrition Insecurity in Rural Communities of Sub Saharan Africa",slug:"goat-a-sustainable-and-holistic-approach-in-addressing-triple-challenges-of-gender-inequality-climat",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"62285",title:"Textured BST Thin Film on Silicon Substrate: Preparation and Its Applications for High Frequency Tunable Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79270",slug:"textured-bst-thin-film-on-silicon-substrate-preparation-and-its-applications-for-high-frequency-tuna",body:'Tunable high frequency devices are key components for the next generation of communications and radar systems. Oxides with the perovskite structure, such as barium strontium titanate (BST), have ferroelectric, high dielectric, high-Tc superconductive or very large magnetron resistance. Therefore, they are widely investigated for applications in the tunable microwave filters and monolithic microwave integrated circuit decoupling capacitors. For application in frequency agile devices, it is desirable to have as large a capacitance change ratio and as low a dielectric loss as possible. Many researches have been studied to increase the tunability and to reduce the loss of epitaxial BST films grown on single crystal oxide substrates, such as LaAlO3 and MgO [1, 2, 3, 4]. However, in order to integrate BST thin films with Si for frequency agile devices, it is necessary to deposit BST thin films on Si substrates. But it is difficult to prepare high-quality oxide films on Si due to inherent crystallographic incompatibility of the two materials and the lack of an epitaxial template for the growth of well-oriented Ba1−xSrxTiO3 [4].
The dielectric properties of BST thin films are sensitive to the relative crystallographic orientation of the films, usually highly oriented BST film leads to higher performance compared to a randomly oriented one. There are various methods for changing the orientation of the ferroelectric films, such as the insertion of a buffer layer and/or different bottom electrodes [4, 5, 6]. Kang et al. reported the physical properties of epitaxial Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3 (BST) films grown on SiO2/Si using biaxially oriented MgO as template layers [4]. A buffer layer used between the silicon substrate and the perovskite oxides thin film has been shown to be a good way of overcoming the problem [5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Previous study showed that the dielectric constant of BST thin films was improved by LNO buffer layer [8, 11], where the thin films were prepared by pulsed laser deposition. LaNiO3 (LNO), a perovskite-type metallic oxide, has a lattice parameter of 3.84 Å. The crystal structural and lattice constants of the LNO matches well with ferroelectric thin films such as BST films [5, 10], which offer the benefits of better lattice matching and structural compatibility and the potential for improved dielectric properties. However, some studies showed that the LNO layer hardly affected the texture of BST thin films [13].
On the other hand, MgO shows low microwave loss, good thermal stability and has been increasingly utilized in microwave devices. The crystal parameter of MgO is a = b = c = 0.42 nm, which is close to that of BST (about 0.39 nm). The single crystal MgO has been used as a microwave substrate [14]. However, the high cost of MgO crystal restrains the popularity of massive production [15]. Few works have been reported on MgO thin films deposited by RF magnetron sputtering as a buffer layer for BST [16].
In this chapter, buffer layer such as LaNiO3 thin film or MgO thin film were deposited on silicon substrate by RF magnetron sputtering. Here, both the effect of the sputtering parameters on the orientation of LNO thin film and the effect of the LNO/MgO buffer layer on the microstructure and dielectric properties of sputtered BST were studied [17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
BST and LNO targets for our experiment were synthesized by conventional sintering process using a conventional mixing oxides method. The LNO films with varied thickness (600–2400 Å), mainly used as a buffer layer, were deposited at room temperature or at 300°C by RF magnetron sputtering. The substrate was silicon or platinized silicon. The sputtering power was 100 W and the relative O2 ratio ranged from 10 to 50% with the total pressure of 1.33 Pa. For the LNO deposited at room temperature, the LNO film was post annealed at 700°C for 1 h in O2 atmosphere for crystallization.
BST thin film was deposited under various relative oxygen ratios with total Ar and O2 pressure of 0.8 Pa, and then it was post annealed at 700–750°C in O2 atmosphere for crystallization.
MgO buffer layers were deposited at room temperature on Si wafers. The working pressure is 0.3 Pa, and O2 partial ratio changed was 10%. The RF magnetron sputtering power is 100 W. The thickness of thin films was measured by a stylus profiler (Veeco Dektak 6M). The thickness of the MgO buffer layer is between 50 and 150 nm. Then, Ba0.5Sr0.5TiO3 thin films were deposited on MgO buffer layers by RF magnetron sputtering. The deposition pressure was 0.8 Pa. Both the MgO and the BST/MgO composite films were annealed in the O2 atmosphere.
The compositional analysis was performed by induced coupling plasma emission spectroscopy (ICP) using an Iris Advantage 1000 instrument. The phase and crystallinity of the films were characterized by an X-ray diffractometer (XRD) D/MAX-γB, Rigaku with CuKa radiation. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) surface morphologies were achieved with a Digital Instrument Nanoscope III with AFM tapping mode. Then the resistivity was determined by a four-point probe (China, D41-11A/ZM) at room temperature. The microstructure of the thin films was examined by field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). For the measurements of the dielectric properties, the Cu/Cr top electrodes were deposited by sputtering method and were patterned by liftoff technology. The planar capacitor was prepared based on BST/LNO Pt (111)//Ti/SiO2/Si thin film, and interdigital capacitor was prepared based on BST/MgO/SiO2/Si thin films. The dielectric properties of the BST films were measured using an HP 4194A impedance analyzer at a frequency of 1 MHz. C-V characteristic was carried out with a sine wave with a 0.1 V step at a frequency of 1 MHz at room temperature.
BST thin films can be deposited by different methods such as hydrothermal, pulsed laser deposition, metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), chemical solution deposition method and sol-gel. Among these methods, we chose radio frequency magnetron sputtering technique due to its industrial process compatibility through ease of implementation, superior compositional reproducibility, medium deposition rate, uniform deposition over large area with additional interest in mass production [22, 23, 24]. However, transferring the target stoichiometry to the substrate remains a challenge with on-axis RF-magnetron sputtering due to re-sputtering effects. Thus, the control of the re-sputtering and the etch rate are critical issues related to the sputtering of BST thin films. This etch rate is known to be strongly influenced by the deposition parameters. There have been several reported methods to reduce the impact of this phenomenon. The common method is to use an off-axis deposition [25], where the surface is not parallel to the target surface. Another method is to increase the sputtering gas pressure, providing higher anion-gas collisions to reduce the energy of negative particles or deflecting them away from the film. In the present study, the key to achieve stoichiometric BST thin film deposition was by controlling both target composition and oxygen concentration to avoid the re-sputtering and the substrate etching. BST thin films were deposited by on-axis radio-frequency magnetron sputtering, then the films were annealed at 750°C in O2 atmosphere.
Figure 1 shows the composition of the BST thin films deposited by on-axis RF-magnetron sputtering in Ar/O2 mix gas is deviated from the target, which is due to re-sputtering effects, that is, oxygen negative ions bombardment of the growing film. The BST thin films close to stoichiometric composition, Ba0.5Sr0.5TiO3, were sputtered with a (Ba0.8Sr0.8)TiO3 target in Ar gas. The re-sputtering effect can be decreased when no oxygen was introduced during sputtering since the re-sputtering phenomenon is attributed to the presence of energetic particles (negative oxygen ions).
(a) The effect of target composition and (b) PO2 on (Ba + Sr)/Ti ratio of the BST thin films SiO2/Si (total pressure = 0.8 Pa).
As can be seen in Figure 2, the BST thin film deposited at room temperature was amorphous. When annealed at 750°C in O2 atmosphere for 30 min, thin film crystallized. With increasing annealing time, the grain size increased and some large grains appeared. Annealing at 750°C for no more than 30 min is beneficial for the homogenous grain growth.
