Referenced overview of the different conceptions of technology.
\nThe book is divided into three parts:
\nPart I: Ecological interpretation of land-use act - in this part, ecosystem and land use turn out to be a significant factor in the process of creating an ecological landscape.
\nPart II: Landscape district in applied ecological analysis - this part attempts to illustrate the best possible model of analysis integrated with landscape in practical case studies.
\nPart III: The anthropogenic impacts on landscape creation - this part discusses the human impact on landscape creation.",isbn:"978-953-51-2514-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2513-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5442-6",doi:"10.5772/61905",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"landscape-ecology-the-influences-of-land-use-and-anthropogenic-impacts-of-landscape-creation",numberOfPages:140,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"354db0cb765007d8e48728a1356f2b75",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed",publishedDate:"July 27th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5289.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10311,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfDimensionsCitations:31,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:47,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 12th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 22nd 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 20th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 20th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110471/images/system/110471.png",biography:"Amjad Almusaed Phd was born on January 15, 1967. He holds a PhD degree in Architecture (Environmental Design) from Ion Mincu University, Bucharest, Romania. He completed postdoctoral research in 2004 on sustainable and bioclimatic houses, from the School of Architecture in Aarhus, Denmark. His research expertise is sustainability in architecture and urban planning and design. He has carried out a great deal of research and technical survey work and has performed several studies in the above-mentioned areas. He has edited many international books and is an active member of many worldwide architectural associations. He has published more than 170 international academic works (papers, research, books, and book chapters) in different languages.",institutionString:"Jönköping University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:{name:"Jönköping University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"849",title:"Landscape Ecology",slug:"landscape-ecology"}],chapters:[{id:"51201",title:"Agriculture and Its Impact on Land‐Use, Environment, and Ecosystem Services",doi:"10.5772/63719",slug:"agriculture-and-its-impact-on-land-use-environment-and-ecosystem-services",totalDownloads:6330,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:27,signatures:"Radoslava Kanianska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51201",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51201",authors:[{id:"184781",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Radoslava",surname:"Kanianska",slug:"radoslava-kanianska",fullName:"Radoslava Kanianska"}],corrections:null},{id:"50964",title:"Modelling the Contribution of Land Use to Nitrate Yield from a Rural Catchment",doi:"10.5772/63718",slug:"modelling-the-contribution-of-land-use-to-nitrate-yield-from-a-rural-catchment",totalDownloads:953,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Maria-Luz Rodríguez-Blanco, Ricardo Arias, Maria-Mercedes\nTaboada-Castro, Joao Pedro Nunes, Jan Jacob Keizer and Maria-\nTeresa Taboada-Castro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50964",authors:[{id:"183458",title:"Dr.",name:"María-Luz",surname:"Rodríguez-Blanco",slug:"maria-luz-rodriguez-blanco",fullName:"María-Luz Rodríguez-Blanco"}],corrections:null},{id:"51225",title:"Multitemporal Analysis in Mediterranean Forestland with Remote Sensing",doi:"10.5772/63721",slug:"multitemporal-analysis-in-mediterranean-forestland-with-remote-sensing",totalDownloads:748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Ignacio Melendez-Pastor, Encarni I. 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\r\n\tMultifactorial heredity refers to the action of several genes, which interact with each other and together with environmental factors and determine a certain phenotype. These genes have a minor effect but their action adds up and creates the genetic predisposition.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tGenetic predisposition is converted into a pathological phenotype only under the effect of environmental factors.
\r\n\tMultifactorial disorders are considered to be the most common features that affect people, such as diabetes, high blood pressure, coronary heart disease, and cancer, as well as some of the common isolated birth defects, including cleft lip or palate, neural tube defects, congenital heart disease, and clubfoot.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tMultifactorial inheritance did not follow a simple Mendelian pattern. However, the recurrence risk of multifactorial disorders is higher in relatives of affected individuals than in the general population. The empirical risks of a multifactorial disorder are based on large population studies.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tIt is important to understand the multifactorial transmission model for proper genetic counseling and for avoiding environmental factors, a measure that could ensure the prophylaxis of these common diseases.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide valuable evidence-based information, a comprehensive overview of this complex pathology. The aim will be to highlight the importance of collaboration and multidisciplinary teams for multifactorial disease management in an easy-to-follow format.
Humans has constantly changed the environment, requiring the design and the development of new technologies and these, in turn, eventually modify the man, his attitudes and society as a whole. This demand for innovations may be the result of well-intentioned ideas for a better life, or they may appear at the intention of ostentation of fetishes or even to perpetuate conditions of inequalities and hegemonic power [1-3]. Thus, different forms of relationship between society and technology are set out in pursuit of progress. A growing concern to integrate science and technology (S&T) for the welfare of society gets increasingly more space, especially since last century, when we felt a strong mixture of hope and fear on seeing the concretization of man’s dream to conquer space at the same time in which the world feared for its end due to major advances in nuclear weapons [4-6].
In an attempt to discuss the results of progress, much has been said about the formation of citizens conscious and able to take decisions involving the welfare of the community, at the same time they get prepared to live in a technological and dynamic society [7-13].
To better understand the scene briefly discussed here, this work propose the creation and analysis of indicators of how society can influence people in their relationships with technology, reflecting their conceptions or their attitudes towards the technological development. The understanding of these relationships can generate foundations for many discussions, especially for the support of future questions of how public policies for science, technology and education will allow a more effective and active participation by the citizens in decisions involving technological aspects.
Thus, considering that the man, inserted in a society, conceives creates or enhances technologies, in this paper we will present hypotheses, futilely transformed in models that these social interactions also influence the conception that the individual has about the technology and these require different attitudes facing the technological development in the quest for sustainability.
Considering the aspects mentioned in the introduction, here is formulated the research problem to be developed in this work: how the undergraduate students in the State of São Paulo perceive the relationship between technology and society and how they position themselves ahead of technological development.
The main goal of this research is to analyze and test, using Structural Equations Modeling (SEM), the adhesion of different models that relate the interactions among man, society, environment and technology (conceptions and expectations and/or attitudes). To do so, we conducted a survey of the main aspects (or dimensions) of technological activities, such as: indicators of production and technology diffusion, the perception of the current model of society in our day by people from various sectors of our society and indicators of technological challenges in today\'s contemporary world scene. It will also be developed a scale capable of generate models that allow a better understanding of how individuals understand the technology and what they expect from it nowadays, taking into account the influence of social factors such as antecedent. Finally, we will present a theoretical hypothesis and the development of its respective model able to relate the points covered in previous sections.
