Number of breeds and the studied years on the farms
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-232-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"babca2dea1c80719111734cc57a21a4c",bookSignature:"Dr. Amin Talei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10404.jpg",keywords:"Water Budget, Ground Measurement, Satellite Data, Empirical Models, Physical Models, Data-Driven Models, Artificial Neural Network, Neuro-Fuzzy Systems, Genetic Programming, Irrigation Management, Drought, Aquifer Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in developing hydrological models using adaptive neuro-fuzzy systems, a pioneering researcher in tropical biofiltration systems, appointed head of the Civil Engineering Discipline in Monash University Malaysia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"335732",title:"Dr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Talei",slug:"amin-talei",fullName:"Amin Talei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335732/images/system/335732.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amin Talei joined Monash University Malaysia in January 2013 and currently is the head of Civil Engineering discipline. His previous appointment was as researcher in School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of Nanyang Technological University of Singapore where he studied for his PhD during 2008-2011. His research is predominantly focused on hydrological modeling and flood forecasting using artificial intelligence techniques. Most recently, he has been also involved in research projects dealing with sustainable urban water management. To date, he has published over 50 articles in reputable journals and international conference proceedings. He has supervised several PhD and Master students and won the Supervisor of the Year Award in Monash University Malaysia in 2017. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"16098",title:"Artificial Insemination of Sheep - Possibilities, Realities and Techniques at the Farm Level",doi:"10.5772/16642",slug:"artificial-insemination-of-sheep-possibilities-realities-and-techniques-at-the-farm-level",body:'\n\t\tThe state of artificial insemination in the sheep and goat industries has developed differently in Europe over the last couple of decades. The number of artificial inseminations in the sheep industry and the ratio of inseminated ewes increased sharply in East Europe, especially in the eastern part of Mid-Europe, during the 1950s and 1960s. The main reason for this increase could be due to the planned economy and certain central pressure from the state. The presence and the ratio of use of this method were much lower in other parts of Europe, and its development was rather slower.
\n\t\t\t\tBecause of unfavourable economical circumstances, the profitability of the sheep industry fell in the eastern part of Europe and the number of sheep kept on big state and cooperative farms declined during the 1970s and the second half of the 1980s. With the changing economy in the early 1990s, the decline in sheep number continued. In Hungary, in particular, during the preparation period prior to accession to the EU, there was a sharp increase in sheep number, with the increasing trend lasting until the end of 2005. The trend has reversed since then, with a gradual and intensive reduction.
\n\t\t\t\tAs the consequences of the use of artificial insemination (AI) with semen from imported breeding rams, wool production traits (fibre diameter, shearing, greasy wool weight and staple length among others) have steadily and gradually increased in Hungarian Merino flock. Artificial insemination centres were founded by the state between early 1950s and the end of the 1970s. Some regional sub-stations belonging to each county AI centres were supplying flocks from state and cooperative farms. Over this period, the state helped improve sheep breeding with the operation of AI centres. The number of inseminated ewes reached its peak in the mid 1960s, when 63% of ewes in the national flock were artificially inseminated with a relatively wide range, but from the end of this decade, the use of AI started to go back. In the Hajdu-Bihar County (east of the country) for instance, the number of inseminated ewes exceeded 85%, even in mid 1970s’ (Kukovics, 1974; Jávor et al., 2006; Kukovics & Gergátz, 2009). From the mid 1970s, the state-owned artificial insemination centres started to close down, the number of rams kept for semen collection was reduced and the breeding animals were sold to various farms.
\n\t\t\t\tAfter this period privately-owned self-owned ram and artificial insemination units were established and took advantage of the sheep breeding state and cooperative farms.
\n\t\t\t\tMeanwhile, artificial insemination started to be more intensively used in Western Europe. The number of inseminated ewes and their ratio increased in breeding programmes where rapid genetic development was essential. One of these programmes was the French dairy Lacaune breeding system, where more than 82% of the nucleus part of the population (about 160 000 out of the 750 000 heads) were artificially inseminated by 1993 with semen mainly transported from several AI centres. During the previous thirty years, average milk production increased from 50 to 70 litres to 300 litres per ewe annually (Barillet et al., 1993). This trend did not change and the system expanded to other breeds in France, Spain and Italy (Jávor et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\t\tSince the beginning of the 1980s, the number of inseminated ewes has decreased noticeably in Hungary. As the whole economy of the country was reorganised and privatised from the early 1990s, the number of farms utilising AI as the breeding method has almost disappeared. Nowadays, less than 2 % of breeding ewes are inseminated artificially on about 15 to 20 farms out of the registered 6,900 sheep farms. Indeed, the relatively small size of flocks (about 150 heads of adult females) has an important role in the development of this situation. Almost twenty breeds are bred in the country, but AI is only used in limited numbers. The Merinos are the dominant breed in the country; however, very few farmers breeding Merino sheep use AI.
\n\t\t\t\tIt was quite well known many years ago and even today that AI can not be carried out without special skills. Several hundred people were educated on artificial insemination (in the 1950s and 1960s up to the mid 1970s) in order to use this modern breeding method in the country.
\n\t\t\t\tThe education of shepherds practically decreased in Hungary, and no one received even minimal skills in the AI of sheep and goats between 1986 and 1999. On behalf of the Hungarian Goat Breeders Association and the Hungarian Sheep Dairying Association, a series of indoor courses were organised for sheep and goat breeders in 1999 and 2000. The courses were carried out in the Biotechnical Research Station University of Western Hungary, in Mosonmagyaróvár. More than 60 people (shepherds and goat breeders) finished the three courses and took successful theoretical and practical examinations, receiving a certificate for their knowledge. Unfortunately, the organisation of further courses had to be stopped because of a shortage of funds needed to cover the costs of the courses. However, a couple of years later, special official courses were announced by the state in sheep and goat AI, but there was no interest until now.
\n\t\t\t\tAt present, only a limited number of breeders are convinced about the importance and the value of AI. Most of the sheep and goat keepers have several numbers of breeding males for mating.
\n\t\t\t\tUntil 2008, two officially certificated artificial insemination stations (Pharmagene-Farm Ltd, Mosonmagyaróvár, and Bakonszegi Awassi Corporation, Bakonszeg) were operating in the country; however, some research centres (universities and research institutes) had complete laboratories ready to offer services to various farms. In 2011, only one AI station remained active in Mosonmagyaróvár, and there was a new embryo transfer station officially certified in Budapest.
\n\t\t\t\tUnfortunately, not only is there a shortage of state-organised shepherds as well as a lack of educating inseminators (cattle and pig excluded), but there is also an absence of interest of the breeders association in forcing farmers to get knowledge and use artificial insemination. The lack of interest, insufficient knowledge and education, absence of organisation, laziness, shortage of labour and low profitability can be found behind this symptom.
\n\t\t\t\tThe director of Hőgyész State Farm, Béla Szüllő (Hungary), who supervised the breeding and production of more than 4,000 sheep stated in 1972, believed that the profitability of meat sheep farming could be achieved when 1.5 lambs could be utilised after one ewe annually (Kukovics, 1974). This level could be attained with the use of frequent lambing, utilisation of artificial insemination, and with the application of breeds with high prolificacy in crossbreeding programmes. That result was later confirmed by Kukovics & Jávor (2002) in their study.
\n\t\t\tThere are several factors that could modify the effectiveness of artificial insemination and some of them are mentioned below.
\n\t\t\t\tIn many publications, the ewe breed has been found to have a large effect on the pregnancy rate after artificial insemination. According to Hill et al. (1998), the wool type (strong wool – 67.6%; fine wool – 71.7%; fine medium and medium 73%) of Australian Merino affected the average pregnancy rate. In a Greek study (Karagiannidis et al., 2001), the conception rate rank of ewes was Chios, Vlachiki and (Vlachiki x Chios), with a significant difference between them. The pregnancy rate of Suffolk ewes was much lower (12%) than that of Finnish landrace (65%) in Irish studies (Donovan et al., 2001 and 2004), while the breed of the ram also had a significant effect on prolificacy after AI (Perkins et al., 1996; Donovan et al., 2001 and 2004; Anel et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\t\tThe fertility rate in laparoscopic insemination gradually decreases from the age of 1.5 to 2.5 years (Anel et al., 2005), while it increases until 3.5 to 4.5 years of age in vaginal insemination.
\n\t\t\t\tThe season of insemination could have a strong effect on the results. According to Hill et al. (1998), the month of insemination exerted highly significant differences: it was 71.5% in March, April, or May and 67.6% in November, December, January or February. In the study of Anel et al. (2005), the season modified the conception rate after both laparoscopic and vaginal insemination (September-January 46.88 vs. 35.53%; February-June 43.96 vs. 29.79 %; July-August 38.95 vs. 22.72%), but the data of the first one were always higher.
\n\t\t\t\tIt is generally stated that the fertility of the semen decreases with cooling temperature. The use of freshly diluted semen could give the best result: 70 to 82 % (Donovan et al., 2001 and 2004) and 82.2% (Hill et al., 1998; Ehling et al., 2003). A similar level could be reached with cooled and stored semen /74-76% (Gergátz&Gyökér, 1997) and 56.7% (Fernandez-Abella et al., 2003) as well as with chilled and stored semen /between 37.5% (Fernandez-Abella et al., 2003) and 64.2-73.33% (Stefanov et al., 2006)/. The conception rate frozen-thawed semen was the lowest in all of the publications: 38 to 46% (Gergátz & Gyökér, 1997), 69.5 to 71.6% (Hill et al., 1998), 29 to 52% (Donovan et al., 2001, 2004), and 42.86 to 53.33 % (Stefanov et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\t\tIn the study of Anel et al. (2005), the results of laparoscopic (from 40.60 to 51.54%) and vaginal (from 23.85 to 43.16%) insemination highly depended on the technician who carried it out.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAnel et al. (2005) reported that the level of pregnancy rate decreased for both techniques (from 62 to 44% for laparoscopic AI and from 38 to 31% for vaginal AI) between 1990 and 1997.