SEM of the BST thin films on SiO2/Si: (a) as-deposited (b) annealed at 750 in O2 atmosphere for 30 min and (c) annealed at 750 in O2 atmosphere for 60 min.
Figure 3 shows the XRD patterns of the BST thin films on SiO2/Si deposited in different oxygen ratio (
XRD spectra of BST film sputtered under different relative oxygen ratio (PO2).
Figure 4 shows the C-V characteristic of the BST thin films directly deposited on Pt/SiO2/Si. The curve was asymmetric because the bottom electrode (Pt) and top electrode (Cu) were different. When the bias voltage switched, the two curves were symmetric with x = 0 V as axis of symmetry.
C-V diagram before and after changing the DC bias direction.
As shown in Figure 5, the chemical composition analysis by ICP, that is, the La/Ni ratio (mole ratio) in the LNO thin films varied with relative oxygen ratios. The La/Ni ratio keeps stoichiometric ratio of 1:1 while the relative oxygen ratio is between 10 and 25%; however, as the relative oxygen ratio exceeds 25%, the content of La decreases. In the sputtering process, oxygen participated in the sputtering as well as a reaction gas. Because of the energy difference between oxygen ion and argon ion, the change of the relative oxygen ratio will lead to the change of sputtering yield of La and Ni, but the change should be continuous and monotonous. The structure with La/Ni ratio of 1:1 is relatively stable, La and Ni are selectively adsorbed in the film in the process of sputtering, so the component of the film keeps stable when the relative oxygen ratio maintains between 10 and 25%. This indicates that the films tend to grow according to stoichiometric ratio during the sputtering process [26]. Figure 6 shows the XRD patterns of the LNO films. According to XRD results of Figure 6a, the LNO films deposited at room temperature with different relative oxygen ratio and post annealed at 700°C for 1 h show a perovskite-type cubic structure with a random orientation irrespective of O2 ratio. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the (110) peak increases slightly when the O2 ratio exceeds 25%, that is, the LNO films have better crystalline when the relative oxygen ratio is no more than 25%. The mole ratio of La/Ni for the film deviates from stoichiometric ratio when the O2 ratio exceeds 25%, therefore, the LNO films deposited above 25% O2 ratio show bad crystalline. The surface morphology of the LNO thin films by AFM are summarized in Table 1. The mean roughness value of the film deposited with 10% O2 ratio was 1.5 nm, while the surface roughness value was 5.0 nm and many voids were observed when the O2 ratio exceeded 25%. Figure 6(b) and (c) shows the thin films deposited on Pt (111)/SiO2/Si with 10% oxygen at room temperature and 300°C, respectively. It can be seen that the films show an entirely perovskite phase with a (100) preferential orientation when the LNO thin film was deposited at 300°C (Figure 6(c)). However, when the LNO thin film was deposited at room temperature and was post-annealed for crystallization (Figure 6(b)), the thin film showed random orientation. Combined the XRD results in Figure 6(a)–(c), it revealed that the oriented growth of the LNO thin films was dominated by deposition temperature, which was due to the collision between the energetic particles and the thin film during sputtering [12], the detailed discussion was given in Ref [27].
The dependence of La/Ni ratio on the relative oxygen ratio.
XRD patterns of the LNO thin films. (a) Deposited on SiO2/Si at room temperature with different oxygen ratios and post annealed at 700°C. (b) Deposited on Pt(111)/SiO2/Si at room temperature and annealed at 700°C for 1 h with 10% oxygen ratio. (c) Deposited on Pt (111)/SiO2/Si with 10% oxygen ratio at 300°C.
Oxygen ratios (%) | Ra (nm) | Surface morphology |
---|---|---|
10 | 1.5 | Smooth |
25 | 2.4 | Smooth |
33 | 4.6 | Rough, some voids |
50 | 5.0 | Many voids |
The morphology of the LNO films deposited on SiO2/Si at different oxygen ratios and postannealed at 700°C.
As we know, the preferred orientations of thin films are affected by many parameters. Surface free energies of two-dimensional planes affect the preferred orientation of films in the initial stage of film growth [28]. The film will be oriented to the plane which has the smallest surface free energy if the effect of the substrate is negligible. In ceramic systems with unit cell containing cations and anions, both the electrostatic charges of two-dimensional planes and surface packing densities should be considered in the calculation of surface free energies. It is difficult to find out the surface free energies of ceramics. Furthermore, in RF magnetron sputtering process ionic species ejected from the target surface will also influence the orientations of films. The film orientation can be adjusted by changing the process conditions such as substrate temperature, ambient pressure. In the film deposited at low pressures, the size of the plume was large and the substrate was located at the middle of plume. The kinetic energies of ionic species were higher than those of atomic and molecular species. While the absolute number of ionic species was small, they were absorbed on the substrate preferentially and the influence of electrostatic charges became dominant at the initial stage of film growth. The kinetic energies of absorbed species were determined by the substrate temperature. When the substrate temperature was high enough, the absorbed species had sufficient energies to rearrange along the plane with the electrically neutral planes, that is, the (100) equivalent planes, therefore textured LNO films were obtained.
The resistivity of LNO measured by four points probe method is shown in Table 2. It shows that the resistivity increases rapidly when the O2 ratio is more than 33%, which can be explained as following: one is the decreased La resulting in the composition deviated from the stoichiometric ratio, another one is that the film contains many voids. This indicates that the films can be deposited at 300°C with O2 ratio less than 33%. The effects of the relative O2 ratio, substrate temperatures on the microstructure and electrical properties of the LaNiO3 thin films by RF sputtering have been investigated [26]. It revealed the films deposited at 300°C show (100) preferred orientation. This indicates that the substrate temperature plays an important role in the determination of the films orientation. The LNO films deposited with 10% O2 ratio had the lowest resistivity and as such be suitable as a buffer layer or electrode of perovskite oxide thin films.
Oxygen ratio (%) | Resistivity(MΩ |
---|---|
10 | 2.45 |
20 | 2.51 |
33 | 2.49 |
50 | 23.1 |
The resistivity of the LNO thin film sputtered with different O2 ratios.
BST thin films were deposited on different electrodes and post annealed in O2 at 700–750 °C atmosphere for 30 min. Figure 7(a)–(c) shows the XRD patterns of BST thin films deposited on different electrodes. The films in Figure 7b and c show a well-developed perovskite phase without other crystalline phases, but the BST thin films directly deposited on Pt electrode showed relatively weak crystallization compared with those deposited on LNO buffer layer. Mainly oriented (100) peak with small extra (110) peaks, was observed in the BST film deposited on LNO (100)/Pt (111) in Figure 8b and c [10]. It can be seen that the (100)-textured LNO films due to a good match of lattice parameters between LNO and BST, as well as a similar perovskite structures, further facilitated the crystallization and growth of the BST films. Also, the BST thin film deposited on 120 nm LNO shows better crystallinity than that of the BST film on 60 nm LNO. The AFM images in Figure 7(d)–(f) revealed that the surface of BST on Pt shows some white hillocks because Ti can migrate into the surface via Pt grain boundaries and results in the formation of hillocks, and larger grain size is observed in the BST thin films deposited on LNO/Pt (111) compared to that deposited on Pt (111). These results are in agreement with XRD, which means that LNO buffer layers enhance the growth of BST grains. On the other hand, increasing LNO thickness leads to the rougher surface when the thickness of LNO is more than 60 nm. The root-mean-square (RMS) values of surface roughness of the BST film in Figure 7(d)–f) are 7, 5, 8 nm, respectively.