The advancement of science and technology, often overblown, raised a concern to integrate science and technology for the welfare of society, especially since mankind, in the last century, felt a mixture of hope and fear when seeing realized man\'s dream to reach the space, at the same time that the world feared for their end because of major advances in nuclear weapons. The apathy of society regarding the decisions in science and technology at the beginning of last century was changing while new discoveries began to bring unpopular consequences and show disastrous prospects for the future of humanity. [14].
Especially in English-speaking countries, the economic crises turned on social alarms about some ecological aspects, such as, for example, the side effects of some bactericides and the war in Vietnam. These were some of the factors that led to the first anti-establishment actions, giving rise in the international arena to new positions and attitudes towards irrational advance of modern society. Due to strong political and economic crises that plagued the world, step by step, the belief in the neutrality of science and the naive view of technological development, which once dominated the social scene, was fading. A discussion of political and social implications of the production and application of scientific and technological knowledge was required, both in the social sphere as in the classroom [15, 16]. And so, as a way to consciously challenge the overblown advances that the world saw emerge, raised in some parts of the world in the mid-1970s, a movement that tried and still tries to establish a tripod: Science, Technology and Society (STS), searching for a stronger integration and a more critical training of future professionals, as well as seeking to obtain new theories about the implications and relations of science and technology in society [17].
Two traditions have been recognized within the scope of CTS: the North American, which emphasizes more the social consequences and prioritizes a greater emphasis on technology, marked by strong ethical and educational issues, and the European, which has the unmistakable mark to focus their investigations on issues which discuss more the science through anthropological, sociological and psychological referrals [18]. The power of the CTS movement took place through several curricular innovations around the world, either as a discipline, or even as changes in the way of inserting some topics in already existing and structured courses. Contents or the integral transformation of the curriculum, with the main objective to provide students a formation able to assist in the most different decision-making processes that occur in everyday life, having as reference the values considered as ethical and moral by society.
The diversity of ways in which technology was and is developed and studied over the years that man inhabits and modifies the world makes us realize that it is structured in its own field of knowledge, involving other aspects such as the culture of the society where it has been developed and its organization. In [19] it is shown that technology requires from their agents a deep knowledge of how and why your goals are achieved also are requiring a reformulation of structures and goals of the society where it is installed. Thus, technology can be seen as a set of human activities associated to an intricate system of symbols, machinery and instruments, always aiming the construction of works and artifacts, according methods and processes from modern science. Through the bibliographical survey presented, it is possible to see the diversity of opinions and studies that exist to try to better understand technology. Table 1 shows a summary of these conceptions.
CONCEPTION OF TECHNOLOGY | WAY OF UNDERSTANDING | REFERENCES |
intellectualist | Understands the technology as a practical knowledge derived directly from the development of scientific knowledge through progressive and cumulative processes. | [20-26] |
UTILITARIAN | Considers technology as being a synonym of technique. That is, the process involved in its development has not relationship with technology, just its purpose and use. | [7, 14, 24, 25] |
TECHNOLOGY AS A SYNONYM OF SCIENCE | Faces technology as Natural Sciences and Mathematics, with the same logic and same patterns of production and design. | [16, 27-34] |
Instrumentalist(OR artifactual) | Considers technology as being simple tools, artifacts, or products, usually sophisticated. | [14, 22, 25, 35-38] |
TECHNOLOGICAL NEUTRALITY | Understands that technology is neither good nor bad.Its use is that may be inappropriate, not the artifactitself. | [4, 22, 25, 39, 40, 41] |
Determinism TECHNOLOGICAL (AUTONOMOUS TECHNOLOGY) | Considers technology as being autonomous, self-evolving, following naturally its own momentum and logic of evolution, lacking the control of human beings. | [4, 22, 25, 40, 41] |
UNIVERSALITY OF TECHNOLOGY | Understands technology as something universal; the same product, service or artifact could arise in any location and, therefore, be useful in any context. | [9, 41] |
TECHNOLOGICAL PESSIMISM | Considers technology as something harmful and hurtful to the sustainability of the planet, responsible for the degradation of the environment and the widening of social inequalities. | [7, 42-48] |
TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIMISM | Understands technology as having mechanisms able to ensure the sustainable development and solve environmental, social and materials problems. | [2, 3, 7, 45, 49-60] |
SOCIAL SYSTEM | Considers that technology is determined by the interaction of different groups through social, political, economic, environmental, cultural and others relationships. | [5, 17, 22, 24, 25, 27, 36, 61-71] |
Referenced overview of the different conceptions of technology.
It is known that sustainable development is volatile and requires a complex series of complementary policies, due to the uncertainty of the generation and distribution of knowledge of C & T [51]. In addition, there is the lack of appropriate instruments or the inability of scientific models to measure the environmental impacts. [72]. According to [73] the relationship between technology and the environment occurs in an uncertain way, being very difficult to predict which current and future impacts can be brought by technological innovation. The generation of new “clean technologies” becomes a challenge. At this point, the political factor should be relaxed, because the environmental goals of short and long term may not be compatible, as well as the policies in force, with innovative attitudes. From the literature reviewed, national and international papers and documents were analyzed, showing the main challenges identified by theorists, researchers and technicians, as being the current problems that the technological development faces worldwide. What we were able to check is that sustainability and environmental conservation are issues prioritized in the material analyzed ([2, 3, 7, 8, 34, 44, 45, 50, 56-60, 67, 74-89]).
This work is characterized as a quantitative research. This option is based on the assertion in [90] that the structural equation model provides a direct method to simultaneously handle with multiple dependency relationships with statistical efficiency, exploring them in depth, generating confirmatory analysis, and allowing the representation of unobservable concepts in these relationships, verifying even possible measurement errors that occurred during the statistical process. By establishing an alternative to analyzing the relationship between society and its influence on conceptions and attitudes of undergraduate students facing the technological development, the structural equation modeling and the procedures for descriptive and multivariate analysis denote a precondition to the application of the technique.
In this way, evidences were pointed out that the literature, on numerous occasions, provides broad considerations that indicate that society generates demand for new technologies and these, in turn, change habits, relationships and forms of consumption of the individuals who make use thereof.
We created a master model that relates the conceptions (CON) that individuals have about technology, their attitudes and expectations facing the technological development (ATI) and the influences of the social aspect (DSO). Due to the theoretical recommendations of the adopted method, four models were tested in the study. However, to simplify and make the research more objective, this paper will present only the original model, related to the null hypothesis of the research. Thus, starting from this model, the relations among the constructs with the lowest number of causal pathways will be defined, taking as fundamental change the antecedent factor (also treated as an independent variable or exogenous) in the causal relationships ([90, 91]). Initially, DSO1 model was chosen, which is characterized by having the social dimension (DSO) as an antecedent to the factors conception (CON) and attitude (ATI). Thus, the graphical representation of causal relationships among the constructs, known as path diagram, is shown in Diagram 1.