\n\t\t\t\tThe time of AI is especially important in the case of oestrus synchronisation. The best time of insemination could be 46 (Fernandez-Abella et al., 2003), 48 to 72 (Karagiannidis et al., 2001), and 58 to 63 (Donovan et al., 2001, 2004) hours after the pessary removal.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tHill et al. (1998) reported that the type and dosage of PMSG (Pregnant Mare Serum Globulin - 200 IU – 62.4%; 250 IU – 72.9%; 300 IU - 79.1%; 375 IU and above – 69.4%) had a significant effect on the conception rate in artificial insemination.
\n\t\t\t\tThe main aim of diluting is to enlarge the fertility and storing ability of ram semen (Mucsi, 1997; Sarlós, 1999; Gergátz, 2007) with additional energy. There are many kinds of extenders used for this reason (skimmed milk, Ivanov, Salamon, improved versions of them, etc. (Kukovics, 1974; Becze, 1982, Gergátz & Gyökér, 1997; Sarlós, 1999; Fernandez-Abella et al., 2003; Jávor et al., 2006), and most of the authors suggest materials. The semen used in any kind of artificial insemination is mainly diluted, and dilution is particularly important in the case of cooling, chilling and deep freezing of semen. The most common dilution rate is the 1:1 – 1:2 – 1:3 – 1:4, but in practice, a ratio higher than 1:8 is not really used (Fernandez-Abella et al., 2003; Gergátz, 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tIn general, the suggested dose of semen is 0.1 to 0.2 ml with about 50 to 100 million active spermatozoa. About 50 to 100 million spermatozoa is needed in one dose to vaginal insemination, but 25 to 50 million are suggested for cervical insemination and 15 to 20 million is enough for laparoscopic AI (Kukovics, 1974; Jávor et al., 2006; Gergátz, 2007). However, several scientists have used much higher numbers: 106 (Fernandez-Abella et al., 2003), 50 to 300 (Ehling et al., 2003) and 400 (King et al., 2004) million spermatozoa in one dose of semen.
\n\t\t\t\tThe simplest method is vaginal insemination, which could result in the lowest conception rate. The use of cervical and trans-cervical methods could give much higher pregnancy rates, but laparoscopic AI is the most effective one. However, it is also the most expensive and complicated method. Apart from the general trends, the publications show quite a wide range of rates: 31.25% (Anel et al., 2005) in vaginal, 18 (Yamaki et al., 2003); 42 (King et al., 2004); and 65-75% (Salamon & Maxwell, 1995; Donovan et al., 2001, 2004; Stefanov et al., 2006) in cervical; 69.6 to 76.4% (Szabados, 2006) in cevico-uterinal; and 44.89 (Anel et al., 2005), 64 (Yamaki et al., 2003), and 69 % (King et al., 2004) in laparoscopic insemination. It should be noted that these results are affected according to the semen used (fresh, cooled, chilled or frozen (Perkins et al., 1996; Moses et al., 1997).
\n\t\t\t\tOne of the key questions of artificial insemination is the detection of ewes on heat, the time of insemination following the selection, and the number of inseminations made. The main detection systems could be summarised as follows (Kukovics, 1974; Jávor et al., 2006):
\n\t\t\t\tSelection once a day (24 hours) in the morning (or in the afternoon)
first insemination made immediately
insemination every 24 hours
no further insemination
second insemination made without further selection
second insemination only in the case of when heat is detected
further insemination in the case that the ewe is still on heat
no more than three inseminations
further inseminations until the animal is on heat
insemination every 8 to 12 hours
sub-points are the same as in point (a)
the first insemination made 3 to 4 hours after selection or later
sub-points are the same as in point (A/a)
Selection every 8 to 12 hours
insemination made right after detection
no further insemination made
further inseminations every 8 to 12 hours
sub-points are the same as in point I. (A/a)
first insemination made 3 to 4 hours after detection or later
sub-points are the same as in point I. (A/a)
Since heat in ewes lasts 24 hours, in general, and is shorter in the case of yearlings, the first
\n\t\t\t\tmethod could have several limitations and so, the second
method is proposed and could be more effective.
Concerning the daily distribution of real heats, adjusted to the possibilities of practical life, the ewes on heat are detected between 6 and 7 hours in the morning as part of the so called “Mosonmagyaróvár insemination technique” (Gergátz, 2007). The first insemination is carried out between 10 and 11 am, and the second one between 3 and 4 pm. Because of the once daily detection, about 5% of the yearlings will be omitted from insemination at first, but 95% of them will be inseminated in the next heat.
\n\t\t\t\tMany opponents of artificial insemination declare that using this method, the level of pregnancy obtained naturally cannot be performed. The results of studies from the last decades have proved that the pregnancy rate of ewes selected and inseminated only once could reach 60 to 65%. The pregnancy rate of the ewes selected and inseminated twice during the same cycle could exceed 75% and reach 80 to 85%. With the use of three inseminations, 90 to 95% of pregnancy could be performed (Kukovics, 1974; Jávor et al., 2006; Gergátz, 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tCollection of semen at a farm (Photo: Németh, A.)
It is rather difficult to estimate the costs of artificial insemination per average ewe on a farm. The following jobs and movements are involved: preparation of rams and ewes for AI, preparing equipments and tools for collecting semen and artificial insemination, collecting, qualifying, diluting and dosing semen, detecting and selecting ewes on heat, fixing animals to carry the AI, and finally performing the insemination, and cleaning the tools and equipments. These basically cover the expenditures of buying tools (and feeds) and the costs of labour. The use of oestrus synchronisation is an additional cost, even if it consists of several parts.
\n\t\t\t\tThe cost of artificial insemination increased from 1.2 to 3.2 HUF/head to 2.5 to 4.5 HUF/head between 1966 and 1971 in the abovementioned Hajdú-Bihar County (Kukovics, 1974). This increase was the consequence of the intensive development of feed prices (especially the crops and concentrates). In order to evaluate current values (2010), these numbers should be multiplied by 100 to 500 (in 2011 1 Euro = 270 HUF approx.)
\n\t\t\t\tThe estimated costs of artificial insemination change according to the method utilised, the places of semen collection, the labour/service company that is performing the job, the presence of oestrus synchronisation, and the handling of rams before the season, among others. Laparoscopic AI is the most expensive because it needs veterinary service and help. At the same time, vaginal, cervical or even trans-cervical insemination can be carried out by well-skilled shepherds, at a much lower level of costs, without significant losses in efficiency.
\n\t\t\t\tDue to reorganisation of the national economies of Mid-East European countries, state-owned AI centres have disappeared (Jávor et al, 2006) and most of the remaining sheep farms use rams for natural services. Shepherds educated on performing AI have either died or have left the sheep industry and the remaining ones do not want to work with it as it means extra work, attention and accuracy. AI is only used on very few farms nowadays and available data on expenditures of AI are rather limited or not published at all.
\n\t\t\t\tIn Western Europe and the Western world, artificial insemination became a special service of companies, not really based on the skills of sheep owners and shepherds. At the same time, laparoscopic AI (LAI) has become the most popular, which can be carried out by veterinarians. Cervical and trans-cervical AI can also be provided by different veterinary and genetic companies.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDonovan et al. (2001) stated that cervical insemination was much cheaper than laparoscopic AI, but exact cost values were not given in the study. After out-of-season mating (May) of purebred and crossbred Lacaune ewes with oestrus synchronisation and induction, Gulyás et al. (2007) reported that the extra costs of using biotechnological methods were refunded with the good profits raised by selling lambs during Christmas time. According to an American presentation for sheep farmers, cervical and trans-cervical methods are easy to learn and use. Each sheep takes about two minutes to inseminate at a cost of $1.29, making it significantly faster and less expensive than laparoscopic surgical insemination
\n\t\t\t\t(
The service charges of these companies are quite different, and most of them concerning only LAI do not cover all the costs. The service cost of LAI could be, for instance, GBP 10 to 15 per ewe (
As mentioned above, less than 2% of the ewes kept in Hungary were artificially inseminated between 2000 and 2010; however, more than 63% of ewes were artificially inseminated in 1963. Examining the main characteristics of more than 6,900 sheep farms and about 500 goat farms, we observed that AI was utilised only on a limited number of sheep farms, and no goat farm practically used this breeding method.
\n\t\t\tIn order to study artificial insemination at the farm level, 11 sheep farms out of the less than 20 farms with available data were selected from 2003 to 2010. Twelve breeds and genotypes of sheep were breed on the studied farms. The breeds kept on the various farms and the number of years when artificial insemination was utilised are summarised in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\tOn most farms, only one breed was kept, but three different breeds were bred on farm No. 2, 9 and 10, and two breeds on farm No. 11.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the first farm, which was a corporation, a breeding project has been carried out since 1990 and purebred Awassi and crossbred Awassi (F1, R1, R2, R3, R4) flocks have been reared. The majority of female sheep was artificially inseminated during 2003 to 2007, but because of low AI efficiency, natural insemination with breeding rams was used to get better pregnancy results. The farm was finally reorganised and sold in 2009, so the use of AI ended from 2008.
\n\t\t\t\tA breeding project was performed on the second farm, which was a state farm aiming to create a new synthetic breed and started operating from early 1970s. The Bábolna Tetra sheep breed was finally developed from the crossings of Hungarian Merino as well as 5 lines of Finnish Landrace and 3 lines of Romanov breeds, and it was officially accepted as a new breed in 1995. In addition to this, Ile the France and American Suffolk nucleus flocks were also developed on the farm, starting in 1988. The reorganisation and final selling of the farm and its sheep happened in 2009 and 2010, and it is currently a much smaller private farm.
\n\t\t\t\tFarm code | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo. and name of breeds kept | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo. of years | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: Awassi and Awassi crossbreds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 (2003-2007) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3. Bábolna Tetra, Ile de France, Suffolk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8 (2003-2010) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: Hungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4 (2003-2006) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: German Mutton Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 (2003-2008) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: Hungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 (2003-2008) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: Lacaune | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 (2009-2010) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: Lacaune | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t7 (2003-2010) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1: Lacaune | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 (2003-2004) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3: Hungarian Merino, German Mutton Merino, German Blackheaded Mutton Sheep | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8 (2003-2010) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3: British Milksheep, Charollais, Hungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 (2005-2010) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2: British Milksheep, British Milksheep Crossbreds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8 (2003-2010) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Number of breeds and the studied years on the farms
The other private farms were founded in the 1990s, when most of the cooperative and state farms were demolished, reorganised and the sheep were sold from them. The only exception was farm No. 7, which was a research station belonging to the University of West Hungary founded in 1982, and it is still a research station.