Characterization of BST thin films [30]. (a–c) X-ray diffraction patterns of BST films deposited on various substrates (a) Pt (111), (b) LNO (100) 120 nm/Pt (111), (c) LNO (100) 60 nm/Pt (111); (d–f) AFM surface morphology of the BST thin films deposited on various substrates (d) Pt (111), (e) LNO (100) 120 nm/Pt (111), (f) LNO (100) 60 nm/Pt (111).
(1) Schematic of the capacitor, (2) the electric field dependence of dielectric property for: (a) Cu/BST/LNO (100)/Pt capacitor, (b) LNO (110)/Pt (111) and (c) Cu/BST/Pt capacitor, respectively [10].
For the measurements of the dielectric properties, parallel capacitor was prepared. Figure 8(1) shows the structure of BST capacitor and Figure 8(2) shows the dielectric properties of the BST thin films varied with the electric field. The asymmetric C-V curves may arise from the difference between bottom electrode and top electrode [29]. The tunability of the ferroelectric film can be expressed with the equation as following:
According to Eq. (1), the tunability of BST thin films on the LNO (100)/Pt (111) and on the LNO (110)/Pt (111) were about 63 and 50% at 500 kV/cm, which were higher than that (about 30%) of BST thin film directly deposited on the Pt (111). The value is comparable with that of pulsed laser deposited BST on LNO (110)/Pt (111) (62% tunability at 262.5 kV/cm [11] and that of the BST thin film on the LNO/Pt (111) (about 51% tunability at 400 kV/cm) deposited by metal organic deposition process [12]. The results of higher capacitance are consistent with the previous structural observation, that is, the crystallization of the BST films was enhanced by LNO buffer layer. Furthermore, the dielectric loss of BST thin films was reduced for BST thin films with LNO buffer layer. It has been reported that conducting oxide like LNO aid in migration of oxygen vacancy [11], which is a possible reason for the decrease in dielectric loss of the BST thin films with LNO buffer layer. The best tunability of BST films on (100)-LNO seems to be attributed to (100) texturing of the BST films.
In addition, the effect of BST thin films thickness and post annealing on the dielectric properties of the parallel capacitor was examined. Figure 9(a) shows the electric field dependence of the dielectric properties of the BST thin films of different thickness with 120 nm LNO buffer layer. It should be noted that the dielectric constant did not increase with increasing thickness of BST, which is related with the interface between LNO and BST. When the LNO buffer layer kept 120 nm, the tunability of BST with 100–125 nm is better than that with thicker BST. Figure 9(b) shows the DC bias voltage dependence of dielectric loss for the thin film annealed at different temperature. It reveals that the BST/LNO/Pt/SiO2/Si annealed at 700°C has the lowest dielectric loss, which demonstrated the LNO buffer layer help in reducing the dielectric loss. However, when the BST/LNO film was annealed at 750°C, the dielectric loss increased, and it increased rapidly with increasing bias voltage, which may be due to two reasons: one is that the Ti diffusion toward BST and reduced the effective dielectric layer, on the other hand, the lattice parameter of LNO is 3.84 and that of BST is 3.94, mismatch between BST and LNO is 2.6% the dislocations increased with increasing annealing temperature.
(a) Dielectric constant versus DC voltage with different BST thicknesses (LNO is 120 nm) and (b) the DC bias voltage dependence of dielectric loss for the thin film annealed at different temperature.
The effect of buffer layer thickness on the dielectric properties of the BST thin films was examined.
Figure 10(a) shows the DC bias voltage dependence of dielectric constant for the BST deposited on LNO buffer layer with varied thickness δ. The commonly used figure of merit (FOM) for electrically tuned device applications is the ratio of the tunability to dielectric loss (tgδ), the so-called K factor.
The DC bias voltage dependence of dielectric property for the Cu/BST/LNO/Pt capacitor of varied LNO thickness δ. (a) Dielectric constant [30] and (b) dielectric loss.
Table 3 shows the tunability and FOM of BST with different thickness of LNO buffer layer at applied electric field of 400 kV/cm. The tunability of BST thin film on the LNO (100)/Pt (111) was about 63% at a vertical applied field of 400 kV/cm, and it was higher than that (about 32%) of BST thin film on the Pt (111). Figure 10(b) reveals that the dielectric loss for the BST on 120 nm LNO was the smallest when the DC bias is no more than 1 V. The best dielectric properties were obtained with 120 nm LNO buffer layer, which was confirmed by microstructure examination. Many factors, such as orientation, compositions, crystallinity, strain and stress have been found to affect the dielectric properties. The crystalline quality of the LNO template layer affects the quality of BST. When the LNO was too thin, such as 60 nm, the microstructure was inhomogeneous and the crystalline quality was poor. On the other hand, too thick LNO was detrimental to the dielectric properties of BST, probably due to the interdiffusion between LNO layer and BST during long time deposition and post-annealing. The higher tunability is related to (100) texture of the BST films [30]. As a BST film subjected to tensile stress, a contraction occurred along the C axis, which leads to an enhancement of the in-plane oriented polar axis [10]. By a converse electrostrictive effect, the in-plane tensile stress reduces the capacitance in the thickness direction of the film [11]. When the (100)-oriented BST thin films were applied under higher electric fields, the in-plane orientation of the polar axis resulted in higher tunability. Hence, the tunability of (100)-oriented BST films was higher compared to the randomly oriented BST films.
LNO under layer thickness (nm) | Tunability (%) | Figure of merit (FOM) |
---|---|---|
0 | 35 | 1.2 |
60 | 26 | 3.1 |
120 | 63 | 6.3 |
180 | 31 | 4.1 |
240 | 32 | 1.5 |
The tunability and FOM of BST thin film on different thickness of LNO buffer layer.
Interdigital capacitor electrodes were patterned by lift-off process [31]. The thickness of electroplated Cu is about 5 μm which is larger than the skin depth of copper at 10 GHz.
MgO thin film was deposited on Si as buffer layer and its microstructure was investigated in our previous study [31]. The sputtering was carried out under room temperature, with a partial pressure of oxygen kept at 10% and the total argon and oxygen pressure of 0.3 Pa. Figure 11a–d shows the XRD patterns of the MgO films and BST/MgO. MgO thin film was annealed at 1000°C for the crystallization after sputtering. BST/MgO composite thin films undergo a two-step annealing process, in which the BST film was deposited on annealed MgO buffer layer (1000°C) then BST/MgO composite film was annealed at 750°C.
XRD patterns of (a) MgO films deposited on (100)Si, (b) MgO films deposited on (111) Si, (c) BST/MgO films and (d) BST/SiO2/Si.
Figure 11(a) and (b) reveals that the MgO thin film deposited on (100) Si prefer to (200) orientation, but the MgO thin film on (111) Si show (111) orientation. The orientation of the BST films with and without MgO buffer layer is much different in Figure 11c and d. The MgO buffer layers enhanced the BST (100) orientation and weakened the BST (111) orientations. However, the BST/Si films did not show desirable crystal orientation when annealed at 750°C.
Furthermore, considering LNO, a kind of conductive oxide, may increase the leakage of BST on it, a thin layer of MgO (<50 nm) was inserted between LNO (100 oriented) and BST The BST was deposited on MgO/LNO bilayer and then annealed at 750°C. The microstructure of the multilayers was examined.
Figure 12(a) show that the surface of BST/MgO/LNO is smooth and the BST grain is about 15–30 nm, the XRD results in Figure 12(b) reveal that the BST show (100) preferential orientation and no peak of MgO was observed because MgO annealed at 750°C is still amorphous.
Characterization of the BST/MgO/LNO multilayer thin films: (a) SEM and (b) XRD patterns.