Structural relationship Model - DSO1: Influence of Society.
In general, this model can be translated into the following hypothesis: the social dimension influences the conceptions of technology of the individuals within it, providing favorable attitudes in the face of a sustainable technological development.
This initial model formed the basis for other five variations, two of which were obtained by exchanging the places of the constructs in the model, and the remaining three were obtained from their respective inverse relationships.
All the literature review summarized in Figure 1 passed through a systematic process of analysis and classification for the construction of the research tool. The values obtained resulted from a process of content analysis which methodology will be described below. From papers, books, national and international documents, this study aimed to collect information provided in each text classifying all existing conceptions about technology as well as which are the challenges of technology in today\'s global scenario. It was also prioritized the provision of information that could classify the various sectors of society. Based on these categorizations, the indicators of this work were developed. All variables were grouped into categories and transformed into statements (indicators) and the end result, after a refinement based on the methodology of content analysis in [92], is presented in tables 2, 3 and 4.
DIMENSIONS | INDICATORS |
CONCEPTIONS OF TECHNOLOGY | CON 01: Technology is the application of laws, theories and models of science. |
CON 02: The technology does not need theories; only needs to be practical and efficient. | |
CON 03: Technology explains the world around us. | |
CON 04: Today there are technologies that can be purchased at an affordable price for many, such as cell phones, stereos, computers, etc. | |
CON 05: Technologies are tools (or artifacts) built to assist humans in solving different types of tasks. | |
CON 06: The technology does not suffer influences from society. | |
CON 07: The way we use technology is what determines whether it is good or bad. | |
CON 8: The inventor loses control over the invention since it is available to the public. | |
CON 9: A new technological discovery can be useful anywhere in the world. | |
CON 10: Technology can destroy the planet. | |
CON 11: Technology increases the socio-economic inequalities. | |
CON 12: Technology threatens the privacy of individuals. | |
CON 13: The benefits of technological development are greater than its negative effects. | |
CON 14: Genetic engineering can help to cure diseases. | |
CON 15: Different groups of interests determine the technological production from social, political, economic, environmental and cultural relationships. |
Indicators proposed for Conceptions of Technology.
SOCIAL DIMENSION | DSO 01: The government must not influence in decisions of technological development. |
DSO 02: The technological research developed by companies is directed to hegemonic private interests aiming solely at profit. | |
DSO 03: The decisions and technological choices have nothing to do with codes of ethics and conduct. | |
DSO 04: The educational and research institutions, such as large universities must conduct research to develop new technologies. | |
DSO 05: Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) should have an active voice in technological decisions. | |
DSO 06: Environmental organizations can prevent or stop the technological development. | |
DSO 07: Religious organizations can prevent or stop the technological development. | |
DSO 08: It is important the effective participation of citizens in issues related to decision making in technology. | |
DSO 09: Personal interests do not influence the process of technology creation. | |
DSO 10: Religious beliefs do not affect the work of scientists and experts involved in the production of technology. | |
DSO 11: Media influences the production of technology. | |
DSO 12: Ethnic minorities have no guaranteed space to assist in choosing new technologies. |
Proposed Indicators for the Social Dimension.
ATTITUDES TOWARD TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT | ATI 01: I use technology to socialize information. |
ATI 02: I am not able to express an opinion about technology, because in decisions of this magnitude should be left to experts. | |
ATI 03: I choose a technology by its efficiency. | |
ATI 04: I choose a technology due to its practicality. | |
ATI 05: At the time of purchase of a new technological product the price is the determining factor for my choice. | |
ATI 06: Technology consolidates the democratization of relations among human beings. | |
ATI 07: I am aware to the issues related to technology that appear in the media. | |
ATI 08: I welcome the increase in investment in technology even if it means spending less on social programs. | |
ATI 09: I would use nuclear power without questioning, because it is a plausible exit to solve future problems of the energy crisis. | |
ATI 10: The concern about future generations should be a crucial point to drive technological choices. | |
ATI 11: I am aware that my technological choices will help to overcome the water crisis in the twenty-first century. | |
ATI 12: Having financial conditions, when buying a new phone, I choose the one which has more features and functions. | |
ATI 13: With the safe use of technology it is possible to protect nature from human contamination. | |
ATI 14: avoid using technological artifacts that cause environmental destruction. | |
ATI 15: I know that genetically modified foods may be the solution to world hunger. | |
ATI 16: I do not buy furniture that is not made from certified wood. | |
ATI 17: I admit the exploitation of nature instead of the welfare of humanity. |
Proposed Indicators for Attitudes toward technological development.
In this research we adopted the technique of cross-section as it brings the advantage of allowing the acquisition of a picture of the variables of interest at a given moment in time and to emphasize the selection of a significant and representative sample of the target population ([93, 94]).
The four institutions that represented the sampling unit were selected considering the criteria of being institutions both public and private. The selected public university, located in Campinas/SP, has students from different regions of Sao Paulo State, as well as the other three private institutions. These private institutions were one university and one faculty of Sao Paulo/SP and one faculty of Campinas/SP. The two private faculties selected receive students from different regions in the state and were also chosen because the researcher had already served for a long period in one of them and is now starting activities in the other one. The diversity of courses that the four institutions have was also a decisive factor in their choices.
The data collection in the public institution was done directly with the students, from different courses, and the questionnaires were, in the most part, passed before the beginning of the classes in the days chosen for the data acquisition. Students were selected from the following courses: Environmental Engineering, Computer Science, Nutrition, Psychology, Business Administration with emphasis in International Business, Electrical Engineering, Production Engineering, Physics, Mathematics, Technology in Environmental Management, Administration and Education.
Initially, around 1006 questionnaires were returned, yielding a proportion of almost 23 interviewed by assertion. However, LISREL software was used in a procedure that made the disposal of questionnaires that were not fully answered. Thus, the amount passed to 600 valid questionnaires, representing a proportion of nearly 14 respondents per statement, which is a significant value considering [90] as basis, and taking into account that the model is not complete and it still gave a good fit in LISREL software.
