Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
Colour provides a significant glimpse of our world. Everyday materials we tend to use different kinds of materials like - textiles, paints, plastics, paper, and foodstuffs. Colours make them most appealing. In summer there is a wild burst of colourful flowers and new leaves of various shades of green on trees [1]. However, in contrast, autumn makes the beautiful impression with green leaves turn to brilliant shades of yellow, orange, and red. Colour derives from the spectrum of light interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities the light receptors [1, 2].
A dye is nothing but a coloured substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is applied in an aqueous solution and needs a mordant to boost the fastness of the dye on the textile fibre. The pigment may be a material that modifies the colour of mirrored or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. Pigments are used for colouring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food and other materials.
Both dyes and pigments appear to be coloured as a result of absorption of some wavelengths of light more than others. However, there are some basic differences between the dyes and pigments
The major difference between the dyes and the pigments is that particle size of pigments is much higher as compared to dyes. Due to this small particle size dyes are not UV stable whereas pigments are UV stable.
Dyes after dissolving in liquid are absorbed on the material while pigments make a suspension with a liquid that bonds with the material surface.
Dyes are generally soluble in water while pigments are almost insoluble in water.
Most of the dyes are organic while most of the pigments are inorganic
Dyes are available in large number in the market while the number of pigments is very less.
Dyes impart colour by selective adsorption while pigments adsorb colour either by selective adsorption or by scattering of light.
Dyes are combustible while pigments are non-combustible.
Dyes have a short lifetime in comparison to pigments.
Over the years, man has used colouring matters, which are known as dyes and pigments, for their aesthetic qualities and used them to embellish various articles and the world in which he lived. Indigo, the oldest known dye, was discovered in India; Tyrian purple (or Royal Purple) was discovered in the ancient city of Tyre; Alizarin was discovered among the Turks; and Cochineal was discovered among European and Mexican dyers [3]. Indigenous dye-yielding plants have been discovered in almost every area of the world. The first synthetic dyes were found in the early twentieth century. Parenteral administration was not formulated until the 1930s: methylene blues and methyl violet, for example, were used to treat leprosy and filariasis, respectively [4]. Following World War II, the use of intravenous dyes for medicinal purposes decreased rapidly. Just a few dyes, such as patent blue V or fluorescein, are still used as diagnostic drugs today [5].
The textile industry now uses more synthetic dyes. Coal tar and petroleum-based intermediates are the two main sources of these chemicals. Powders, granules, pastes, and liquid dispersions are all available [6, 7]. Active ingredient concentrations usually vary from 20 to 80 percent. The textile dye segment is distinguished by the introduction of new dyes. These new dyes are produced on a regular basis to meet the demands of new technologies, new types of fabrics, detergents, and developments in dyeing machinery, as well as to address the significant environmental issues posed by some existing dyes [8, 9, 10]. With the rapid shift in the textile industry’s product profile, from high-cost cotton textiles to durable and flexible synthetic fibres, the pattern of dye use is also shifting rapidly. Polyesters now account for the majority of dye use. Disperse dyes, which are used in Polyesters, are expected to expand at a faster pace as a result. Textile dyestuffs may be grouped into the following groups for better comprehension if general dye chemistry is used as one of the classification criteria as acid dyes, direct dyes, azoic dyes, disperse dyes, sulphur dyes, reactive dyes, basic dyes, oxidation dyes, mordant dyes (chrome dyes) and vat dyes [11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
2. Historical background of dyes and pigments
In the ancient age usually used all the dyes were natural. Some of the natural dyes used in ancient age were alizarin and indigo. Indigo is probably the oldest known dye obtained from the leaves of dyers woad herb Isatis tinctoria, and the indigo plant Indigofera tinctoria [16]. Early dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral sources, with no to very little processing. The first synthetic dye, mauve, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856. The discovery of mauveine started a surge in synthetic dyes and inorganic chemistry in general.