\n\t\t\t\tThe use of AI stopped on farm No. 3 in 2007, and in 2009 in the case of farms No. 4 and 5 because of labour problems. On farm No. 8, the labour problem together with the low quality of AI made with transported semen led to the replacement of AI with the use of extra breeding rams.
\n\t\t\t\tOn farm No. 10, only a small population of the sheep (purebred imported breeds) were artificially inseminated, and the AI started to be utilised in the nucleus part of the Merino flock only in 2007. On farm No. 12, the British Milksheep crossbred sheep (Hungarian Merino x British Milksheep) were handled separately since 2007. On farm No.6, the use of AI was only started in 2009.
\n\t\t\t\tThe results of AI were not possible to evaluate for year 2010 in the case of farms No. 6, 7, 10 and partly 11 because the lambing of artificially inseminated ewes started only in 2011 and was not finished before the time of data collection.
\n\t\t\tTwo surveys were carried out in late 2007 and at the beginning of 2011 in order to collect data of artificial insemination on the selected farms. Each farm was visited and the data was collected based on a questionnaire covering the following information:
\n\t\t\t\tnumber of sheep kept,
number of artificially inseminated ewes per breed and per year,
number of progeny born and weaned after AI per breed and per year,
method of selection and time searching ewes on heat,
time and number of insemination,
method of collecting and qualifying semen to use,
level of dilution, kind of extender and the size of inseminating dose,
method and use of oestrus synchronisation,
method of insemination,
fixing method of ewes during insemination,
control of pregnancy and use of ram service after insemination,
number of labour used over AI,
cost of AI.
The methods of AI used on various farms were evaluated in details. The results of AI were studied on farm levels because of the farm difference in the number of breeds kept.
\n\t\t\t\tPregnancy rate (P%) = | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tlambed ewes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
inseminated ewes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Lambing rate (L%) = | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tborn lambs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
lambed ewes | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Weaning rate (W%) = | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tweaned lambs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
born lambs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The pregnancy rate (P%), lambing rate (L%) and the weaning rate (W%) were calculated by farms and by breeds in every studied year. In the case of those farms where more than one breed was kept, the effects of breed and year were studied. In the case of farms where only one breed was kept, the effects of year were examined.
\n\t\t\t\tChi-square test of SPSS 10.0 was applied to compare the breeds to each other and to compare the years by breed. Significant differences between breeds and years were determined at P≤0.05.
\n\t\t\tThe total number of sheep kept on various farms is summarised in Table 2. The size of flocks belonging to various breeds per farm changed over the studied period, the number of ewes mainly decreasing over the years. The numbers of artificially inseminated ewes per breed and per farm are presented in Table 3.
\n\t\t\tThe most important factors in artificial insemination are well-skilled labour (mainly shepherds or inseminators), well-prepared rams of good quality, ewes with good body condition, and the necessary equipments and tools.
\n\t\t\t\tBased on our study, at least one person per farm with proper skill in artificial insemination was working, and he was primarily the owner shepherd. There were technicians on farms No. 1 and 7. The animals were prepared (details presented later on) on each farm before the season.
\n\t\t\t\tThe most important equipments and tools necessary for performing artificial insemination on farms are shown in Figure 2: artificial vagina, semen collecting glass with double wall (and warm water between the walls), warm water bath, thermometer, vaginal speculum (with different size for adult ewes and ewe hoggets), lamp for providing light into the vagina, pipettes, catheter, syringe and vaginal sponges or implants for oestrus synchronization. A microscope with relatively smaller capacity is also needed with a table and sheet object heater.
\n\t\t\t\tFarm code | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1960 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2140 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2200 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2080 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3138 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2905 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2753 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2103 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2251 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2170 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t971 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t588 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t312 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t359 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t411 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t461 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t450 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t700 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t700 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t750 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t700 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t840 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t834 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t820 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t900 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t950 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t980 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1050 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t960 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t980 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t239 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t204 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t177 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t206 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t216 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t237 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t295 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t290 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t588 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t456 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1168 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1183 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1157 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t988 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1060 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t968 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t940 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t430 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t450 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t470 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t460 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t460 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t450 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t420 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t390 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t350 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t380 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t380 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t350 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t345 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t340 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The total number of ewes kept on the studied farms between 2003 and 2010
Breed, farm code, year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGerman Mutton Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGerman Blackheaded Mutton Sheep | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBritish Milksheep | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBritish Milksheep Crossbreds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||||||||
9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||||
2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t446 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t274 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t438 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t640 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t174 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t420 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||
2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t458 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t350 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t200 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t461 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t650 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t159 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t390 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||
2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t477 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t385 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t220 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t476 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t690 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t171 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t33 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t350 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||
2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t440 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t317 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t350 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t462 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t600 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t179 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t41 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t280 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||
2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t522 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t118 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t165 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t319 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t650 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t147 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t31 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t280 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||
2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t563 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t130 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t335 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t670 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t162 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t240 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||
2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t498 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t288 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t182 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t41 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t235 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||
2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t475 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t150* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t310 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t155 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t240* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t65* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||||
Breed, farm code, year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCharollais | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAwassi | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBábolna Tetra | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIle de France | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuffolk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||||||
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||||||
2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t212 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t198 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1960 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1717 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t937 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t195 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||||
2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t196 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t127 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1379 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t996 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t245 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||||
2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t165 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1760 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1222 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t863 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t240 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||||
2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t151 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t370 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1147 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t732 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t224 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||||
2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t167 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1014 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t866 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t214 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||||
2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t127 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1043 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t784 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t304 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||||
2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t245 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t297 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t311 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t310 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t242 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||||||
2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t18* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t255* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t369* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t286 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t186 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t107 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tlambing after AI made in 2010 started in 2011\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Distribution of the number of inseminated ewes by breed and farms
Based on the results of our survey (visiting the eleven farms), all necessary tools and equipments were available. Moreover, officially-accepted artificial insemination stations were operating on farms No. 1 and 7, from where semen could be bought by other farms.
\n\t\t\t\tThe equipments and tools for artificial insemination (Photo: Kukovics, S.)
The preparation of rams and ewes for the mating (inseminating) period was a common practice on all farms. In the case of rams, the level of nutrition started to improve at least four weeks before the planned season. Parallel to this, the training of the rams was also initiated and semen was collected at least two times a week. The quality of the semen was studied.
\n\t\t\t\tOestrus synchronisation and induction are highly recommended in the case of using artificial insemination. Yet these methods were not commonly utilised on the studied farms during the period under study. The nutritional method (flushing started four weeks before AI) was used on every farm in order to prepare the ewes for the mating period. The ram effect was not really used. However, on some farms, vasectomised rams were introduced to the flock of ewes, but it was not correctly planned. No other method (like reducing the length of light hours) was used on these farms.
\n\t\t\t\t\tOestrus synchronisation and induction were used on only five farms (No. 1, 5, 6, 7 and 10). These methods were used during the main season and in spring time on farms No. 1 and 10 (only in the case of Merinos), only in spring on farms No. 5 and 7, and only in winter on farm No. 6.
\n\t\t\t\t\tDuring the first four years, the most popular product for oestrus synchronization was the “Eazy-bred” vaginal implant (produced in New Zealand), but since 2005 new purchases were not possible because of EU regulations. The vaginal sponge (Chrono-Gest) was used on the farms over the last 5 years of the studied period. There were significant differences among the farms in the size of PMSG dose. For example, on farm No. 1, 750 IU was administered in the first two years and 600 IU in the following years. 500 IU PMSG dose was used on farms No. 5, 6 and 7. On farm No. 10, 550 IU was utilised during the first three years, but because of too strong effects the dose was reduced to 425 IU over the last four years of the studied period.
\n\t\t\t\tThe semen was collected locally on most of the farms by the shepherd with appropriate skills, except for farm No. 8 where transported semen was used. Artificial insemination was carried out by the skilled shepherd, except for farm No. 1, where it was done by a veterinarian in the first two years and by a technician during the following years (Figure 1).
\n\t\t\t\tVisual examination of the semen was performed before use on every farm, but three(No. 2, 6 and 11) out of the 11 farms used only this method. Following the visual study, microscopic and morphological examinations of the semen were also carried out on farms No. 1 and 7. Microscopic examination of semen together with the visual study was performed on the other six farms.
\n\t\t\tSeveral kinds of extenders are available for every day use, and in many studies, it has been demonstrated that the use of diluting liquids could help the survival of spermatozoa in the semen. Nevertheless, most shepherds thought that using un-diluted semen produced better results and was safer. Six (No. 2, 3, 4, 5, 9 and 11) out of the eleven farms did not use any kind of extender to dilute the semen before insemination. The 1:2 and 1:4 diluting ratios were used on the first farm and in the first three years on farm No. 10, where a 1:3-diluting ratio was used during the following three years. The 1:4 ratio was used on farm No. 5 (in 2003) and 1:8 on farms No. 6 and 7.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the 1950s and 60s, one of the most popular extender was skimmed cow milk on farms. However, the Ivanov and the Salamon kinds as well as their improved versions were available after the late 60s and most of the shepherds carrying out the inseminations knew all of them and heard about several other ones. It was particularly interesting because more than half of the shepherds successfully participated in the AI courses mentioned above, and a few were even performing AI in cattle.
\n\t\t\t\tThree of the farms (6, 7 and 8) employed a special extender developed by the research station (farm No. 7). Semen diluted with this extender and cooled and kept at 2 to 4 °C could be used successfully for 72 hours after collection. The improved Salamon kind of extender was used on farms No. 1 and 10.
\n\t\t\tIn general, 0.2 ml was the most common dose of inseminating semen. It was used on seven (No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8) out of the 11 farms. Doses of 0.1 and 0.3 ml were used on farms No. 9 and 11, as well as No. 6 and 10, respectively.