Following guidelines from [90], at the end of the collect, the data recorded in the questionnaires were entered in an Excel spreadsheet to be later processed by specific statistical software’s to aid in the treatment and analysis of quantitative data. The software SPSS
From the individual evaluation of each construct was then possible to conduct the validation of the models of measures of each of these (DSO, ATI and CON) and this validation was performed by applying the Confirmatory Factorial Analysis (Confirmatory Factor Analysis - CFA). This technique has the purpose to test the hypothesis of adjustment of empirical data to a theoretical model, where a relationship structure is imposed and confirmed by analysis. Nevertheless, the variables need not to be related to all common factors. In particular, as is the case of this investigation, each variable is related to only one factor.
The constructs presented earlier had their dimensionalities tested since this action is an premise to the reliability of the construct. The observation of the unidimensionality was made observing if each value of the normalized residue matrix of the construct was lower than 2.58, in modulus, at a level of significance of 1%, indicating if the effect on the overall adjustment of the model was low. In each process the indices of fit were checked, supplemented by information generated by the option "Modification Index" programmed in LISREL ®, which points out how much is expected to decrease the chi-square if a given a re-estimation occurred, as in [98]. A detailed analysis of the standardized residuals of all dimensions was made and it was found that the overall quantity of residues which exceeds the value of 2.58 is very low and don\'t reaches 3% of the total. Thus, the unidimensionality of the constructs is not compromised.
Reliability is a measure of the internal consistency of the construct indicators and of the adequacy of the scales to measure it. According to the authors, a value commonly used for acceptance of reliability is 0.70, although this is not an absolute standard, and values below 0.70 have been accepted if the research is exploratory in its nature and this value was observed in the research. The results from each one of the dimensions are indicated in the following table (Table 5):
Constructs | Composite Reliability of the Construct |
DSO Models | 0,704161 |
CON Models | 0,703772 |
ATI Models | 0,716902 |
Composite Reliability of the Constructs
As can be seen, the values are higher than the reference commonly established when calculated for each of the constructs. This indicates that the measures performed are suitable.
In this step we evaluated all the models seeking to understand the structural relationships hypothesized. The most common procedure for the estimation of these parameters and which usually has higher efficiency, in accordance with [90], is the Maximum Likelihood method (Maximum Likelihood Estimation – MLE). The results achieved (Table 6) with the MLE method were well adjusted, considering the values given in the literature.
Main Indicators of the Adjustment of the Model | Values Obtained with the MLE Method | REF. VALUES | |||||
DSO1 | DSO2 | CON1 | CON2 | ATI1 | ATI2 | ||
Degrees of freedom | 144 | 143 | 144 | 143 | 144 | 143 | X |
Chi-square | 218.865 | 218.131 | 218.865 | 218.131 | 218.16 | 218.131 | X |
Weighted Chi-square (χ2/GL) | 1,52 | 1,53 | 1,52 | 1,52 | 1,52 | 1,53 | lower than 5,00 |
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) | 0.0308 | 0.0309 | 0.0308 | 0.0309 | 0.0306 | 0.0309 | Between 0,05 and 0,08 |
Normed Fit Index (NFI) | 0.817 | 0.818 | 0.817 | 0.818 | 0.818 | 0.818 | Over than 0,90 |
Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) | 0.913 | 0.912 | 0.913 | 0.912 | 0.914 | 0.912 | Over than 0,90 |
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) | 0.927 | 0.927 | 0.927 | 0.927 | 0.928 | 0.927 | Over than 0,90 |
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) | 0.962 | 0.962 | 0.962 | 0.962 | 0.962 | 0.962 | Over than 0,90 |
Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) | 0.95 | 0.949 | 0.95 | 0.949 | 0.95 | 0.949 | Over than 0,90 |
Source: [10]
. Comparison of the Measures of Adjustment of the Model with MLE.These measures were used as a way to evaluate each construct and the integrated model, because an adjusted model provides a benchmark for the confirmation of the validity of the constructs and the relationships among them, with respect to the complete structural model.
Several indicators were excluded in an attempt to get the best fitted model resulting in a total of 44, 19 indicators on the scale validated following the guidelines of [90]. Applying the MLE technique to estimate the model with antecedents in the social dimension, we obtained the structural equations, t-values of the estimated parameters and their respective R2, as shown in Table 7 for the estimation of DSO1, the t-values are above to 1.96 for a level of significance of 5%. This demonstrates the significant contribution of the endogenous constructs (conceptions and attitudes) for the Social Dimension (DSO) predictor construct and we have this model as the most adequate, satisfying the theory and our initial hypothesis.
Models | METHOD OF ESTIMATION MLE | ||
structural equations | t-values | R2 | |
DSO1 | ATI = 1.096*DSO | 7.708 | 1.202 |
CON = 1.016*DSO | 6.220 | 1.033 | |
DSO2 | DSO = 0.116*ATI + 0.764*CON | 0.188 e 0.906 | 0.795 |
CON1 | ATI = 1.109*CON | 7.896 | 1.231 |
DSO = 0.880*CON | 1.288 | 0.774 | |
CON2 | CON = 4.408*ATI - 3.386*DSO | 0.271 e -0.208 | 1.908 |
ATI1 | DSO = 0.889*ATI | 1.354 | 0.791 |
CON = 1.069*ATI | 6.348 | 1.144 | |
ATI2 | ATI = - 0.145*DSO + 1.249*CON | -0.151 e 1.327 | 1.257 |
Complete model estimated according to the MLE method.
These results indicate that the model which predicts the other variables is the DSO1.
From the observations presented in the previous sections, the best fitted model showed a number of constructs and indicators below the initial, as shown in Table 8 and graphically represented in Diagram 2.
CONSTRUCTS | VARIABLES |
SOCIAL DIMENSIONS | DSO 01; DSO 02; DSO 04; DSO 06; DSO 08 |
CONCEPTIONS OF TECHNOLOGY | CON 01; CON 03; CON 05; CON 07 |
ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT | ATI 01; ATI 05; ATI 06; ATI07; ATI010; ATI 11; ATI 12; ATI 13; ATI 15; ATI 16 |
Adjusted Model of Measure.
Path Diagram of the Integrated Model.
In summary, it can be said that the final model proposed was adequate and the various factors, in turn, significant. Thus, it is clear that the social dimension, measured by the DSO construct, can be considered a predictor of the attitudes (ATI) and conceptions (CON) related to the technology and that, by the unadjusted models, the inverse relationships are not true for the sample consulted.
Seeking an understanding of how elements of society can influence the conceptions and attitudes of individuals concerning the technological development, this research developed a theoretical model from which a research tool was elaborated and applied with undergraduate students.
It was found that all models were adjusted, but only the model DSO1 attested the research hypotheses according to the results previously presented.