Figure 13 shows the tunable dielectric properties of the BST thin film with and without MgO buffer layer. The frequency is fixed at 1 MHz and the additional AC voltage is 0.05 V. The thickness of interdigital Cr/Au electrodes is about 0.5 μm, and the width of the finger is 10 μm and the gap between the fingers is 5 μm. The tunability of BST thin film without MgO buffer layer is 14.7% at 10.
The dielectric properties of the BST thin film (a) without MgO; (b) on different thickness of MgO buffer layer [31].
V. However, the insertion of MgO buffer layer increases the tunability to 62.4% for BST/MgO (150 nm)/Si and 61.5% for BST/MgO (50 nm)/Si respectively, which is more than four times than that of BST films directly deposited on Si [31]. The dielectric loss of BST without the MgO buffer layer is about 0.1–0.15, and it decreases to about 0.05 after the insertion of the MgO buffer layer. The insertion of MgO buffer layer notably improves the tunability and at the mean time reduces the dielectric loss. The higher capacitance of BST/MgO (150 nm)/Si film compared with that of BST/MgO (50 nm)/Si film resulted from that the electrical field distribution [28] in interface (Dead layer [29]). The dead layer can reduce the dielectric capacitance of the composite films because the thinner MgO buffer layer means the more electrical distribution in the interface between Si and MgO thin film.
The C-V characteristic of the BST on MgO/LNO bilayer was shown in Figure 14(a). For the interdigital thin film capacitor, the gap is 5 μm and the width of the finger is 5, 10, 15 μm, respectively. Figure 14(b) reveal that the tunability of BST/MgO/LNO multilayer is higher with increasing width of the finger, but the dielectric loss also increases rapidly when the bias is larger than 15 V. Probably the interface between the multilayers resulted in the large dielectric loss at high bias voltage. Further intensive investigation is needed in order to obtain high tunability with small dielectric loss.
Dielectric property for BST/MgO/LNO interdigital capacitor with different widths of the finger (gap = 5 μm) (a) C-V curves and (b) the tunability.
Finally, coplanar waveguide (CPW) on Si substrate with BST/MgO multilayer were fabricated. The schematic of a CPW was shown in Figure 15, where g is the gap between the ground and signal line, w is the width of the signal line and the total of w and g is kept as constant (90 μm). To obtain the transmission and loss characteristics of the coplanar waveguide,S parameters were measured using a vector network analyzer (Agilent 8722ES). The frequency was swept from 5 to 15 GHz. The measured S-parameters of the waveguide are shown in Figure 16. The measured return loss S11 are lower than −40 dB at the central frequency of 10 GHz. Meanwhile, the measured S12 were close to −2.8 to −3.8 dB in measuring frequency band. These results indicated that the CPW based on Si substrate with BST/MgO thin films showed good transmission property near 10 GHz. It has promising application in tunable high frequency devices although the insertion loss was little higher, which need to be further optimized by design optimization of CPW and improvement of BST multilayers.
Schematic of a CPW with a double-layer dielectric on Si substrate.
S parameters of the CPW with BST/MgO(w + g = 90 μm). (a) S12 and (b) S11.
The effect of LNO/MgO buffer layer on the microstructure and dielectric properties of BST thin films was investigated. The MgO, BST and LNO films were deposited on the Si substrate by RF magnetron sputtering. It reveals that the orientation of the LNO thin films were dominated by the substrate temperature, highly (100)-oriented LNO was obtained when the substrate temperature was 300°C, and the orientation of BST thin film was tailored by the introduction of LNO buffer layer. Highly (100)-oriented (Ba0.5Sr0.5)TiO3/LaNiO3 heterostructures were obtained on Pt(111) by RF sputtering, and LNO buffer layers enhance the growth of BST grains. The tunability were greatly improved to 63% by the introduction of (100)-textured LNO buffer layer with proper thickness, and FOM of BST thin films was also greatly improved. Also, the BST thin film interdigital capacitors were fabricated on silicon with MgO or LNO/MgO as buffer layer. The results show that insertion of the MgO buffer layer can enhance the tunability of the BST film and simultaneously reduce the dielectric loss. The MgO buffer layer can also enhance the crystallization of the BST thin films. However, LNO/MgO bilayer can greatly increase the tunability, at the same time the dielectric loss is large when the applied voltage is more than 10 V. Finally, the CPW with BST/MgO were fabricated and their S were tested, the CPW showed good transmission property near 10 GHz and showed promising application in tunable high frequency devices.
The authors would like to express their gratitude for the support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 60701012).
The sun is a nuclear fusion reactor that contains gravity. It produces unimaginable quantities of energy. Solar energy is a very perfect source of power. It can be captured passively by solar panels or other collectors. When the collectors have been produced, there will be no carbon emissions or waste products [1]. There are no moving parts to hurt wildlife. There is no dependence on foreign entities. The energy is produced and delivered for free by the sun [2]. The uranium division begins progressing with the absorption of the smooth-moving neutron from the non-strong U-235 isotope. The obtained U-236 is split into Ba-139 and Kr-94 as well as three unfastened neutrons. The mass deficiency of approximately 20% of atomic mass units has also been converted into 210 MeV energy units [3, 4]. There were 447 nuclear fission power stations in service globally, 55 in construction and 111 in the design processes [5].
In the United States in 2018, 19.3% of the electricity supply was produced by 97 nuclear power plants. This amounts from zero percent to the other countries, for example, in New Zealand, and 71.7% in the European Union; the total global energy demand in 2018 was 10.3% [6].
With 11 new reactors under development, China has the most quickly expanding nuclear power program. Pakistan aims to construct three to four nuclear power stations by 2030 [7].
Several countries had nuclear installations in the past, but they still do not have nuclear plants in operation. Italy closed all the nuclear power stations between them by 1990, and, as a consequence of the referendums established by the Italians in 1987, nuclear power already has stopped [8]. A number of nations currently run nuclear power stations but are considering the process of nuclear technology. These countries are Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and Spain [3]. Also according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), solar power increased by 39% in the United States from 2014 to 2017 [4]. Starting at 10 GW and ending at 27, this growth trend for the field is very encouraging. In addition, carbon dioxide emissions have decreased by a few percent, the lowest since 1991 [5]. If it continues down this path, more study is likely to be carried out as a result of the growth in the market for efficient, cheap solar energy, in order to attempt to develop even more carbon-free or low-carbon fuels such as wind and nuclear power [6]. There are two big issues relating to nuclear plants: waste disposal and potential failure. Nuclear power plants produce dangerous wastes; for example, a 1-GW nuclear power plant can produce 300 kg of nuclear waste, with a half-life of almost 24,000 years, and cause environmental issues. The current methods for disposing of these kinds of waste are inadequate. The complete reprocessing of all radioactive waste and the chemical transformation of long fission products will be an ideal option. However, trends in this area have not progressed extensively [7]. The first and most critical problem is its disparity; the amount of solar energy that can be harvested depends widely on the time, location, season, weather, and several other factors. In order to improve this topic, engineers are exploring the development of new storage methods for large quantities of energy generated [5]. One of these storage techniques suitable for mountainous areas is pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES) that also uses excess energy generated during nonpeak hours of the day to pump water from a reservoir in a much high elevation. PHES is just one of the several potential storage methods used by many people, and it is so essential because it provides a clean, efficient use of solar energy when normally none is generated by replacing it with hydroelectricity [8]. Because of the good use and storage of solar energy, it becomes more difficult to determine whether to use solar energy or some other form of renewable energy for power companies and individuals. Despite the obvious cost of installing solar power, this is a higher investment opposed to the use of fossil fuels due to much lower maintenance and occasional overproduction of energy.
Solar energy is a key player in the sustainable power plan. In sunny places, many residents built panels on their roofs to support air-conditioning, heating, and other household needs and the panels were set up by themselves. Study in the collection and storage of solar energy should be a major effort worldwide [9]. But in less sunny areas, there are a few expensive homes which run 100% on solar power, using large battery banks to power them through the nights.