\n\t\t\tAs the one of the most important factors of successful artificial insemination is selecting the ewes on heat, morning and afternoon selections were used on most farms (No. 1, 3, 4, 5 and 8). The selection was either only performed in the morning (No. 2, 7 and 9) or in the afternoon (No. 6 and 10) on the other farms. Midday was the selection time on farm No. 11 for the first 4 years, which was changed to the morning system during the following years.
\n\t\t\t\tThe selection lasted half an hour to one hour during each part of the day. Vasectomised rams were used on farms No. 1 and 7 over the whole studied period. Entire rams with apron were used as teasing rams on five farms (No. 3, 4, 6, 9 and 10) and both kinds of rams were used on only one farm (No. 5). On farm No 2 and 8, vasectomised rams were used in the first four years, and entire rams with apron during the second four years, while on farm No. 11, the order was the reverse: the vasectomised rams were used in the second four years of the period.
\n\t\t\tTwo inseminations were used on most of the farms (No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) about 8 to 10 hours apart (morning-afternoon or afternoon-morning), but only one insemination was utilised on two farms (No. 9 in the morning and No. 11 in the afternoon). On farm No. 10, three inseminations (morning – afternoon - morning or afternoon – morning – afternoon) were carried out each year.
\n\t\t\tFor successful insemination, ewes have to be fixed and the rear part of their body should be lifted up. The rear legs of the ewes were lifted up and fixed by one labourer on the top of the barrier (Figure 3) in almost all of the studied farms. Farms No. 6 and 8 were the exceptions, where the labourer had to lift up the rear part of the ewes and hold them during the time of insemination.
\n\t\t\t\tThis operation needs more than one labourer, therefore, one catcher and one inseminator should be used for this job as a minimum. On most of the farms, the inseminations were performed by the owner shepherd with one or two labourers to help him. On farms No. 1 and 7, technicians conducted the inseminations. There was only one catcher helping the inseminator on farms No. 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11. Two labourers caught and held the ewes on four farms (No. 3, 4, 6 and 8). On the first farm, 5 catchers helped the work of 2 inseminators during the first three years, and in the following two years only one inseminator with two labourers performed the job. On farm No. 2, the number of catchers decreased from two to one during the last three years and only one inseminator worked there.
\n\t\t\t\tThe fixing of ewe for insemination (Photo: Kukovics, S.)
The place of semen deposition is the other rather critical point of insemination. Traditional vaginal insemination was used on only one farm (No. 9) and only in the first three years of the studied period. They then changed to cervical deposition. Cervico-uterinal insemination was performed on farms No. 6, 7 and 10 (and sometimes on 11), while cervical insemination was used on other farms (Figure 4). Laparoscopic insemination was only used at the experimental level in the country. It was too expensive for farm practice.
\n\t\t\t\tInseminating pipettes were available on all farms. The special catheter (Figure 1) for trans-cervical insemination developed by Tassy and Gergatz (Kukovics, 1974) were also used, which was utilised by most inseminators during the studied period. This catheter has a special bent tip that allows passage through the cervix and is made in different sizes for adult ewes and yearlings.
\n\t\t\tThe results of lambing were too late to determine the effectiveness of artificial insemination. “State-of-the-art” pregnancy tests to determine the results of AI are important for profitable sheep farming. Yet, the level of pregnancy control in the case of inseminated ewes was rather low on the studied farms. The most up-to-date trans-rectal ultrasonography was used only on farm No. 1. Ultrasonography was performed within 60 days of AI in every studied year on farm No. 10, in the first 4 years on farm No. 7 and only in the first two years on farm No. 5.
\n\t\t\t\tThe commonly used method to reach and keep pregnancy at the highest possible level was the post-mating with entire rams that started one cycle after the AI and lasted for two cycles. Farm No. 4 was an exception, where no post-mating was utilised. An interesting thing happened in the case of farm No. 7, where post-mating was not used during the second four years of the studied period.
\n\t\t\t\tThe insemination (Photo: Kukovics, S.)
There were significant differences found among the studied farms and among the various breeds kept on various farms and also between the breeds within the farms. The pregnancy rate in general exceeded 80% and results over 90% were not exceptional at all. However, effects of farm, breed and year were observed on the results.
\n\t\t\t\tAt least two or three breeds were kept on four farms (No. 2, 8, 10 and 11) and only one breed was bred on the other seven farms. Due to this, the results found in the case of four farms were evaluated separately, and the findings concerning the other seven farms were pooled together.
\n\t\t\t\tThe pregnancy, lambing and weaning rate of the lambs were evaluated and the results are presented in the Tables from 4 to 10.
\n\t\t\t\tThe pregnancy rate (P%) on farm No. 2 was different among breeds in 2004, where Suffolk ewes had a significantly lower value than the other two breeds (Table 4). In 2006, the pregnancy rate of Ile de France ewes was significantly higher than that of the other breeds. In 2005, 2008 and 2009, there were significant differences among all three breeds. In the Bábolna Tetra breed, the highest P% was measured in 2009, which was significantly higher than in the other years (except 2005 and 2010). The P% in 2008 was significantly lower than in the other years. In the Ile de France breed, the lowest P% in 2009 was different from the other values, like the values in 2007 and 2008. In the Suffolk breed, the P% of 2009 was significantly lower than in the other years (Table 4).
\n\t\t\t\t\tSignificant effects of year were observed within the breeds in this trait, more than a 16%-range was found between the smallest and highest values in all three breeds; however, the biggest deviations were in the case of the Suffolk breed.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe lambing rate (L%) in the Bábolna Tetra breed varied between 1.6 and 2.0, while in Ile de France, the interval was narrower (between 1.2 and 1.4). In the case of the Suffolk breed, the L% changed every year (Table 4). It meant that the effect of the year was stronger in the Bábolna Tetra and Suffolk breeds than in the Ile the France. However, the differences reached the significant level (P<5.0%) only between 2007 and 2009 and between 2004 and 2007 in the case of the first two years, respectively. Given that the lambing rate was a steady characteristic of the breeds, the comparison of these breeds was not justified (Table 4).
\n\t\t\t\t\tBreed and the year effect were equally found in the case of the weaning rate. Regarding the year effect, the smallest distance was observed in the case of Ile de France (less than 10%) and the biggest in Suffolk (more than 19%). The rate was 15.6% in the Bábolna Tetra breed.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe weaning % had an increasing trend from Bábolna Tetra to Suffolk via Ile de France in 2004, 2008, 2009, and the opposite trend was found in 2003. In the other years, the ranking of the breeds changed. The highest weaning % was measured in 2009 in the case of Bábolna Tetra (97.8%), while the most successful year was 2005 for the Ile de France and Suffolk breeds (91.1 and 93.2%, respectively). The weakest result in Bábolna Tetra was found in 2003 (82.2%), while this happened for Ile de France in 2010 (81.1%) and 2007 for the Suffolk (68.4%) breed. In most cases, there were significant differences among the data (Table 4).
\n\t\t\t\t\tAmong the breeds kept on farm No. 9, the only differences were observed in 2004 and 2006, when the pregnancy rate of German Blackheaded Mutton was significantly lower than that of the other two breeds (Table 5).
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn the Hungarian Merino breed, the P% of 2006 differed from those of the other years (except 2010), which differed from other previous years. In the German Mutton Merino breed, the data of 2006 differed from that of 2003, 2005 and 2007. In the German Blackheaded Mutton breed, there were no significant differences between 2003 and 2006 and from 2005 to 2010 (Table 5).
\n\t\t\t\t\tBreed, trait, year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBábolna Tetra | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIle de France | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuffolk | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
P% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|
2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t82.2aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t82.2aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t81.4aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t85.8bcA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t76.9aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86.4acA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86.1aB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86.0aB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.3aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t84.3acAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t73.9bAB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t79.9bcA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.3aBE | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.2aC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.4bB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t91.1bcB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t66.3cB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.2acB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t79.4aC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.7aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92.2bB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t88.7bcAB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t77.4aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t85.4acA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t79.7aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t88.5aD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t79.6aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.1aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t80.4aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t68.4bC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t73.1aD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t84.4aAB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.6bC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.3aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t79.6cA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t81.8aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.7aE | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.8aDE | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t84.7bD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.9aAD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t85.7C | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86.9aAD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86.7aABE | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t82.3aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.3aB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t81.8aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.2aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t82.1aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe different small letters in rows and the different upper case letters in columns mean significant differences (P≤0.05) per trait (pregnancy, weaning) among breeds and years.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The result of AI on farm No. 2
The lambing rate (%) in Hungarian Merino varied between 1.5 and 1.7, while it was between 1.6 and 1.8 in German Mutton Merino. In German Blackheaded Mutton sheep, the lowest rate was 1.5 in 2009, while the highest 1.8 value was found four times (Table 5). The value of this trait exceeded the national average by 0.3 to 0.4 lambs in the case of Hungarian Merino. Additionally, German Mutton Merino and German Blackheaded Mutton sheep had a 0.2 to 0.3 advantage per lambing over the national average in the country.
\n\t\t\t\t\tBreed, trait, year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGerman Mutton Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGerman Blackheaded Mutton Sheep | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
P% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|
2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89.5aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.4aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92.2aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.9aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.9aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.7aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92.4aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.4aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.9aAB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.7aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t85.5bA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.4aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.4aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.2aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.1aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.6aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t91.8aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.3aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.5aB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.6aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.3aB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.8aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89.9bAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.9aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t91.4aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.9aAB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92.8aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.0aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.2aBC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.0aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.1aC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.3aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.7aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.4aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.4aBC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.3aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.6aACD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.6aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.4aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.3acA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.7aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.3bcA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.4aB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.1aAB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.5aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.3aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92.9aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.6aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe different small letters in rows and the different upper case letters in columns mean significant differences (P≤0.05) per trait (pregnancy, weaning) among breeds and years.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The results of AI on farm No. 9
As this farm was one of the best, these data were very close to each other and their levels were close to the maximum of the genetic possibilities, yet the differences found among them originated from the breed characteristics. Of course, the year effects were also observed among these data, but the differences reached the significant level (P<5.0%) in only one case in German Blackheaded Mutton Sheep (2009 vs. 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007), in German Mutton Merino (2009 vs. 2004, 2007, 2008) and in Hungarian Merino (2006 vs. 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009).