The society, in the created model, was represented by different variables which represented specific sectors. Among all possibilities, in a comprehensive manner, the adjusted model showed that the undergraduate students surveyed gave evidence that the government, the research and educational institutions, and also the citizens in general, are the components that best represent, or could represent, the society in processes of technological decision making. Either for the choice of new technologies as for the development of other, with these points in common it is possible to say that undergraduates expect a government position at the same time they feel able to participate in a more active form.
Complementing the scenery, the indifference presented regarding the environmental non-governmental institutions may not mean a lack of opinion, but tend to show that issues of sustainability and preservation of the planet must be taken into consideration. This will be evident in the analysis of the attitudes that will be made in future paragraphs.
Summarizing these statements we can say that government, people, academic and educational sectors should join forces for better choices and technological decisions. This statement shows that all the literature indicated in Section 4 is consistent with the fitted model. Thus, these considerations show the reflex of the society in the attitudes of people in their technology choices and it can also be said that this reflex is also present in the way they understand the technology.
In the case of the conceptions, for one of the dependent constructs, we can infer that the undergraduates surveyed show three basic aspects that commonly appear as indicators of common sense of the interpretation of technology. More generally, one can say that the research has shown that technology is understood by the great majority of undergraduates as being intellectualistic and synonymous of science, as well as neutral and instrumentalist.
This way, the research shows that understanding technology as a practical knowledge derived from scientific theoretical knowledge, or even mistakes it with science, is a strong indicator. This means that a deeper reflection about the production process of technology and all of its real reasons of conception are not present in the majority of respondents. The instrumentalist conception supports this conclusion significantly. If the process is not considered, there remains only the product. And the use of this product is sole responsibility of the person who acquires it, not reflecting, this way, the interests of the developers. This statement is supported by the neutral view of technology also present in the model.
In general, even the concept of technology can be somewhat limited, its direct dependence on social factors is a good indicator and raises good evidence that undergraduates expect that influential sectors of the society act jointly in the development process of technology.
Regarding the attitudes (ATI), the second construct dependent on the social background (DSO), three points are possible to identify in a more comprehensive way: the awareness of the need to ensure the sustainability of the planet, consuming appropriate technologies, the use of technologies to socialize information and keep informed, and the practical manifestation of the instrumentalist conception. By taking again as a starting point the social dimension, we can infer that the students surveyed believe that jointly, government, teaching and research institutions and the population in general, can combine efforts to the pursuit of sustainable development. Thus, progress is possible if, and only if, political, social and economical efforts, are gathered in the search of a growth able to preserve the natural and material resources to ensure the well being of people.
With a differentiated education, new educational public policies may be developed in order to point to a sustainable world, whose maintenance of the life forms and inanimate resources can only be achieved through the joint action of all sectors of society. With an efficient technological education it is possible to educate for the consumption in a conscious and not so materialistic way, as pointed by some attitudes of the model. With a conscious technological education and with the use of all socializing and educational potential of technology, it is possible to manage and generate gradually an educational system solid and participatory.
Finally, it is possible to establish a contrast with the idea of consumption that also appeared, which indicates that the economic sector of society, which aims at maintaining a competitive market structure, also exerts influence. Even so, the adjusted model showed that the attitudes (or intentions) of undergraduates show evidence of change of attitude in college students that, even in a subjective way, give evidence that it is necessary to create a social mechanism where the holders of the technical knowledge must meet with the representatives from all sectors of society to decide which new technological systems should be adopted, since it does not harm the environment.
We emphasize that it was found that undergraduate students surveyed have a limited conception of technology, and this, as showed in the survey, is a reflection of the society in which they are inserted. Another point to be considered is the social reflex in the attitudes of the individuals facing the technological development. The study showed that there is a sustainable awareness, but also showed that some key variables of technological advances presented in the research model does not appear so striking in the way the students surveyed are positioned. These two observations open up space for a last important point: society, in general, need a technological reeducation, so that the citizens within it start to understand the process of technological decision making in a more comprehensive way and become capable to reflect about the different aspects related to the social environment in which they belong.
Thus, speaking in rethink the public policies in education is to propose the use of technological knowledge in education. And that does not mean simply perform tasks for training or specialization in new technologies, but to ensure to the students a solid foundation that helps them to manage and generate, in the future, the demands placed on society. The integration means of the individual in society, as well as their formation, more critical and more human.
Originating from Toyota production system (TPS), lean production (LP) or lean manufacturing (LM) has now become a well-known and widely adopted philosophy all over the world. Its first usages were limited with the production industry and therefore its initial applications emerged in the manufacturing businesses. As time passes, the service industry has begun to utilize from the LP philosophy and/or techniques. As the adaptation of lean expanded from production sector to service sector, its concept transformed from LP to lean thinking (LT).
Historical evolution of the “lean” started with TPS and continued as LP/LM, and finally became LT. No matter what anyone says, each of these terms indicates the same concept. Eliminating or at least minimizing the waste (Japanese: muda) in a system is the basic philosophy of lean and to produce the maximum output by using minimum resources is the main goal of it. Lean seeks for a system that tries to detract non-value added things from the processes and bring the value-added things into the forefront. These efforts become meaningful if the value is defined correctly and the system is designed and conducted truly. Value must be defined by the customer since he/she is the end user of the product and/or service. Thus, to give exactly what the customer wants, businesses must take into consideration the concepts of efficiency and quality. It is clear that an efficient and quality focused system uses the resources exactly as needed and produces products and/or services that satisfy the customers.
Many organizations from production or service sectors implement lean production as its main system or apply lean principles partially in its specific activities. These organizations utilize from LT with the aims of becoming more efficient, more competitive, and more quality oriented. Furthermore, in recent years LT spread from a single business to supply chains of multiple businesses. It is possible to say that LT attracts many businesses and these businesses want to transform into a lean business. Lean transformation process is an important inflection point for a business and it must be carefully initiated, designed and managed. The starting point of this transformation process is crucial and right method(s) must be used during the phase. Value stream mapping (VSM), one of the methods of LT, is the most suitable method that can be used in the first step. VSM is a paper and pencil based method that focuses on the current state of a process, makes all value and non-value added activities visible, and proposes a lean future state. VSM is dealt with in this chapter in a detailed way.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 focuses on lean philosophy. Lean techniques are examined in Section 3, and VSM is explained in Section 4. In Section 5, there are VSM examples from the service and production sector for a better understanding of the subject. Finally, this chapter ends with discussion and conclusion.