Solar energy has the capacity to boost everything we need; however our ability to turn the energy of the sun into electrical power and also to store energy is simply not fully developed. Energy storage in particular has proven to be challenging, as solar panels have a very irregular energy intake because it depends on season, climate conditions, time of day, and so on. The inability to use all solar power harvested efficiently is an issue that is likely to force even more development in the field to come soon after it has been resolved. The industry is full of possible innovations that have yet to be made and which can be recognized if time is taken to develop the innovative technology. Therefore, when looking at potential ways of storing the energy produced, PHES may not be the most cost-effective, but it is proven to be safe and can be added to some existing infrastructure at the same time as analysis seeks to make it more efficient.
Solar technology, i.e., renewable wind, offers a reliable and stable supply of solar energy during the year. As our natural resources are likely to decline in the years to come, it is necessary for the entire world to shift toward sustainable sources. Solar power is a reactive electromagnetic sunlight energy that can be used for a wide range of still-evolving applications, such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar electricity, solar thermal processing, artificial molten, salt power plants, and photosynthesis.
Solar energy is a significant source of green energy, and its techniques are generally characterized as either passive solar energy or active solar energy based on whether solar energy is absorbed and transmitted or transformed into solar energy. Strong solar technologies involve the use of photovoltaic devices, concentrating solar power and solar water heaters to harvest electricity. Passive methods include the alignment of a system or building to the sun, the use of products with desirable light properties or thermal mass, and the construction of spaces that automatically disperse air.
The biggest advantage of solar energy is that it can be quickly installed by both home and business consumers, because it does not involve any major construction, such as in the case of wind and geothermal power stations. Solar energy not only benefits individual owners but also benefits the environment. Figure 1 shows a simple model of a solar thermal system.
No pollution: Solar energy is a safe, nonpolluting, efficient, and green energy resource. This does not pollute the environment by producing poisonous pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and sulfur oxide. Solar energy does not need power and thus prevents the problems of shipping power or handling radioactive materials.
Long-lasting solar cells: Solar cells have two special features: first the lack of drive systems and second the minimal maintenance requirements. Then they have already got a longer life and they’re more noticeable.
Renewable source: Solar energy is a sustainable energy source that can continue to generate power as long as there is light. While solar energy cannot be generated during the night and rainy days, it can be used again and again throughout the day. Solar energy from the sun is a steady and continuous source of electricity which can be used to harvest strength in remote areas.
Low maintenance: Generally, solar cells do not need upkeep and operate for a long time. More solar panels can be installed from time to time if desired. While solar panels have an initial expense, there are no recurrent costs. The initial expense, which is paid once, may be recovered in the long run. Apart from this, solar panels do not create any noise and do not emit an unpleasant scent.
Easy installation: There is no need to install equipment such as cables, power supply, pipes, etc.; solar panels make solar tracking simpler. Unlike wind and geothermal energy harvesting systems that need land drilling equipment, solar panels do not need them and can be easily mounted on rooftops to insure that no additional infrastructure is needed, so residential home users can easily use this technology to supply electricity. In addition, they can be installed in a dispersed manner, meaning that no large-scale installations are required.
Solar thermal system [10].
The technology of solar cells is developing, and as our nonrenewable supply decreases, it is necessary for the world to transition into renewable energy sources. There are, though, a range of issues that prohibit solar energy from being used more widely. Solar energy drawbacks are likely to be resolved as technology advances, and their use grows as people continue to realize the benefits of solar energy.
Solar energy can either be thermal or photovoltaic. The photovoltaic type is one of the most stable types of converting radiant energy into electrical energy. It really is suitable in many countries with adequate sunlight, such as Iran, and countries close to the equator, in terms of the quantity and availability of this technology. The energy source does not relate to someone and requires permission to use it. This feature has given rise to solar energy becoming special among renewable energy sources. Solar energy from ancient times is used by people using a magnifying glass to light the fire. Throughout this way, the sunlight was concentrated on dark wooden surfaces, and the fire became ignited. Also, solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells convert solar energy directly into DC electricity. This power source may be used to power solar clocks, calculators, or signals. These are also found in areas which are not linked to the power grid. Figure 2 shows a concentrated solar power (CSP) plant. Solar heat energy (SHE) can be used to heat water or air, which requires ventilation of the room inside the house.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) plant [10].
Solar energy can be broadly categorized as active or passive solar energy depending on how they are captured and utilized. For active solar power, specific solar heating equipment is used to transform solar power into thermal energy, but there is no specialized equipment for passive solar power [11]. Active solar requires the use of mechanical devices such as photovoltaic panels, solar trap fans, and solar thermal collectors or reservoirs. Passive solar solutions transform solar energy into thermal energy without the usage of active mechanical devices. It is primarily a method to use curtains, doors, plants, positioning of buildings, and other basic methods to catch or block the sun for usage. Passive solar heating is a smart way to save electricity and optimize its consumption. An example of passive solar heating is what happens to your car on a hot summer day.
Although solar energy is recognized to be one of the cleanest and most renewable sources of energy today, it also has several environmental impacts. Solar energy uses photovoltaic panels to generate solar electricity. Nevertheless, the processing of photovoltaic cells to generate the energy includes silicon and to produce other waste products. Inappropriate handling of such materials can result in hazardous exposure to humans and the environment [12]. Installing solar power plants will entail a significant portion of land that may have an effect on established habitats. Solar energy does not pollute the air when converted to electricity by solar panels. It is found in abundance and does not help in global warming.
Solar power is now expected to play a greater position in the future due to recent developments that will result in lower costs and better efficiency. In fact, the solar photovoltaic industry is preparing to supply half of all future US power generation by 2025. More and more architects understand the importance of active and passive solar power and know how to successfully integrate it into building designs. Solar hot water systems can compete economically with conventional systems in some areas. Shell has predicted that by 2040, 50% of the world’s electricity supply would come from sustainable resources. Over recent years, the rate of generating photovoltaic cells has declined by 3% per year while policy subsidies have increased. While certain other information about solar energy is meaningless, this renders solar energy an even more efficient source of electricity. Solar energy is projected to be used by millions of households across the world in the next several years, as seen by developments in the United States and Japan. Aggressive financial incentives in Germany and Japan and China have made these countries global leaders in solar deployment for years [13].
A renewable resource that can be used to generate power is solar. The sun itself is a source of radiant, daylight, and other energy sources on Earth. Steam engines are a perfect illustration of radiant energy, by having sunrays magnified by mirrors guided to the turbine to heat water and produce steam, which in effect drives the turbine and causes steam to escape, and this pushes the piston. Calculators often work on solar power by storing light rays and transmitting energy to enable the calculator to function even though no light is present. Trevor Smith1 notes that “solar rays can be used to fuel or cool houses, supply hot water and produce steam for turbines generating energy. Sunlight can be converted directly into energy by photovoltaics, a fast-growing branch of solar technology.” This allows people to generate energy from renewable resources. James Bow notes that in 1977, 1 W of solar power costs $76.67. In 2014, the cost dropped to around $0.60. This suggests that modern solar power projects are far more economical, which means that renewable energy has come a long way and will continue to grow. One of the greatest declines in solar power is that, first, the sun is still growing and dropping, ensuring that the energy provided and processed is confined to the location of solar panels. Second, the batteries used to store electricity generated by the sun are expensive and produce a large amount of emissions. Third, in order to allow the best of the light, wide quantities of solar panels or mirrors need to be installed, which could be a function of restricted resources. The energy generated by the solar is a type of renewable energy used by today’s society.