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn the weaning ratio of the period of 2003 to 2006, there were no significant differences in a breed between years and between breeds by year (Table 5).
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn Hungarian Merino, only the ratio in 2004 differed from that of 2007 and 2010. In the other two breeds, there were no significant differences between years (Table 5).
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe results from farm No. 10 keeping three different breeds are shown in Table 6.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe pregnancy rate of British Milksheep differed from Hungarian Merino in 2007 and from Charollais in 2009. In 2008, there were no significant differences. In British Milksheep, the pregnancy ratio of 2007 differed from that of 2009, but in the other two breeds, there were no statistical differences among the years (Table 6).
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe lambing rate of British Milksheep was the highest among the breeds (between 1.9 and 2.6), while the lowest was in Charollais (between 1.4 and 1.8). In the Hungarian Merino, it varied between 1.5 and 1.7 (Table 6). Since the lambing rate was a steady characteristic of the breeds, the comparison of these breeds was not necessary. At the same time, the year effect was significantly lower in 2009 in British Milksheep compared to the other years and the difference also reached this level between 2007 and 2008. In the case of Charollais, the values of 2009 were significantly higher compared to those of the other two years.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe weaning ratio of British Milksheep differed from that of Hungarian Merino in 2007 and from Charollais in 2009. In 2008, there were no significant differences. In the weaning ratio of British Milksheep lambs, the year 2009 differed from the previous years, except 2008, while 2006 differed from all other years. In the other two breeds there were no statistical differences in weaning ratios among the years (Table 6).
\n\t\t\t\t\tBreed, trait, year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBritish Milksheep | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCharollais | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
P% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|
2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.0A | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t73.4A | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.8A | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t65.9AB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t100.0aAB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t81.7aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t72.7acA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t100.0acA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t67.8bcA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t91.2bcA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89.3aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92.3aC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t100.0aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t81.8aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t76.0aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t91.8aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.8aAC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.0aC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.8bcA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t85.2bcA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70.7acA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9.3acA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe different small letters in rows and the different upper case letters in columns mean significant differences (P≤0.05) per trait (pregnancy, weaning) among breeds and years.*lambing started in 2011\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The results of AI on farm No. 10
On farm No. 11, there were no significant differences in the years between the two breeds kept in P%. The pregnancy rate of British Milksheep in 2003 differed significantly from that of the other years. In the British Milksheep Crossbreds, there were no significant differences among the years (Table 7).
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe lambing rate in purebred was higher than that in the crossbred population, varying between 2.0 and 2.4, while in crossbreds, it was between 1.9 and 2.4 (Table 7). In the case of crossbreds, the year 2009 was almost exceptional (P<5.0%; 2009 vs. 2007 and 2008), while in the case of purebred, the lambing rate of 2010 significantly differed from that of the years 2006 and 2007 (Table 7).
\n\t\t\t\t\tBreed, trait, year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBritish Milksheep | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBritish Milksheep Crossbreds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t||||
P% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|
2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.3A | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t82.4A | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t88.5B | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.8B | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t82.9CD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92.1C | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.5BD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.9CD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t78.6aCD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t88.9aBC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t78.6aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t98.0bA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.3aBD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.1aCD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.3aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.9aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.0aBC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.7aD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t75.0aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t98.2aA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t85.7BC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t98.4D | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe different small letters in rows and the different upper case letters in columns mean significant differences (P≤0.05) per trait (pregnancy, weaning) among breeds and years.*lambing started in 2011\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The results of AI on farm No. 11
The weaning ratio of British Milksheep only differed from that of British Milksheep Crossbred in 2007. In British Milksheep, the ratio of weaned lambs in 2003 was significantly different from that of the other years, and 2010 from all other years. In British Milksheep Crossbred, there were no significant differences among the years (Table 7).
\n\t\t\t\tAmong the inseminating farms with one breed only, the Awassi farm’s P% was significantly different among the years, except between 2003 and 2004. On farm No. 3, the lower pregnancy rate was found in 2005, which differed significantly from the other years, while only the values from 2003 and 2006 did not differ from each other.
\n\t\t\t\t\tOn the P% on farm No. 5, the year 2005 was different from the other years. On farm No. 4, the values received from 2008 differed from those of 2005 and 2006. On farm No. 7, the rate in 2004 differed from that of 2003, 2006 and 2007, the value of 2005 was different from that of 2003, the rate of 2006 differed from 2007, and that of 2006 was different from those of 2004, 2005, 2008 and 2009. On farm No. 8, the P% was not significantly different from each other (Table 8).
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe lambing rate of Awassi breed was steady at 1.3, the lowest among the breeds, and no year effects were observed. Small differences were found between the two Hungarian Merino populations, and the values of the “better one” sharply decreased over the last two years because of labour problem. German Mutton Merino had a constant lambing rate. In the Lacaune breed, the lambing rate varied between 1.4 and 1.6 on the three farms (Table 9), and minimal effects of year were observed in the case of farm No. 7.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFarm code | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tbreed / year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAwassi+Awassi crossbreds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t37.3a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t35.0a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t45.0b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t56.8c | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t80.0d | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.2a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.4b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t67.0c | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.0a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t75.0a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t67.5ac | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t78.6ab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t62.9bc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t66.7a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t61.5acd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGerman Mutton Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t84.4a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83.8a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.0ab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86.7a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t84.3a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t81.0ac | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t88.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.3a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t85.2b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t81.8b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.7a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.6a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t82.7b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t79.6b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t58.6a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t66.1a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe different small letters in rows indicate significant differences (P≤0.05).*The lambing after AI made in 2010 started in 2011\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The pregnancy rate (%) on farms with one breed
Farm code | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tbreed / year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAwassi, Awassi crossbreds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGerman Mutton Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe lambing after AI made in 2010 started in 2011\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The lambing rate (%) on farms with one breed
Farm code | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tbreed / year | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAwassi, Awassi crossbreds | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.5a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.3a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.8a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.6a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.2a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t96.6a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t91.3bd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86.5cd | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.5d | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHungarian Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t88.0a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89.8a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.6b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.4b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t84.1ac | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.9abc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGerman Mutton Merino | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89.3a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89.0a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89.3ab | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t90.9a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t87.0ac | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t88.3a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t95.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t53.0a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86.5b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t84.8b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t80.3b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t85.5b | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t79.7bc | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t71.2c | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLacaune | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t89.8a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t93.9a | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThe different small letters in rows indicate significant differences (P≤0.05).*The lambing after AI made in 2010 started in 2011\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
The weaning rate (%) on farms with one breed
In the Awassi breed, there were no significant differences among years in the weaning rate. On farm No. 3, the W% was the highest in 2003, which was significantly different from the other studied years. However, the ratio in 2006 was close to the values found in 2004 and 2005. On farm No. 5, 2006 was the year most different from the others. On farm No. 4, the only difference observed was between 2006 and 2007, while on No. 7, the two terminal years (2003 and 2009) differed from the other years. On farm No. 8, there was no significant difference among years in the weaning rate (Table 10).
\n\t\t\t\tRather big differences were observed among the studied farms (Table 11). In most cases, these data were calculated by the owner of the farm and mainly covered the direct cost of semen collection and insemination, while other costs were not included. On some farms, the same level was calculated every year, while on others, the annual costs increased with the years. Apart from these, the use of oestrus synchronisation increased the costs by about 7 or above 8 euros per ewe.
\n\t\t\t\tIn general, the average direct costs of artificial insemination per ewe could reach 0.4 to 0.5 euros, and in the case of oestrus synchronisation, the total costs could exceed 7 to 8 euros under present Hungarian circumstances.
\n\t\t\t\tFarm code | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2004 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2006 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2008 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2009 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.56** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.48 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.93 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.31 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.70** | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.93 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37* | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | 0.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
It was calculated on the changing rate of 1 euro = 270 HUFIn the case of oestrus synchronisation, the costs reached seven (*) or eight euros (**) per ewe.
The estimated costs of artificial insemination (euro/ewe)
Apart from the fact that artificial insemination is used only on a limited number of Hungarian sheep farms, the effectiveness of this method was quite reasonable. Based on the results, the following conclusions can be drawn.
\n\t\t\tApart from the lack of officially-organised education of shepherds, there are some sheep owners and shepherds who can operate with the method of artificial insemination at a very good level (Kukovics & Gergazt, 2009).
Artificial insemination of ewes can be performed with very high effectiveness on farms in every day practice mainly by shepherds. The reality is that AI does not need veterinary assistance, but maintaining the health of ewes needs veterinary control.
The procedure of artificial insemination requires well-skilled shepherds with good practice and enough support.
The breed of ewe has a significant effect on the pregnancy rate, which is consistent with the results of Hill et al. (1998), Perkins et al. (1996), Donovan et al. (2001 and 2004), Karagiannidis et al. (2001) and Anel et al. (2005). However, the results could be positively modified by the interest of the sheep owner.
The dose of PMSG affected conception rate, similar to the findings of Hill et al. (1998). Thus, in some cases, the dose should be reduced in order to avoid too many lambs being born and higher lamb loss originating from the weakness of the lambs at birth.
Most shepherds use fresh, locally collected, un-diluted semen with good results, and the importance of dilution is only realised by a small number of the shepherds.
The year had a strong effect on the results of artificial insemination, in accordance with the results of Anel et al. (2005), but no trends could be discovered in the data. The environmental circumstances (available pasture and feed for instance) had stronger importance.
The cost of artificial insemination depends on the farm, but in general, the direct cost was less than one euro per ewe. Of course, in the case of oestrus synchronisation and induction, these costs could reach 7 to 8 euros per ewe.
The results of artificial insemination could easily be controlled by using ultrasonography (Egerszegi at al., 2008) at an early stage of pregnancy, but this method was only used on a small number of farms.