Businesses should be recognized the importance of customer and value concepts. Customers do not want features that do not create value in products or services. All sectors, both product and service sector, should pay attention to this situation in order to compete with their competitors. This is because customers are not willing to pay extra for features that do not create value. Value can be categorized into three types: value added, non-value added and necessary non-value added operations [1]. Value added operations are processes that please the customer and must be in the process. Necessary non-value added operations are wasteful but necessary. Lastly, non-value added operations are completely wasteful and must be eliminated.
Lean philosophy is defined by Radnor et al. [2] as “Lean as a management practice based on the philosophy of continuously improving processes by either increasing customer value or reducing non-value adding activities (muda), process variation (mura), and poor work conditions (muri).” As can be seen from the definition, lean philosophy has emerged within the framework of some elements, especially waste (muda). Lean production is typically believed to be 7 types of waste [3]. These wastes are over production, waiting, transportation, over processing, inventory, unnecessary motions and defects (Figure 1).
Seven types of waste.
The importance given to the service sector is increasing day by day. The lean production mentality continues to be implemented in the service sector. Lean philosophy, both production and service sector value, optimization, quality, standardization and simplification principles are common [4]. However, the wastes defined as 7 types in lean production are 10 types (Figure 2) in the service sector [5].
Ten types of waste (service sector).
If the wastes are eliminated and the costs of waiting in stock are reduced, customer satisfaction and related sales will increase. Therefore, the purpose of both customers, employees and business partners will be achieved through the adoption of lean philosophy. On the other hand, in order to ensure continuous improvement, the wastes in the process must be converted to value. Furthermore, due to the rapid change in customer expectations, it is important to achieve perfection. Thus, Womack and Jones [6] proposed a The 5 Steps Model to help transform from value to perfection [7]. Table 1 contains the 5 steps model and explanations of the expressions [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
The steps | Explanations |
---|---|
1. Value | Value is the source of the pleasure and needs of the customers who buy the product or service. It is the starting point of lean philosophy. It is necessary to understand the needs of the customers, to define the value correctly, and to implement this in all processes |
2. Value stream | The value stream is all the activities needed during the generating of the product or service. These activities may be activities that add or do not add value to the product or service. Additionally, with all activities being seen, wastes that non-value adding will be recognized |
3. Flow | Continuous flow can be achieved by detecting and eliminating the wastes in the process. Furthermore, it is necessary to implement this throughout the value chain to ensure full flow, not just one process |
4. Pull | The pull system means that production or service will not be commenced without a customer approval. This is the exact opposite of the push system. Production will be tailored to the customer in this system. In addition, over production and unnecessary inventory are prevented by JIT applications |
5. Perfection | Perfection is the last step that separates value and waste. This step regulates the flow, ensures the continuity of the flow and initiates the pull system. Perfection is maintained by continuous improvement. Perfection means that lean thinking is adopted and implemented |
The 5 steps model.
A number of lean methods are used in the realization of these steps (detailed descriptions in the next section). JIT and Kaizen, in particular, are the main philosophies in achieving continuous improvement and in reaching perfection [12]. Besides, lean philosophy has many benefits for businesses, employees and customers. These benefits are, reduced lead time, less rework, financial savings, increased process understanding, reduced inventory, less process waste, satisfied customer, standardized processes, improved knowledge management [3, 13].
There are some principles to apply the lean philosophy successfully in a organization [14]. It is a pyramid with 4P of lean way formed by the Liker’s 4P of the Toyota way [15]. The 14 principles are represented by 4P [16]: philosophy, process, people and partner, problem solving (Figure 3).
The 4P of the lean way [10].
Koskela [17] also defined the principles (11 principles) adopted in lean thinking as Liker [10]. The main theme of the lean principles proposed by the two authors is similar to that of Womack and Jones [6] in the 5-step model. This theme consists of defining the value, providing the flow, solving problems with lean techniques and aiming to reach perfection.
Within the scope of lean thinking, there are numerous methods used to reach the targets and minimize the wastes. Some of the lean methods for becoming lean as a system are crucial in the lean systems such as value stream mapping (VSM), single minute exchange of dies (SMED), the 5S system, one piece flow, just in time (JIT), pull system (Kanban), Poka-Yoke, total productive maintenance, Kaizen, visual controls/management, 5 whys (5N), standardized work, spaghetti diagram, DMAIC, PDCA and so on [12] and they will be briefly described in this section.
SMED method is developed by Shingo in the 1950s and later perfected by Toyota over the years [18]. SMED has become the best practice to simplify and reduce the time spent on set up. Time is very important in lean systems and is not expected to be wasted. That’s why, this method has an important place in lean techniques. Thanks to SMED method, changeover time is reduced from hours to minutes. In simple terms, it is attempted to decrease the preparation time on a machine or any process to less than 10 minutes [12]. Perhaps the best example of the application of this method is automobile racings.
Set up times is separated as internal and external. The activities performed by stopping the machine are called the internal set up time, while the activities carried out around the machine without stopping the activity are called external set up time [19]. In this point, some of the internal tasks may need to be converted to external tasks without stopping the machine [20]. Thus, continuous flow can be achieved and processes become faster and more efficient. With the improvements in internal set up time, labor savings are achieved and the downtimes of the machine decrease. Moreover, improvements to external set up times do not have a direct impact on stopping time, but may give operators the freedom to take time for other activities.
The 5S system is a visual communication technique that enables the working area to be well organized [11]. It also helps to reduce waste in the working area through general cleaning. This method is preferred when it is aimed to ensure cleanliness and organized workplace layout, to improve processes, to ensure transparency and to rise up employee satisfaction. Five Japanese words, starting with the letter S, are used to create this method. These words are seiri-sort, seiton-straighten, seiso-shine, seiketsu-standardize and shitsuke-sustain [13]. Buesa [21] stated that some experts add two new terms are safety and security. Lastly, with the implementation of the 5S cycle, it is possible to change the working environment with low costs. Moreover, employees respect to their organizations and themselves, and inventory and material costs are decreased.
By the one-piece flow technique, it is intended to move a single piece at a time between operations. The one-piece flow method takes into account factors such as sorting jobs, calculating installation time, and determining job shop production policy [19]. Therefore, these factors need to be examined during production planning. Planning a production according to one-piece flow is an important component of lean production strategy. The installation time, the stock levels and the delivery time are directly affected by the lot size. In view of these situations, it is very important to be an agile business to respond to customer needs without creating inventory [12]. This can be achieved by reducing the lot size in lean production.