Nuclear power is the energy of an atom. Atoms are very tiny objects which make up a single body in the universe. There is enormous power in the links that connect the nucleus unchanged. Power is generated when the ties are disbanded. Nuclear energy may be used to create electricity, but it must be produced first. Nuclear power can be produced by both nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fission, atoms are separated into smaller atoms, which generate steam. Nuclear power stations have been used for electricity generation. Another method of generating nuclear energy is through nuclear fusion. The combination of atoms to each other and the creation of heavier atoms are established. When atoms are coupled, a lot of energy is released. These reactions occur together in the sun to generate thermal energy to radiation. Numerous studies are currently underway, although this technique has not yet been commercialized and it is not known if it is possible to generate electricity from this method. Uranium (U-235) is the most commonly produced nonrenewable material for nuclear fission. Plants use a particular type of U-235, as the atoms are readily isolated. During nuclear fission, the neutron hits and splits the uranium atom, releasing a large sum of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released as the uranium atom is separated. Some neutrons proceed to hit other uranium atoms, and the process begins over and over again. It’s a chain reaction, too. Although uranium is around 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is extremely scarce. Most of the US uranium is extracted in the western United States, but only 17 percent of the plutonium reactors is generated abroad. Uranium provided to US reactors in 2013 arrived from a number of nations, including Russia, Australia, and several other African countries. Figure 3 displays the map of uranium mines in the world [14].
Map of uranium mines in the world.
There are 648 nuclear power stations in the world. There are 61 nuclear power stations and 99 research facilities in the United States. Nuclear plants are found in 30 states, and 46 are situated east of the Mississippi River. After 1990, nuclear power has supplied around one-fifth of US electricity annually. Nuclear power provides as much electricity as all the fuel consumed in California, New York, and Texas together. Nuclear energy plants supply more than 20% of US energy. Figure 4 shows the map of nuclear power stations in the world.
Map of nuclear power stations in the world.
Uranium fission occurs with the capture of the slow neutron by the non-isotope U-235. The resultant U-236 generates three free neutrons and separates into Kr-94 and Ba-139. The mass defect of roughly 0.2 atomic mass units is converted into 210 MeV energy units. U = 1.66 × 10−27 gk for the atomic mass unit, and eV equals 1.60 × 10−27J, the radioactive energy unit.
Many power stations, like nuclear power plants, use heat to produce electricity. Power plants rely on steam from hot water to drive massive turbines, which then produce electricity. Because of using fossil fuels to produce electricity, nuclear power plants employ nuclear fission energy. The fission occurs in the nuclear power plant reactors. Nuclear reactors are devices which contain and regulate nuclear chain reactions while releasing heat at a regulated rate. The nucleus of the device, which includes nuclear fuel, is at the top of the plant. The uranium fuel is constructed of ceramic pellets. Each ceramic pellet contains at about the same amount of energy as 150 gallons of gasoline. Such energy-rich pellets are packaged in 12 foot wire fuel pipes. The array of fuel rods, sometimes hundreds of them, is called a burn unit.
The heat generated during the fission at the center of the reactor is used to boil water to steam, which turns the turbine blades. The energy can be generated while the rotor blades rotate. Afterwards, the steam is pumped back into the atmosphere in a different power plant system called a cooling tower. The product will be collected.
Nuclear power plants do not emit carbon dioxide emissions during operation compared to fossil fuel-fired power stations. Methods for the extraction and refining of uranium oxide and the processing of nuclear fuel, however, require a large amount of power. Nuclear power stations supply large quantities of metal and concrete which also require a substantial amount of energy to be produced. When fossil fuels are used for the production and refining of uranium oxide or for the installation of a nuclear power plant, the emissions generated by the burning of these fuels may be associated with the energy emitted by nuclear power plants. The main environmental concerns linked to nuclear power include the processing of toxic waste such as uranium mine tailings, expended reactor fuel, and other nuclear waste. These materials can stay radioactive and dangerous to human health for thousands of years. Animals are subject to strict laws governing their care, delivery, preservation, and treatment for the protection of human health and the environment. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates the operations of nuclear power plants. Nuclear waste is classified as small and large rates of emissions. Radioactivity of these materials may range from just over natural background rates, including in mill tailings, to much higher amounts, such as spent nuclear fuel or sections of a nuclear plant. Radioactivity of toxic waste is decreased as time passes by a process called nuclear decay. The period of time taken to reduce the radioactivity of hazardous material to half of the original level is considered the contaminated half-life of the substance. Short-lived radioactive waste is also treated permanently prior to disposal in order to mitigate the future danger of contamination to staff handling and carrying waste, as well as to the amount of pollution at production sites.
Nuclear waste stored in tanks is very dangerous. These vessels are kept under special conditions in the water with safety shields until their half-life exceeds the standard of security. Various countries have specific laws on the processing of nuclear waste. The United States has set out strict rules on the storage and management of radioactive fuel and waste. Some nuclear power plant fuels can be stored in dry storage tanks. In this way, nuclear fuel tanks are stored in separate rooms with cement or steel air-conditioning devices.
Typically, once a nuclear reactor stops, it shifts. It involves the controlled extraction of the reactor and other devices that have been damaged from operation and the elimination of radioactivity to a degree that permits other uses of the site. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has stringent regulations regulating the decommissioning of nuclear power facilities, including the washing up of radioactively polluted reactor processes and equipment, including the disposal of atomic waste.
Uncontrolled nuclear reactions in a nuclear reactor will potentially contribute to extensive pollution of air and water. The probability of this occurring at nuclear power plants in the United States is known to be very low due to the complex and robust safeguards and multiple protection measures in effect at nuclear power plants, the preparation and expertise of reactor workers, the monitoring and service operations, and the legislative standards and oversight of the United States. A wide-field near nuclear power plant is controlled and supervised by trained security forces. Some of the reactors have containment vessels that are designed to withstand extreme weather events and earthquakes.
According to the laws of physics, energy is neither produced nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one kind to another, including the transfer of electrical energy into mechanical energy of electric motors. From the structure of the atom, much of its mass exists in a part called the core, and this mass contains protons with a positive electric field and neutrons with an ineffective or neutral electric field. Studies and experiments have indicated that neutrons weigh a lot more than protons. Nuclear energy is the energy generated by a nuclear explosion or a nuclear fusion under the specific conditions of the nucleus of an atom. A lot of energy can be released as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion happens. Once the heavy element, uranium, was exploded with neutrons, it was found that something special occurred instead of causing radioactivity as other materials. This cycle has been called fission. When nuclear fusion or nuclear fission happens as a product of neutron impacts, not only are two lighter elements produced and many radiations released, but more neutrons are generated, as can be seen in Figure 5. It is therefore obvious that concurrently released neutrons can start a chain reaction by acting on released light atoms, increasing the intensity of the reaction. This reaction may spread throughout uranium.
Uranium-235 radioactive fission.
A lot of energy would be produced through the fission of the uranium-235 nucleus (see Figure 5). To consider the amount of this energy, it’s enough to remember that this amount is around 60,000,000 times greater than when a carbon atom burns. During a nuclear fission reaction, the atom decomposes and releases a lot of kinetic energy into the environment. Obviously, kinetic energy is directly related to the generation of heat. The first reactors to generate a functional volume of electricity were installed in the Calder Hall in England. Atomic bombs may be produced of mere fissionable material. Of the two bombs dropped on Japan to end the World War 2, one contained plutonium and the other very highly enriched uranium-235.
Lower greenhouse gas emissions: As recorded in 1998, the production of greenhouse gasses has been projected to have declined by almost half owing to the success of the usage of nuclear power. Nuclear processing has by far the lowest environmental impacts, because it does not release greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide, a fuel that is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. Thanks to its application, there is no harmful impact on water, soil, or other environment, although certain greenhouse gasses are emitted when shipping fuel or harvesting uranium oil.