The authors would like to thank the owners and the representatives of the sheep farms for their excellent technical help in collecting the data and analysing the information needed for final evaluation. They are in alphabetic order: Attila Harcsa (Abbod Farm, Szendrő), Antal Kádas (Túrkeve), István Nagy and Imre Nagy (Ganna), László Nagy (Eger), Sándor Nagy (Bakonszeg Awassi Corporation, Bakonszeg), Zoltán Nagy (Harkakötöny), Mihály Sebők (Törtel), Ede Sipos (Móriczhida), Károly Szabó (Hajdúbagos) and Zoltán Szabó (Karcag).
\n\t\t\tThe study was made by K-OVI-CAP BT within the framework of University of Debrecen Centre of Agriculture and Economic Sciences with the help of the Jedlik Ányos project supported by National Office of Research and Technology (NKTH)
\n\t\tAtmospheric aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in air. These particles include sea salt particles, mineral dust, smoke, pollen, etc. Sources of aerosols can be from natural and anthropogenic sources. Generation of aerosols involves individual or combination of chemical, physical and biological processes. Removing processes of aerosols can be of two types, namely wet and dry deposition [1] while dominating process of aerosol removal is wet deposition (cloud and rainfall).
The environment impact assessment of these aerosols is decided by their physical and chemical properties and lifetime. The abundance, size distribution and composition of aerosol particles are highly variable both in space and time. In the lower troposphere, the total particle number concentration (typical mass concentration) typically varies in the range of about 100–100,000 cm−3 (1 and 100 μg m−3). In the free troposphere, aerosol concentrations are (∼1–2 orders) of magnitude lower than in the boundary layer.
The aerosol particles can be classified based on the size as the nucleation mode, ultrafine mode and coarse mode. Nucleation mode refers to aerosol particles below 0.1 μm in diameter, whereas diameter is lower than 0.01 μm are called ultrafine mode. The coarse mode refers to particles with diameter larger than 1.0 μm. These particles can accumulate in the atmosphere with lifetime, ranging from 1 to 7 days (boundary layer), 3–10 days (free troposphere) and 1–365 days (in the stratosphere) and during this period they can undergo long range transport [2].
The chemical composition of atmospheric aerosol consists of variable concentrations of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, sea salt, crustal elements and carbonaceous compounds (elemental and organic carbon) and other organic materials. Nucleation mode consists of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, elemental and organic carbon and certain trace metals (e.g., lead, cadmium, nickel, copper, etc.). The coarse mode consists of dust, crustal elements, nitrate, sodium, chloride and biogenic organic particles (e.g., pollen, spores, plant fragments, etc.).
Atmospheric aerosol particles can absorb and scatter the incoming/outgoing shortwave and longwave radiation, which alters the radiation budget of the Earth. The also play important role in the formation of clouds and precipitation since they operate as cloud condensation and ice nuclei. Aerosols can affect significantly the cycles of nitrogen, sulphur, and atmospheric oxidants. Aerosol particles in the upper atmosphere can modify the ozone removal [3]. Additionally aerosols in the lower troposphere affect human health and mortality rate.
The effects of aerosols on climate are very uncertain. Aerosols influence the climate (forcing) in two ways, i.e., direct and indirect. In a direct effect, aerosol particles (especially sulphates) reflect incoming shortwave radiation thus cooling the Earth’s atmosphere. However, this cooling effect is compensated by the absorption of longwave terreastrial radiation by absorbing aerosols (black carbon and dust particles). The annual mean radiative forcing (global) is estimated as −0.4 ± 0.2 W m−2 (for sulphate), −0.05 ± 0.05 W m−2 (for fossil fuel organic carbon), +0.2 ± 0.15 W m−2 (for fossil fuel black carbon), +0.03 ± 0.12 W m−2 (for biomass burning), −0.1 ± 0.1 W m−2 (for nitrate) and −0.1 ± 0.2 W m−2 (for mineral dust) [4].
Indirect effect of aerosols affect formation of cloud droplets which are formed by condensation of water vapour onto aerosol particles (cloud condensation nuclei, or ice nuclei) when the relative humidity exceeds the saturation. A very large supersaturation (about 400%) is required for the homogeneous condensation of water vapor in the absnce of aerosols. The increased number of aerosols (i.e., the increased cloud optical thickness) decreases the net surface radiation as they reflect more solar radiation (Twomey effect). Smaller particles can increase cloud lifetime. The absorption of solar radiation by absorbing aerosols can lead to evaporation of cloud particles (semi-direct effect). Anthropogenic aerosols effects on water clouds through the cloud albedo effect cause a negative radiative forcing of −0.3 to −1.8 W m−2 [4].
Variability of aerosol parameters over Indian region has been studied using multi-wavelength radiometer (MWR) since 1980 under the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Geosphere Biosphere Program [5]. Aerosol measurements were reported from several places within the country, but such data and results are sparse in a dry tropical region in the central India.
Ground-based observations are important in order to evaluate the accuracy and validity of parameters retrieved from satellites. The validation excerise is usually targeted to the test the retrieval algorithm efficiency and how it can be improved further. India has a wide variety of ecosystems and surface conditions. Hence it is important to validate the satellite-based retrievals using ground-based measurements for different climatic regions throughout the country. Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6] reported the validation of the MODIS aerosol optical depth and water vapor over Nagpur located in the central Indian region. Aerosol loading at the measurement site is influenced both by local sources and long range transport. To locate the possible sources, back trajectory analysis is used. We also used MODIS detected fire locations to understand the contribution of biomass burning. They have studied for the first time over this region focusing on the classification of aerosol types, validation of MODIS AOD and water vapor products and the role of aerosol transport. Black carbon (BC) is a primary aerosol emitted directly at the source from incomplete combustion processes such as fossil fuel and biomass burning and therefore much atmospheric BC is of anthropogenic origin (IPCC 2007). BC is receiving much attention recently owing to its effects on weather, atmospheric circulation, and hydrological cycles [7, 8, 9, 10, 11] and due to the adverse health impacts of BC [12, 13]. BC possess strong absorption characteristics over wide wavelength range (from UV to near IR) and its chemically inert nature (i.e., longer life time) make this species very important in global change and climate studies [14, 15].
Boundary layer dynamics play important role in surface concentrations of observed BC and its vertical dispersion (convection). The altitude up to which the surface would influence the vertical dispersion of species through convective turbulent eddies is known as the mixed layer height (MLH) and this is an important boundary layer parameter. In view of this Kompalli et al. [16] studied continuous observations of surface BC mass concentration (MBC) along with year-around vertical profiles of atmospheric thermodynamics using balloon borne GPS aided radiosonde ascents from a semi-arid suburban location Nagpur, in Central India are carried out.
The chapter discusses the interesting aspect of seasonal variability of aerosol properties over the data sparse region of central India.
Central India is surrounded by the Great Indian Desert in the northwest, Indo Gangetic Plain in the north and coastal India in east and west. The Nagpur city (21°06′N, 79°03′E; 310 m a.m.s.l) lies at the geographic center of India (Figure 1) on the Deccan plateau of Indian peninsula. A very dry and semi humid climate prevails throughout the year except in the monsoon season (June–September). Dry and hot weather prevails throughout the pre monsoon (PMS) season (March–May). The maximum temperature shoots up to 42–48°C. Summer monsoon (SMS) starts in June and continue up to September. Maximum rainfall is observed during July and August months. During the post monsoon (PoMS) season (October–November), the maximum temperature is about 33°C. Winter season (December, January and February) registers minimum temperatures around 12°C and at times goes below that level.
Study site location.
The monthly mean surface meteorological data, obtained from
Monthly variations of (a) relative humidity (%) and temperature (°C), (b) wind speed (m/s) and (c) wind direction (Deg) for 2012.
Figure 2(c) shows the monthly variation of the mode of wind direction. These wind direction data is used to correlate with cluster trajectories which were used for source appointment. It was observed that mode (maximum number of times) of wind direction is constant about 3–4 months. Thus the wind direction plays a key role in the seasonal transportation of black carbon to study site.
Multi-Wavelength Radiometer (MWR) is a passive instrument used for studying the spectral variation in aerosol properties in the visible and near infrared region. The MWR, was mounted on the building upperside, was used to estimate spectral AOD’s, on days when unobstructed solar visibility was available for 3 h or a lot of. Aerosol columnar optical depth is calcuable at 10 slender wavelength bands targeted at 380, 400, 450, 500, 600, 650, 750, 850, 935 and 1025 nm. The MWR collects the incoming solar flux as a function of solar zenith angles. The well-known Lambert–Beer–Bouguer Law (Eq. (1)) permits the estimation of AOD, because the output voltage Vλ of the MWR at any wavelength is directly proportional to Iλ, by solving a linear square fit between the logarithm of Vλ and therefore the corresponding relative air mass.
where I0λ = extra-atmospheric solar irradiance, mr = relative air mass, Iλ is the direct solar irradiance at the earth’s surface at wavelength λ, τλ = total optical thickness. The measured data was edited and further AOD values were calculable following the Langley technique [17, 18]. The total optical depth τλ was calculable because the the slope of the curve following the Langley plot methodology. Considering τλ as the total of the contribution of the various atmospheric components,
τRλ = Rayleigh optical thickness, τgλ = absorption optical depth (atmospheric gases), τwλ = optical depth (water vapor), τaλ = aerosol optical depth. The calculable values of aerosol optical depth τaλ has errors. The error in τλ arises due to 1-min time resolution and the statistical errors in regression calculations. The error in Ozone (O3) model superimposed with the seasonal differences in O3 contributes associatean uncertainty of 10% in τgλ while error in τRλ is 0.03%. Thus τaλ, may thus have a most application of this methos to the MWR data analysis is described in many earlier papers [5, 19, 20].
The columnar water vapor content has been estimated from the MWR measurements at 935 and 1025 nm [21, 22, 23]. The absorption of radiation at 935 nm band is higher by more than three orders of magnitude than at 850 and 1025 nm bands. The details of application of this technique are described by Nair and Moorthy [24].
Model 540 MICROTOPS-II (microprocessor-based Total Ozone Portable Spectrometer) sun photometer is a compact, portable and multi-channel sun photometer is employed to study the characteristics of columnar aerosols properties and columnar water vapor and to validate the satellite retrievals.