The just in time philosophy adopted by Toyota is a system that regulates the stock level and optimizes the flow of materials. According to the JIT production strategy, what is needed is produced in the desired amount and time [22]. In this concept, the production of more than the amount needed and stocking are considered as waste. Thus, wastes in processes are eliminated by using the JIT philosophy. Furthermore, the quality-related problems are easily identified thanks to the low level of inventory. In addition to these advantages, JIT offers businesses the flexibility and speed required to keep up with global competition.
In lean thinking, workflows are usually applied with the pull system. The pull system is defined as the system by which the customer decides to start production or service [23]. In this system, since the production is started when there is demand, the wastes like excess inventory and overproduction is prevented. In addition, the companies that decide to implement the pull system must fulfill their customer demands within a certain time frame. For this purpose, it is inevitable to use Kanban cards. Kanban cards is a Japanese term given to cards used to control the flow in the process such as inventory control [19]. Additionally, control of the variations in demand and production can be provided with Kanban cards [24].
A Japanese word, Poka-Yoke, means mistake proofing and error avoidance [25]. In this way, errors are detected at the source and prevented from passing to the next step. The basic principle of the technique is to reduce the cost by reducing the number of defective parts that can occur during the production process to zero [26]. Poka-Yoke is preferred for quality at the source. Moreover, the Andon technique, which consists of lights that make it appear when errors occur, are also used.
Lean systems attach importance to continuous flows. The businesses want to avoid as much as possible the failures and machine errors that may occur during the process. For this reason, total productive maintenance (TPM) technique, should be implemented as routine preventive maintenance with the participation of all employees. TPM is an approach that requires the participation of all the employees within the daily production activities, which also brings the necessity of the maintenance of the equipment that it works on, prevents the errors and maximizes the efficiency of the equipment [27]. However, it is necessary to provide interdepartmental trainings to employees for this maintenance.
The main philosophy of lean system is the adoption of continuous flow and improvement. All other lean methods try to achieve this philosophy to perfection [28]. Kaizen, based on the concept of continuity, is a process improvement program that will never end. In order to make improvements in the existing production system and to find solutions to the problems identified, employees from different disciplines must come together in the Kaizen activities. In this meeting, wastes are defined and attempts are made to prevent the occurrence of other wastes. Lastly, the main basis of continuous improvement is undoubtedly the fact that top management believes the lean philosophy and provides full support to employees.
The spaghetti diagram is the visualization of the movement and transportation of the product or service in the value stream [29]. Employees can collect the data via this method [13]. Because the movements of products and services are clearly visible with this activity. Thus, the wastes during the flow can be easily determined. Besides, the problem determination and solution suggestions for eliminating non value added work steps and distances can be collected with the help of the opinions of the employees.
The 5N method is briefly the process of defining and writing specific problems. As it is understood from this definition, it is questioned why the problems arise and their answers are written under the determined problem. If the answer is not the root cause of the problem [13, 30], the evaluators will continue to ask until the root cause is determined. In the 5N method, it is tried to eliminate the wastes by asking the questions of the cause and the reason causing this problem [31]. In this way, the root of the problem is determined and solved not to occur again.
The standardization of works and processes has been developed based on the kaizen philosophy [32]. In order to ensure continuous flow, it is necessary to repeat the processes with the same quality every time. By using the standardized work method for repetitive tasks, employees will be trained in the steps of the processes according to the predetermined standards, which will allow quality improvement. Moreover, as employees know exactly what to do, their work satisfaction and motivation increase.
Visual control is a method based on organizing the working area so that management and workers can understand whether there is something going wrong in a way. The use of visual control method wherever the process takes place and its adoption can be evaluated as visual management. By using simple visual schemes, the communication between the employees becomes clear and the areas of responsibility of the employees can be determined by ground lines. In this way, processes can be viewed visually, employees are not forced and errors are prevented.
DMAIC and PDCA are cycles that monitor and examine business processes from start to finish. DMAIC (define-measure-analyze-improve-control) is an integral part of the six sigma method. This method is a systematic and result oriented. If there is flexibility during the processes, the most effective results can be obtained from this method. In addition, steps that do not add value are eliminated [33].
The PDCA (plan-do-check-act) cycle was first developed by Shewhart [12]. This method is more effective than the philosophy of doing it right the first time. Because, by using the PDCA cycle, better improvement methods are sought [33]. PDCA cycle consist of for stages: planning for improvement, doing improvement actions, checking the implications of improvement actions, and making effective permanent actions toward improvement. In these methods, precise measurements of product and process variability are made. In addition, all processes focus on statistical control [34].
Thanks to these lean tools and methods, to adopt the lean philosophy becomes easier; at the same time the philosophy is ensured to become permanent. These techniques are also thought to eliminate waste in production and service processes. Moreover, the lean methods are divided into three categories by Radnor et al. [2] as assessment, improvement and monitoring. In addition, these methods that frequently preferred in the literature are classified by Costa and Filho [35] the frame of three categories (Table 2).
Classification | Lean tools & methods |
---|---|
Assessment | Value stream mapping, 5 Whys (5N), A3, Ishikawa diagram, process mapping, Gemba walking |
Improvement | 5S’s, spaghetti diagram, continuous flow, Kaizen, pull system/Kanban, one-piece-flow, Poka-yoke, team approach to problem solving, workload balancing, Andon, Jidoka, process redesign, Heijunka, physical work setting redesign, standardized work |
Monitoring | Visual control |
Assessment/improvement/monitoring | DMAIC (define-measure-analyze-improve-control), PDCA (plan-do-check-action) |
Lean tools and methods and their classifications [35].
VSM is the most important and most widely used method. In addition, since VSM forms the main framework of this chapter, it is examined in more detail in the next section.
As a result of increasing interest in lean thinking, executives strive to transform their processes into a lean system. Lean techniques help ensure the lean in processes. One of the commonly applied lean methods is the value stream mapping (VSM) method introduced by Rother and Shook [36].
VSM is a demonstration of whole activities that value added and non-value added in processes by using a pen and paper [36]. VSM; a technique that helps determine and understand the resource and information flow of a product or service throughout the process. It is desirable to eliminate the wastes in the value stream in this method [29].
The aim of the method is to identify activities that non-value added to the product or service in the eyes of the customer and to improve the process by eliminating the wastes. The steps of the VSM method created to accomplish this aim are shown in Figure 4 [36, 37, 38]:
The value stream mapping process.
The first step in VSM is the selection of product family with common features or similar processes to avoid complexity. Then, the current state map showing the current process is drawn. What is important here is that the entire process from supplier to customer is included in the map. In the third step, the situations necessary for the development of the process that is dealt with the future state map are mapped. The color of the third step is different because VSM has no meaning if improvements are not recommended after the current state map [36]. In the last step, based on the elements identified on the map, it is discussed and applied what needs to be done, how much time is needed, who should take responsibility in each field and what the expected outcome from each activity is.