Artists invented the first pigments—a combination of soil, animal fat, burnt charcoal, and chalk—as early as 40,000 years ago, creating a basic palette of five colours: red, yellow, brown, black, and white. In the early age man used earth pigments on cave walls such as yellow earth (ochre), red earth (ochre) and white chalk. Ochres are probably the oldest known pigments, which are coloured clays found as soft deposits within the earth [17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
2.1 Reason for the colour of a dye
Many theories have been given to correlate the colour of dyes with their molecular structure. In 1876, Otto Witt, a German Chemist observed that the colour of a dye is due the certain groups containing multiple bonds known as chromophores. Some examples of the chromophores are nitro group(-NO2), nitroso group(-NO), carbonyl group(-CO-), ethylenic bond(-C=C), acetylenic bond etc. As the number of chromophores increases for a dye, the colour of the dye also deepens [17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
He also observed that not only the chromophores are responsible for the deepening of colour but also there are certain groups which itself does not act as the chromophore but the presence of which deepens the colour of the dye. These groups are known as Auxochromes. Some examples of the auxochromes are -OH, -NH2, -NHR, -NR2, X (Cl, Br or I), COOH. 1,3-Dinitronapthalene (Figure 1) is pale yellow but the dye Martius Yellow (2,4-Dinitro-1-naphthol) is orange-red (Figure 2) [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Here group -OH is acting as the autochrome as the presence of it has deepened the colour of 1,3-Dinitronapthalene.
Figure 1.
1, 3-Dinitronaphthalene.
Figure 2.
2,4-Dinitro-1 naphthol.
To explain the origin of colour, Valence Bond Theory (VBT) and Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) are proposed in modern time. The vital difference between the VBT and MOT is that in VBT electrons are treated in pairs while in MOT electrons are treated singly [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22].
Valence bond theory (VBT): According to VBT, in the ground state the electron pairs of a molecule are in a state of oscillation and absorb a photon of appropriate energy and get excited when placed in the path of a beam of light. The wavelength of a photon of light adsorbed depends upon the energy difference between the ground state and the excited state.
Molecular orbital theory (MOT): According to MOT, whenever a molecule absorbs a photon of light, one electron is transferred from bonding (non-bonding) orbital to an anti-bonding orbital. Based on different type of electron present in a molecule, different types of electronic transitions are possible.
3. Nomenclature
The chemical names of dyes are very complicated hence trade names are more popular instead of their chemical names. From the ancient time humans have tried to extract the dyes from plants and other natural sources to colour their clothes and other belongings, such dyes are known as Natural Dyes. Indigo and Alizarin are two examples of natural dyes. As the natural dyes have very few colours and shades so now a day’s most of the used dyes are synthetic dyes having several colours and shades. Almost all synthetic dyes are aromatic and obtained from coal-tar [22]. Hence synthetic dyes are also called coal-tar dyes. Dyes can be classified by the following ways;
Based on their constitution: In this classification dyes are classified based on the functional group to which the dyes owe their colour. Some examples are azo dyes, nitro dyes, nitroso dyes, triphenylmethane dyes, indigoid dyes, phthalein dyes, acridine dyes etc.
Based on their application: The colouring of dye on a particular fibre depends on the nature of both the dye and the fibre. A dye molecule can be attached to fibre by following methods;
Covalent Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Van Der Waals Forces
Based on application dyes can be categorised as follows;
Acid dyes: The sodium salt of azo dyes containing sulphonic acid (-SO3H) and carboxylic acid(-COOH) groups are called acid dyes. To colour the fabric from these dyes the acidic solution of these dyes is used. These can be used to colour wool, silk, nylon and polyurethane fibres. The affinity of acid dyes for nylon is very high due to the higher protonation of the free amino group present in polycaprolactam fibres. Orange-I (Figure 3), orange-II, methyl orange and congo red are some examples of it [22, 23].