The physical and operational characteristics of the instrument are represented within the user’s guide (
Derivation of AOD and water vapor employing a sun photometer has been clearly explained by Refs. [25, 26]. However; here transient outline is given.
At 440, 500, 675 and 870 nm wavelengths, AOT is derived based on the Beer–Lambert–Bouguer law as follows:
where, for each channel (wavelength (λ)), Vλ = the signal measured by the instrument, V0λ = the extraterrestrial signal, D = Earth-Sun distance in astronomical units, τλ = total optical thickness (τλ = τaλ + τRλ + τO3λ), τaλ = aerosol optical thickness (AOT), τRλ = Rayleigh (air) optical thickness, τO3λ = Ozone optical thickness, M = the optical air mass.
The Rayleigh (τRλ), ozone optical thickness (τO3λ) are obtained from atmospheric models as below:
where h = altitude of the place of observation in meters, R4 = 28773.6 × (R2 × (2 + R2) × λ − 2)2, R2 = 10–8 × {8342.13 + 2,406,030/(130 − λ − 2) + 15,997/(38.9 − λ − 2)}, λ = wavelength in μm, Ozabs = ozone absorption cross section (extracted from a lookup table based on wavelength), DOBS = ozone amount in Dobson units (extracted from a lookup table based on latitude and date of observation).
MICROTOPS II sun photometer was calibrated by its manufacturer (M/s Solar Light Control, USA) at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii which is a noise-free high-altitude site before the measurements started in 2011 at our measurement site. Aside from this, we analyzed the MICROTOPS-II output when air mass is eual to zero, which is used as calibration constant. Filter degradation, temperature effects and poor pointing towards the sun can contribute to other measurement errors. The Microtops AOT retrievals uncertainties are in the range of 0.01–0.02 [27]. AERONET stands for Aerosol RObotic NETwork formed by NASA/GSFC and is expanded by collaborators in order to cover a large spatial extent. The sun photometer measurements were performed in cloud-free conditions. For the current study, sun photometer observations are chosen from the condition that the time difference between ground based observation and MODIS flypast time is a smaller amount than quarter-hour. The data set was used because the ground truth within the validation of the Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) AOD550.
Aethalometer measures blackcarbon (absorbingaerosol) content by measuring the attenuation of a beam of light transmitted through the sample when collected on a fibrous filter (Lambert–Beer law) at 7 channels (370, 470, 520, 590, 660, 880 and 950 nm). Sixth channel (entered at 880 nm) is considered as the standard channel for BC measurements because BC is the principal absorber of light at this wavelength and other Aerosol components have negligible absorption. Aethalometer (ModelAE-42, Magee Scientific, USA) was operated daily on a 24 h cycle at a flow rate 3 L/min at sampling rate of 5 min interval and air inlet is ∼12 m above the ground.
The details of principle of operation, data deduction, error budget of aethalometer, inherent uncertainties in its technique and the corrections are extensively available in the literature (e.g., [28, 29, 30]) and are not repeated. The instrumental uncertainty of the aethalometer ranges from 50% at 0.05 μg m−3 to 6% at 1 μg m−3 [30]. The inherent uncertainties in the aethalometer technique basically arise due to multiple scattering (known as C-factor) and shadowing (R-factor) effects in the filter tape [28, 29, 30].
The MODIS flies on board the EOS Terra and Aqua satellite and measure AOD and other optical properties on a world scale daily from the year 2000 onwards. Terra and Aqua satellites are at an altitude of 705 km, cross equator at 10:30 Indian Standard Time (IST) ascending towards north and at 13:30, IST dropping towards south, respectively. MODIS has 36 bands starting from 0.4 to 14.4 μm wavelengths with three completely different spatial resolutions (250, 500 and 1000 m).
MODIS daily level-3 collection version 005 AOD data at 550 nm averaged at a 1° latitude/longitude grid to produce daily MOD08_D3.005 products from Terra satellite were used. For general climate modeling, the level 3 data provide a convenient source of data that has land and ocean measurements at a 1-degree scale combined into one file. Remer et al. [62] provided international validation of Collection 004 (C004) product over both land and ocean (compared to AERONET) and reported the expected error bars of AOD values as τpλ = ± 0.05 ± 0.15τpλ over land, where τpλ is the AOD value retrieved from the intensity measured at ground. The updated C005 algorithm rule has to be valid, to account for native biases. The aerosol properties contained among the lookup table (LUT) has to be updated for as many ground measuring sites as possible, to improve the accuracy of the retrieved AOD [31].
The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) is a space-borne spectrometer, which has global coverage on a daily basis with a spatial resolution of 13 × 24 km at nadir. This instrument measures reflected and backscattered solar radiation in UV-visible spectrum (from 250 to 500 nm). Absorbing aerosol index (AAI) or simply aerosol index (AI) is obtained from OMI (
The AI is expressed in the following equation:
ALER is the surface Lambert equivalent albedo which is dependent on wavelength. AI at 388 nm is obtained using λ1 (342.5 nm) and λ2 (388 nm) and is the residue between the measured and calculated radiance assuming Lambert equivalent reflectivity [32, 33]. Tthe presence of absorbing aerosols such as dust and smoke result in positive AI values (>0.2) and high negative values (<−0.2) represent fine non absorbing particles such as sulfates, while AAI values close to zero (±0.2) correspond to clouds or coarse mode non absorbing aerosols [34].
The magnitude of AI is influenced by parameters such as solar zenith angle, aerosol layer height, cloud reflectivity, and pressure but uncertainty/variability can be minimized through seasonal/annual averages [32]. Kascoutis et al. [32] observed that the exclusion of negative AI values may not lead to a true representation of the AI levels at a particular site.
Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6] observed that AOD values are observed to be lowest throughout the monsoon because of stronger upper winds, cloud scavenging process and rain wash out [35, 36]. Throughout the post monsoon, aerosols build up slowly and presumably undergo hygroscopic (absorptive) growth in water vapor (RH > 50%) resulting in increase in AOD. In the winter season, AOD exhibits a lot of variability, at first decreasing for the month of December and so steady increasing throughout January and February months. This will be attributed to substancial increase in CWC and temperature from December to January and February. AOD rises in its manitude from winter to summer. High temperature, in association with robust surface winds throughout summer plays a very important role in heating and lifting the top soil layer. This high convective activity and frequent prevalence of long range transport of dust from northwestern India cause increase in AOD throughout this season [37].
Figure 3 shows annual average Moderate Resolution Imaging Instrument (MODIS) Terra AOD550 over the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions. AOD is found to be significant (AOD > 0.7) over northwest, IGP, North east and other parts of India shows relatively less AOD (<0.45).
Annual average moderate resolution imaging instrument (MODIS) Terra AOD550 over the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions.
High AOD500 (0.64 ± 0.08) is observed throughout PMS. High temperature, in association with sturdy surface winds, throughout summer plays a vital role in heating and lifting the loose soil. The incursion of wet air either from the Bay of Bengal or Arabian Sea and/or operation of any trigger mechanism produce conditions contributing for the explosive convective development. This high convective activity and frequent incidence of long range transport of dust from northwestern result in increase in AOD throughout this season [36].
The monsoon typically advances over central India throughout the top of second week or within the third week of June and this can be characterized by severe weather activity i.e., heavy rain, thunderstorm etc. AOD500 values (0.38 ± 0.06) are determined to be lower throughout the monsoon season because of stronger higher winds, cloud removal and rain out processes [38]. The withdrawal of monsoon is characterized by the reversal of winds from South West to North East. During the post monsoon, aerosols build up slowly and possibly undergo hygroscopic growth in water vapor (RH > 50%) leading to increase in AOD500 (0.5 ± 0.02). The winter season is characterized by dry and cold weather. In the winter season, AOD500 is less (0.42 ± 0.15) compared to post monsoon season.
A temporal variation of columnar water vapor content (CWC) values for the period from July 2008 to June 2009 is reported by Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6]. Minimum columnar water vapor content value of 0.61 g/cm2 and maximum value of 3.26 g/cm2 is observed in the months of March 2009 and July 2008 respectively. There exists a well defined seasonal variation in CWC, with the maximum value during the monsoon months and minimum during winter months. Similar variations in columnar water vapor have been observed at other Indian locations [39, 40, 41, 42].
It is seen that minimum CWC happens wihin the month of March and starts increasing till July and remains high throughout southwest monsoon months (June–September). CWC starts decreasing shortly once the monsoon season ends from the month of October and then a secondary minimum happens throughout the month of December.
Very good correlation R2 ∼ 0.7 (R2 ∼ 0.5) is observed between RH (%) and CWC in summer and the monsoon (post monsoon and winter). This signifies the correlation between near surface and columnar water vapor amounts.
Seasonal variations of BC aerosol mass concentration showed high values, during the post monsoon (4.4 ± 0.9 μg m−3) followed by winter (4.2 ± 0.6 μg m−3) season and low values during the monsoon (2.4 ± 0.6 μg m−3) followed by pre monsoon (3.3 ± 0.6 μg m−3) season. The variation is shown in the form of bar chart in Figure 4.
Seasonal variation of black carbon concentration measured using an Aethalometer at Nagpur, during the year 2012.
The annual average BC concentration is found to be 3.57 ± 0.7 μg m−3 and this is 20% more than the value found for the year 2011. High values of wind speed (and total rain fall) during monsoon and pre monsoon seasons may be responsible for observed low values of BC mass concentrations. During winter and post monsoon low temperatures (which keep mixed layer height low), low relative humidity leads to observed high concentrations at the surface level.
The BC mass concentrations have been compared with the measurements reported from other locations in India. This value (3.57 ± 0.7 μg m−3) is lower compared to urban areas like Ahmedabad, Pune and much lower in comparison to urban and industrial locations like Delhi and Mumbai (Table 1).