Standard symbols are accepted for demonstrating material flow, information flow and general information in VSM [23]. Some icons representing these symbols are provided in Figure 5.
Value stream mapping icons.
The use of the VSM method has several advantages. Advantages of VSM method are listed below [18, 39]:
ensures that the examined process is handled from beginning to end
provides visuality thanks to symbolic representation
procure the identification of the resources causing waste during the process.
shows the relationship between information flow and material flow
includes different application steps and implementation plan for continuous improvement
In addition, VSM method determines the system’s takt time, lead time and cycle times. In this way, the result of improvements in the future state map can be revealed. The terms here are briefly defined (see [19, 40]):
Takt time is the speed at which goods or services must be produced to meet customer demand. Takt time is calculated by dividing the daily total production time by daily customer demand.
Lead time (in days) is calculated by dividing the number of inventories between the processing steps into the daily demand.
Cycle time is expressed as the maximum time spent on a unit in each station. Cycle time is calculated with a simple formula: 1/output rate per hour in units.
For a better understanding of the subject, it will be useful to support the VSM method with examples. In line with this purpose, two examples, one of them from service sector and other from production sector are given.
The first example is from the service sector. The graduation, specifically the exmatriculation process of university students is selected. As aforementioned earlier in this chapter, the first stage of the VSM method is the identification of the product/service family. Here; the exmatriculation process of a university is determined as the product family. Then, the current situation of the flow in this process is observed and the current state map (CSM) is created (Figure 6). As seen in Figure 6, there are 12 steps in this process. The flow starts with “transcript control” step and ends with “completion of process”. In this map, various wastes stand out. For instance, unnecessary motions (meeting with advisor step), defects (meeting with advisor step), over processing (paper-work and head of department steps), waiting (head of department and filling out the survey steps), and inventory between processes (between department secretary and filling out the survey steps). A future state map (FSM) is drawn in order to eliminate these wastes (Figure 7). The first suggestion is that, student information system should be used actively. Moreover, various lean methods are proposed to eliminate the wastes generated during the processes. These lean methods are 5S, Poka-Yoke, quality at the source, kaizen, balanced work flow, standardized work, SMED, inventory reduction and visual controls. If the CSM (Figure 6) and FSM (Figure 7) are compared simultaneously, it is possible to see the wastes and how to eliminate them. As a result, while continuous flow is achieved, the total time is reduced from 363.5 to 276.5 minutes. This indicates an improvement of 0.24% in the process. In addition, resources are used efficiently and customer (student) satisfaction is ensured.
Current state map (service sector).
Future state map (service sector).
For the production sector application, a furniture factory is chosen. One of the sofa model (model A) produced in the furniture company is examined under VSM method (this example is derived from study of Dogan and Takcı [41]). Model A is now the product family of this example. As the second stage of VSM, the steps in the production phase of Model A are focused. The current state map (CSM) demonstrating this process is shown in Figure 8. There are eight production steps in CSM (Figure 8). Production flow starts with “crocking” and ends with “packaging”. When the current state map is analyzed, it is seen that the total time is 1.49 days and the processing time is 594 seconds. By drawing the CSM, some problems have emerged in the production area. The main problems are as follows: intermediate inventories between the processes; unbalanced workload; time losses due to the inadequate supply of the material and time losses cause quality errors (average 9.62%); time losses due to layout problem, unnecessary transportation and deficiencies like material identification. Then, to eliminate the problems identified with the CSM, a future state map (FSM) is drawn (Figure 9). In the FSM, the Kanban system is established, the pull system is applied to prevent accumulated intermediate inventories between the processes and the material transfer is controlled by FIFO. In addition, Yamazumi is proposed for balancing the workload and minimizing the quality errors and establishment of the Kanban system makes it possible to prevent time losses in production due to the lack of timely supply of the materials. Finally, it may be preferable to use 5S and physical work redesign in order to prevent the time losses due to the layout problem and the deficiencies in the material identification. Analysis of the production process of model A by VSM method showed that continuous flow is achieved; a decrease of approximately 53% in the total time, a decrease of 30% in the processing time and a 36% improvement in the quality error rate. As in the example of the service sector, when the CSM (Figure 8) and FSM (Figure 9) for production process of model A are examined simultaneously, the wastes, errors, defects and at the same time, improvements in the processes can be clearly seen.
Current state map (production sector).
Future state map (production sector).
Lean thinking is the general framework of the implementation of the lean philosophy in the production and service sectors [42]. As stated by Womack and Jones [8] “lean thinking is lean because it provides a way to do more and more with less and less—less human effort, less equipment, less time, and less space—while coming closer and closer to providing customers with exactly what they want.” LT is an endless process and implementation of continuous improvement. For continuous improvement, researchers and professionals prefer various lean methods like VSM, 5S, SMED, balanced work flow, standardized work etc. The primary purpose of these methods is to eliminate waste and ensure continuous flow.
Value stream mapping is one of the most preferred methods in literature. This is the mapping of the whole process. Mapping the stages of a process, will assist to discover the opportunities for improvement and prevent the loss of time and money of stakeholders [43]. VSM applications, with the aim of eliminating waste are not restricted to a single business; it can also be applied to the supply chain by focusing on all the steps from the first supplier to the end customer. The essence of the matter is that, VSM can be effectively used in all processes if a product or service flow exists.
This chapter has focused on lean philosophy and lean methods, especially the VSM. The motive for the detailed examination of the VSM method is that VSM is the first step to overcome how the lean production will be applied. The reason why this method is first preferred is that the whole operation is seen as a holistic approach, and at the same time, it proposes a prescription to eliminate errors and/or wastes. On the other hand, like many other methods, this method has also some limitations. Mapping complex systems with VSM can sometimes be difficult. At this point, large wastes or resources of wastes may be unnoticed. This can be a major problem in VSM, whose main goal is revealing and eliminating waste. Moreover, rather than using the VSM method alone, using with other lean methods will increase the reliability and efficiency of the results. To overcome these weaknesses, it is recommended to benefit from other methods together with the VSM method. For instance, theory of constraints, flowcharts, artificial intelligence and simulation are some of the methods that can be used with VSM.
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She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). 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El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Al Azhar University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"113313",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Aal",middleName:null,surname:"Mantawy",slug:"abdel-aal-mantawy",fullName:"Abdel-Aal Mantawy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1683},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"qngrRaqGuveqFgrcChoyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:63},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. 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