Powerful and efficient: The other major benefit of having nuclear technology is that it is more effective and efficient than other potential forms of electricity. Technology advances have rendered it more competitive than most. That is one of the reasons that many nations are spending extensively in nuclear power. At least, a tiny part of the world’s energy is flowing into it.
Reliable: In comparison to conventional energy sources such as solar and wind, which involve sun or wind to generate electricity, nuclear energy may be generated from nuclear power plants even under extreme weather conditions. They also can provide 24/7 power and need to be shut down for maintenance purposes only.
Cheap electricity: Similar to traditional energy sources such as sun and wind, which require solar or wind power production, nuclear electricity may be produced from nuclear power plants even under severe weather conditions.
Low fuel cost: The key factor behind the low cost of fuel is that it takes a limited amount of uranium to generate oil. When a nuclear reaction happens, it produces millions of times more hydrogen than normal energy sources.
Supply: There are other economic benefits of building up nuclear power stations and utilizing renewable electricity instead of traditional oil. It’s one of the nation’s biggest producers of energy. The greatest part of it is that this electricity has a constant availability. This is readily accessible, has large supplies, and is projected to last about 100 years, whereas electricity, oil, and natural gas are small and are likely to disappear early.
Easy transportation: Electrical power generation requires much fewer raw contents. This implies that just 28 g of U-235 produces as much energy as 100 metric tons of coal. As it is needed in limited amounts, the transport of fuel is much simpler than that of fossil fuels. Optimal use of natural resources in energy production is a rather careful approach for every country. This not only strengthens the socioeconomic climate but provides a precedent for other countries as well.
There is no question that nuclear technology has found its way into the future; however, like most electricity forms, it still suffers from certain significant disadvantages.
Radioactive waste: Waste generated by nuclear reactors must be disposed of in a secure location because it is highly dangerous and may leak radiation if it is not properly treated. Any kind of pollution releases radiation from tens to hundreds of years. Collection of toxic waste has become a significant obstacle in the growth of nuclear programs. Nuclear waste includes radioisotopes with lengthy half-lives. This ensures that the radioisotopes exist in one shape or another in the atmosphere. Such aggressive radicals pollute the sand or the sea. It’s classified as mixed waste. Mixed waste induces toxic chemical reactions, which create harmful problems. Radioactive waste is normally covered beneath sand and is classified as proof, although the material is going to be used to produce atomic weapons or chemical bombs.
Nuclear accidents: While too many modern measures have been placed in motion to insure that such a tragedy will not arise again as Chernobyl or, more recently, Fukushima, the danger associated with it remains fairly high. Just slight radiation exposure may have disastrous consequences. There are some symptoms that induce fatigue, vomiting, diarrhea, and exhaustion. Many operating in nuclear power plants that live in these areas are at risk of obtaining the toxic radiation on what they are consuming.
Nuclear radiation: There are power reactors that are called breeders. They’re making plutonium. It is an element that is not present in nature but is a fissionable product. It is a by-product of a chain reaction which, once added in nature, is very toxic. It is mainly used for the development of nuclear weapons. Very definitely, it’s considered a dirty gun.
High cost: Another realistic drawback to utilizing nuclear technology is that a lot of money is required to put up a nuclear power plant. This is not often feasible for developed nations to support such an expensive renewable energy source. Nuclear power plants usually take 5–10 years to build, because there are a variety of legal formalities to be done, so they are often protested by those residing nearby.
National risk: Nuclear technology has provided humanity the ability to create more bombs than to generate anything that will render the planet a safer community to stay in. They ought to be more cautious and diligent when utilizing nuclear technology to prevent any big incidents of any sort. They are soft sites for terrorists and extremist groups. Health is a big concern here. A little weak protection will prove to be deadly and barbaric to humans and even to this world.
Impact on aquatic life: Eutrophication is another consequence of nuclear waste. There are several workshops and conferences that take place every year to find a common answer. As of yet, there is no result. Studies claim the nuclear waste requires nearly 10,000 years to return to its original state.
Big impacts on health and medicine: We still remember the horror that unfolded during the World War 2, after the atom bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Still after five decades of mishap, children were born with defects. This is partly due to the nuclear influence. Will we have some treatments for that? The response is no.
Availability of fuel: Given the abundance of fossil fuels in most countries around the planet, uranium deposits are so hazardous that they are only available in a few countries, as the map of accessibility to uranium resources depicts in Figure 3. Permissions from a variety of foreign bodies are needed before anyone would even conceive about constructing a nuclear power plant.
Nonrenewable: Nuclear technology requires plutonium, which is a limited resource that has not been produced in many nations. Most countries depend on other countries for the continuous supply of this gasoline. It’s extracted and shipped like any other tool. Supply should be secure as long as demand is accessible. Once all the nuclear reactors have been dismantled, they would not be of much benefit. Due to its dangerous effects and restricted availability, it cannot be identified as renewable.
Various nuclear energy projects are ongoing in both developed and emerging countries, such as India. Not to note, the benefits of nuclear technology are well ahead of the drawbacks of fossil fuels. That’s why energy generation technology has been the most preferred technology.
By concatenating uranium extraction from seawater, manifestly safe breeding reactor technology, and borehole disposal of nuclear waste, a viable, planetary-scale nuclear energy network can be developed, i.e., another that is capable of supplying such an enormous quantity of energy at such a high degree of intensity that it can be relied on to sustain much—and possibly much—of the human society in virtually much possible scenarios of significant concern. For that way, nuclear technology is qualitatively distinct from other consumable technology options and must be assumed to be completely renewable in other respects. Throughout the immediate future, it is possible that the opportunity to build and demonstrate manifest protection for the latest generation of modern nuclear plants would be necessary to establish the basis for a prosperous future focused on nuclear technology.
Human civilization needs fossil energy because of its current facilities and its basic needs. This need and the high use of fossil fuels in the industrial, commercial, and residential sectors have contributed to major rapid climate change. The challenge of global warming is one of the massive problems confronting governments around the world. Earth heating may change the ecosystems and create many long-term problems. Greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide are rising water levels in the oceans. Some droughts are in risk of extinction. These concerns are so significant that crisis analysts have described the modern century as a fuel for sustainability and protection of the planet.
Many countries have adopted official targets for the share of renewable energy in their grids, and others are considering them (Figure 6). Now that the governments of the world have a common issue, human beings will take collaborative action. Global organizations have been set up to manage this issue. The usage of renewable resources is one of the proposals created by global organizations to manage this crisis. Those alternative sources of energy include renewable energy and nuclear power. Countries must make decisions based on the long-term future to determine and improve the energy structures of the nation and calculate the various costs. At present, taking into account the cost factor, it is not possible to fulfill all energy demand from clean energy sources. But the good news is that this is possible with the cooperation of nuclear and renewable energy. Several countries have, in their perspective, made the energy demand share dependent on renewable and nuclear energy. Specific planners engage in predicting future projects and their costs. Figure 6 constitutes some of the OECD-calculated costs. The key competition today is between solar and nuclear energy. The cost of using solar energy over active nuclear energy continues to be substantial and significant. They are also ideal for all levels of challenging electricity. Costs for involvement in the energy market are assessed by the OECD per year. In Figure 6, the authors made the data comprehensible. Six countries pioneered the use of nuclear energy and renewable energy sources. Figure 6 shows that the United States has been able to keep the cost of participating energy resources low, with the highest level of technology.
Costs of combining nuclear technology with renewable energy.