Station | Location/environment | Period | Mean MBC (μg m−3) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Srinagar (34.06 °N, 74.78°E) | Northern India/urban | Jan 2013-Dec 2013 | 6 | [43] |
Darjeeling (27.03°N, 88.26°E) | Eastern India | Jan 2010 to Dec 2011 | 3.45 | [44] |
Dayalbagh, Agra (27.23°N, 78.0026°E) | Northern India (Indo-Gangetic basin)/urban | May 2014 to April 2015 | 9.5 | [45] |
Kanpur (26.46°N, 80.32°E) | Northern India (central part of IGP)/urban | 8 January 2015 to 28 February 2015 | 4.06 ± 2.46 | [46] |
Ooty (11.4°N, 76.7°E) | South India (Western ghats)/ | April 2010 to May 2012 | 0.96 ± 0.35 (summer) 0.23 ± 0.06 (monsoon) | [47] |
Ahmedabad (23.03°N, 72.55°E) | Western India/urban | Winter | 11.6 ± 2.9 | [48] |
Mumbai (19.13°N, 72.91°E) | Western Coast/urban industrial | January to March 1999 | 12.5 | [49] |
Ananthapur (14.36°N, 77.65°E) | Southern plateau/rural (semi-arid) | August 2006 to July 2007 | 1.97 | [50] |
Hyderabad (17.47°N, 78.58°E) | South-Central India/urban | January to July 2003 | 0.5–68 (dry season) 0.5–45 (wet season) | [51] |
Kharagpur (22.5°N, 87.3°E) | Eastern coast of North India/industrialized | 2004–2008 | 6.50 ± 3.04 | [52] |
New Delhi (28.63°N, 77.17°E) | North India/urban industrial Southern | May 2001 to April 2002 | 17.9 (6.7–27.9) | [53] |
Trivandrum (8.5°N, 77°E) | Sothern peninsular semiurban/coastal | August 2000 to October 2001 | 0.3–5 | [54] |
Pune (18.53°N, 73.85°E) | Western/urban | January to December 2005 | 4.1 | [55] |
BC values reported by different authors.
In order to estimate mixed layer height (MLH), the raw data on temperature, pressure, relative humidity and geographical position (latitude, longitude and altitude) as a function of time at every 1 s, are filtered and regridded at 10 m regular interval. The top of mixed layer is defined as the altitude where the vertical gradients inθv exceeded 3 K km−1. The equations used and procedure to obtain MLH is explained in Ref. [16] hence not repeated. The mean mixed layer height values for PMS, SMS, PoMS and winter are found to be 3014 ± 1187, 832 ± 452, 1871 ± 506 and 1488 ± 706 m respectively, therfore showing the least values in monsoon season, highest values in pre monsoon and moderate to low values in post monsoon and winter seasons [16].
According to Ref. [16] the main conclusion from association of MLH with BC is a good association between MLH and MBC was seen during dry period of the year (winter and PMS). However, during wet period the association between MBCand MLH is low.
Annual mean variation of AAI for the year 2011 is shown in Figure 5. The positive values (>0.2) which represent absorbing aerosols such as dust is present in north western region (Thar desert region) and it extends even to IGP region though with less concentrations. Over Southern India the AAI values are negative indicating lesser influence of dust related aerosol particles.
Annual mean variation of AAI over India.
Monthly mean variation of AAI at Nagpur is shown in Figure 6. AAI values are highly positive (>0.2) during pre-monsoon months (Mar, April, May) indicating dominance of absorbing aerosols such as dust while highly negative (<−0.2) during Monsoon (Jun, Jul, Aug, Sept) indicating the presence of non-absorbing aerosols such as sulfates. During winter (Dec, Jan, Feb) the AAI values close to zero (±0.2) indicates the presence of clouds or coarse mode non absorbing aerosols.
Monthly variation of AAI at Nagpur.
Hareef et al. [56] analyzed the airmass back trajectories in association with forest fires for various seasons specifically, PMS, SMS, PoMS and winter. Analysis urged that in PMS, the air masses were started from the biomass burning regions, desert regions and also from marine regions. During SMS, as a result of the sustained south westerly flow of the monsoon winds, the air masses were largely of marine origin. Throughout the post monsoon season, the dominant air masses were started from north India, as well as transport of air masses from biomass burning, i.e., Punjab region. Throughout winter, the origins of air masses were set in eastern India and IGP region. Figure 7 shows example back trajectory starting at 09:00 UTC on 12 Aug 2012 at the Nagpur location.
Forward trajectories starting at 09:00 UTC on 12 Aug 2012 at the Nagpur location.
The geophysical parameters retrieved from satellites need to be validated against the ground measurements in order to understand the retrieval errors and to correct them accordingly. This validation exercise needs to be performed for different surfaces globally. Towards this, detailed validation of MODIS AOD products of different versions with distinct spatial resolutions by using the ground-based multi wavelength radiometer and MICROTOPS sun photometer has been performed by several authors over the Indian subcontinent (e.g., [57, 58, 59, 60, 61]). The studies found MODIS overestimating the AOD values during the summer and underestimating during winter. Hareef et al. [56] validated the MODIS aerosol product version C005 over the central Indian region where there is no validation exercise done so far. Authors found a high correlation of 0.75 observed indicates that the MODIS can capture the seasonal variability well, and a slope of 0.65 implies an underestimation of 35% lower AOD compared to sun photometer. In the MODIS AOD retrieval algorithm, by default neutral aerosol model (Single Scattering Albedo (SSA) ∼ 0.9) was set for a major part of Asia [62, 63] for different seasons in a year. Absorbing (SSA ∼ 0.85) or non-absorbing (SSA ∼ 0.95) models were applied in rest of the world. This is supported by the aerosol varieties determined in AERONET sites situated at different parts around the world and supported the condition that If either the non-absorbing or the absorbing aerosol occupied more than 40% of the pie, and the other occupied less than 20%, then the location was selected as the dominant aerosol type. In India, there is just one AERONET site (IIT Kanpur: 26.28°N, 80.24°E) situated inside the IGP region and aerosol varieties determined there is used in the retrieval of AOD for other locations. During PMS main aerosol types observed over Nagpur location, were UB and DD, however MODIS algorithm assumes neutral aerosol whereas there is a good proportion of UB is present that is of absorbing type. The absolute error between AOD measured (the sun photometer) to that of MODIS retrieved AOD is maximum (0.29) for this season. A decent variety of MODIS fire locations over central India and back trajectories additionally indicate that there is a transport from such places. This can cause underestimation of AOD, as for absorbing aerosols if the algorithm assumes the scattering aerosols, it will incorrectly assign a smaller AOD value to match calculated radiance with determined radiance resulting in underestimation of the AOD (retrieved from satellite). The Single Scattered Albedo for black carbon aerosols because of biomass burning is considerably not up to that of dust particles. This might be the rationale, whereas different authors reported overestimation of MODIS AOD compared to ground measured AOD, over this region, Hareef et al. [56] had observed the underestimation because of the significant amount of black carbon.
The authors concluded that the MODIS aerosol optical depth retrievals do not represent, accurately, true observations in central India, and therefore cannot be well applied there. This could be attributed to a complex nature of surface conditions and aerosol varieties and seasonal nature of surface reflectance and aerosol models over completely different ecological and geographic regions. Thus we recommend better absorbing type of model and conjointly embody seasonally dynamic changing land use/land cover options in central India for correct retrieval.
Hareef et al. [56] reported columnar water vapor (CWC) amount measured using a sun photometer over this region as typically in the 0.4–4 cm range. There exists a well-defined seasonal variation in CWC, with the maximum value during the monsoon months and minimum during winter months. Similar variations in CWC have been observed from other locations in India [5, 40]. The validation of gridded products (MODIS) is important as they are used for assimilation in numerical weather prediction and global climate models [64]. For this purpose, detailed validation of MODIS water vapor product is attempted. Validation of MODIS TERRA retrieved water vapor (NIR) with Sun photometer suggests 20% overestimation by MODIS with correlation coefficient 0.89, which has been attributed to errors due to turbidity or haze in the atmosphere.
This chapter presents the aerosol studies over Nagpur, a tropical station in central India. The main conclusions of the study are summarized as follows:
AOD showed highest value (0.64 ± 0.08) during the summer, while lowest during the monsoon season (0.38 ± 0.06).
There exists a well-defined seasonal variation in columnar water vapor content (CWC), with the maximum value during the monsoon months and minimum during winter months. Columnar water vapor (CWC) amount measured using a sun photometer over this region as typically in the 0.4–4 cm range.
Comparison of AOD (MODIS) and water vapor (NIR) (MODIS), with the sun photometer observations, indicates an underestimation of 35% lower AOD (correlation coefficient ∼0.75) and overestimation of 20% higher water vapor (correlation coefficient ∼0.89) respectively.
Aerosol transport analysis suggests during PMS, the air masses were originated from the biomass burning regions, desert regions and also from marine regions.
Seasonal variations of BC aerosol mass concentration showed high values, during the post monsoon (4.4 ± 0.9 μg m−3) followed by winter (4.2 ± 0.6 μg m−3) season and low values during the monsoon (2.4 ± 0.6 μg m−3) followed by pre monsoon (3.3 ± 0.6 μg m−3) season.
The BC mass concentrations have been compared with the measurements reported from other locations in India indicating the lower value compared to urban areas like Ahmedabad, Pune and much lower in comparison to urban and industrial locations like Delhi and Mumbai.
Seasonally the mean MLH values show the lowest in monsoon, highest values in PMS and moderate to low values in PoMS and winter.
AAI values are highly positive during pre-monsoon months, indicating dominance of absorbing aerosols such as dust while highly negative during monsoon indicating the presence of non-absorbing aerosols such as sulfates. During winter the AAI values close to zero indicates the presence of clouds or coarse mode non absorbing aerosols.
Most of the work presented in this chapter is carried out as a part of Aerosol Radiative Forcing Over India (ARFI) project of ISRO-GBP, author thanks Space Physics Laboratory for conceiving and executing such a wonderful project. Author thank Dr. Dibyendu Datta, Group Director, Climate Sciences Group, Dr. Sesha Sai M.V.R, Deputy Director, Earth and Climate Science Area and Director, NRSC for the support and encouragement towards this study. I am grateful to the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) for the provision of the HYSPLIT transport and dispersion model through their website
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
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\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
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\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
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\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
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\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
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\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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