If the nuclear energy program is properly and sustainable way installed and the cost limit is eliminated, supplying electricity from nuclear energy resources will be reasonable and resolve these critical challenges for decades to come. It therefore seems necessary that we, as founders and citizens of a global society, begin to lay down the technological and structural foundations that will enable a viable, full-scale nuclear energy network to become operational in the immediate future while at the same time doing the same with regard to other realistic types of renewable energy supply on a scale [14].
One of the problems for nuclear power plants, as discussed earlier, is the difficulty of supplying 100 percent of electricity through these power plants. If we allow the setup and control share to be 10 percent and that share is given by solar energy, then the problem will be solved. However, if their share is assumed to be relatively large, then the cost of the system will increase, presenting another challenge.
These are rather heroic calculations given the paucity of sources, but they do indicate plausible effects. Increasing the penetration of renewable has small effect on backup costs since they tend to increase in direct proportion to the renewable capacity (MW) that needs backup and the increased capacity adds proportional MWh. However, balancing costs increase because more spinning reserve capacity is required at lower load factors. Since research is lowering the price of the solar-connected grid, the next problem is network costs. When renewable sources of energy such as photovoltaic systems manage to meet a district or village’s full demands, then there will be a crisis. Power plants continue to use energy for spending networks indefinitely, and it is not clear how cost-effective these networks are. In this case, it would be illogical to establish and to develop a network [15]. (As a side note, backup and balancing are less costly in the United States because the dispatchable power is typically gas fired, which is less costly there.)
Another inference can be drawn from these results: the marginal cost of the system will generally increase with increased penetration of renewables, essentially due to their intermittentness and tendency toward remote locations. In addition to marginal system cost per MWH, there is another critical metric: marginal cost per ton of CO2 emissions reduced by increased deployment of renewables. After all, that is a primary policy driver for renewable targets.
The United States has set ambitious targets for renewable penetration: 33% by 2020, not including hydro. Further consideration (up to 51% in the legislative proposal) has been given for the future. The 33% level is thought to result in an implicit cost of $50/ton carbon reduction. Some energy companies have carried out important research on target utilization of 50% nuclear power and 50% solar energy. This research includes researching this topic in both scientific and economic terms. It was represented in Figures 6 and 7. If the target is 50%, the lowest cost is $403, and the lowest cost is $340 for 40%. When energy storage technologies, such as nighttime high-altitude storage, are planned for solar energy, then the scenario will be more complex. This scenario shows that the size of large power plants can be utilized with good systems. For plants larger than 5000 mW, $636 per ton saves economic power [16]. Figure 7 shows the costs involved with combining nuclear and renewable energy.
The cost of getting a combination of nuclear energy and renewable energy paid by different countries.
The next challenge is solar and nuclear energy competition. Although solar power plants will fall in price each day, in most countries the price of renewable energy is still higher than in nuclear power plants. The cost of integrating and merging systems is also important. Currently, the value of building nuclear power plants in many countries is very high due to the companies concerns of moment, technology, sanctions, security, and safety hazards. It is possible to eliminate those limitations in solar energy. The same problems may not be as wide for state-owned companies or regulated markets that services have ready access to cheap capital, and that partly explains why Asia’s enthusiasm for nuclear reactors is far stronger than it is in the United States or Europe. Researchers are working to reduce the costs of technology, but the nuclear industry is not strong, although that could improve small modular reactors if they can be developed in the process. According to Figure 7, given the right facilities, the United States has to pay the lowest costs for involvement in nuclear and solar energy. South Korea also has the right structure to take this scenario forward.
Nuclear and renewable energies qualify for subsidies that vary from country to region. Some subsidies are direct, such as feed-in imports for renewable energy sources, while others shift the risks from utilities to customers.
The final guidelines would help to better compensate for nuclear and renewable costs and could help to reduce the costs of both:
Comparisons of nuclear and renewables costs should account for systems integration and differences in capacity factors.
In order to estimate nuclear costs, more attention should be given to the choice sensitivity of discount rate, as the discount rate drastically impacts the relative economic attractiveness of a nuclear project.
Findings on problems that may restrict the use of a nuclear reactor in “load-following” phase are important and should be given high priority.
Priority should be given to new reactor technologies like SMRs and regulatory reform in order to reduce nuclear capital costs. The final results of this section will include the following explanation. These explanations will help in choosing and policy making in the field of solar and nuclear energy. The outlook for these results is for the next 10 years. This outlook may change by changing conditions and creating critical conditions such as dramatically lower fossil fuel prices.
Nuclear power is dirty, dangerous, expensive, and not carbon-free and encourages nuclear proliferation. The nuclear power plant itself does not release toxic gasses such as CO2. Nevertheless, nuclear power leads to climate change; for any phase in the fuel chain used to produce electricity at the end of the day, a lot more energy is required, such as uranium extraction and uranium enrichment, which are highly energy-intensive methods. The life study of the whole fuel chain clearly indicates the relation to nuclear electricity to climate change. In a pioneering study [17], more than 100 studies have identified important but simple results, analyzing the life cycle of greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to greenhouse gasses produced at nuclear power plants around the world. The results show that if the life expectancy of a plant is equal to the greenhouse gas emission equivalent to that energy production, then the emission equals 1.4 g of carbon dioxide per kilowatt hour (gCO2e/kWh) up to 288 gCO2e/kWh is variable. The mean greenhouse gas emissions equate to 66 gCO2e/kWh.
As a first conclusion, the extensive use of solar energy services for at least the next decade may be out of the issue. Photovoltaic and solar thermal systems, especially large thermal, wind, and biomass systems, will enter and expand energy networks quickly. Other renewable energy systems will be developed and priced to reduce consumption, such as biogas (wastewater, landfills, and livestock), geothermal, and possibly wave and tidal energy. This growth will be high in the next 10 years, but market with conventional systems will still take time [18]. Nuclear power is also an option when contemplating a transition from the dirtiest of fossil fuels, and thus nuclear power should be debated together with renewables. Nuclear time for building, risk, waste, and, in particular, costs must be tracked, because nuclear costs are increasing when solar energy costs are dropping. Small- and large-scale renewable energy projects and emerging storage systems are being increasingly developed by communities and nations. Also China, probably the most ambitious nation in terms of nuclear power, is introducing more wind and solar power relative to nuclear power—and not just nameplate capacity—which is actually produced. Last year alone, China installed 20.72 GW of wind (4.8 GW of production while its power factor is just 23%) and 28 GW of renewable energy (10.6 GW of production), with about 90% of its solar installations coming from utilities. In the same year, more than five nuclear plants (5.7 GW output) were added to the existing wind and solar power. China is only one example of how wind and solar power can be installed quickly while producing more electricity. At the period (and if) China finishes its 28 nuclear power plants (many are still behind schedule), with an estimated potential of 34 GW, further wind and solar power would be installed around the same timeframe—again, taking into account efficiency factors [19].
For the coming 10 years, here in the United States, the five US nuclear power facilities are 2 years behind track and have a budget of billions of dollars. Once live, they will produce 5.1 GW while renewables would produce a rather modest 131 GW.
The other two factors are systems for the energy, safety and security systems. In a nuclear power plant, when things go awry, it can be really bad because of accidents, threats, or critical situations that happen. It should be noted that the smallest incident in a nuclear power plant can often incapacitate or destroy a city or a country. Is it likely? Who knows for sure? Could you foresee the next earthquake in Southern California or somewhere else in the United States or Japan or the rest of the world? What about the next wave washing down a coastline? How about the next cyber threat or the Middle East militant organization? Compare a tragedy for a nuclear power plant against a solar power plant. When you ask me why I’m against constructing new reactors, it’s about economy, health and protection, and the reality that we can expand on current hydro and nuclear power facilities with all the renewables—and we can do it quicker.
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