The dye orange I and orange II can be obtained by coupling diazotised sulphonic acid with α and β- Naphthol respectively.
Diazotisedsulphonic β-Naphthol Orange-I acid sodium salt
Basic dyes: Those dyes which are salts of coloured bases containing amino or dialkylamino group as autochrome is known as Basic dyes. These include triphenylmethane and azo dyes. Modified nylons and polyesters can be dyed with the help of these dyes [22, 23]. Some examples of basic dyes are aniline yellow (Figure 4), butter yellow (Figure 5) and chrysodine G (Figure 6).
Direct or substantive dyes: These are water-soluble dyes hence they can be applied to the fabric directly [22, 23]. Congo red and Martius yellow (Figure 7) are two examples of these dyes.
Disperse dyes: These are water-insoluble dyes and applied to the fabric in the form of a dispersion in presence of some stabilising agent such as phenol, cresol or benzoic acid. The two examples of disperse dyes are Celliton fast pink B and Celliton fast blue B [22, 23].
Fibre reactive dyes: These dyes contain a reactive group which combines directly with the hydroxyl or amino group of the fibre. As a permanent bond formed between the fibre and dye in this case so the colour of the dyed fabric is very fast and has a long life [22, 23].
Ingrain dyes or insoluble azo dyes: These constitute about 60% of total dyes used. These dyes are obtained by the coupling of phenols, naphthols, arylamines, aminophenols. These dyes are adsorbed only on the surface of the fabric, colouring by this dye is not so fast. These can be used to dye cellulose, silk, nylon and leather [22, 23]. Para red (Figure 8) is an example of such a class of dye. Para red (Figure 8) dye can be prepared as follow:
These dyes are also used in foodstuffs, cosmetics, drugs and as an indicator in chemical analysis.
Vat dyes: Vat dyes are insoluble in water so they cannot be used directly for dyeing. They are first reduced to soluble colourless form (leuco form) with a reducing agent such as an alkaline solution of sodium hydrosulphite. Under these conditions, the leucoform develops an affinity for cellulose fibres [22, 23]. Hence these dyes are mainly used to dye cotton fibre. The example of vat dyes is indigo (Figure 9).
Mordant dyes: Those dyes which do not bind directly but require a mordant to dye the fabric directly come under this category. The mordant act as the binding agent between the fibre and the dye.
Figure 3.
Orange-I.
Figure 4.
Aniline yellow.
Figure 5.
Butter yellow.
Figure 6.
Chrysodine G.
Figure 7.
Martius yellow.
Figure 8.
Para red.
Figure 9.
Indigo or Indigotin (Leuco form).
Metal ions are used as mordants for the acid dyes while tannic acid is used as the mordant for basic dyes. The desired fabric is first soaked in the suitable metal salt and then this soaked fibre is dipped in the solution of dye when insoluble coloured complexes formed on the fabric. These insoluble coloured complexes are called lakes [22, 23]. So, the metal ions first get attached to the fabric and then the dye molecules are linked to the metal ion through covalent and or coordinate bond (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Alizarin-aluminium fibre complex (rose red lake).
4. Classification of dyes based on their constitution
4.1 Azo dyes
These dyes constitute the largest part of the synthetic dyes. The chromophore of the azo dyes is aromatic system joined to the azo group and auxochromes are NH2, NR2, OH.
Azo dyes are classified as the number of azo group in the molecule such as monoazo, diazo and triazole etc. The characteristic of two important azo dyes methyl orange (Figure 11) and congo red can be described as follows:
Figure 11.
Methyl Orange.
4.1.1 Methyl orange
It is obtained by coupling of N, N-dimethylaniline with diazotised sulphanilic acid.
Properties: Methyl orange is a colouring dye for the wool and silk but its colour fades on the exposure to the light and washing. Usually, it is not used as a dye but used as an indicator in the acid–base titrations. The pH range of methyl orange is 3.1–4.4. It is yellow in basic solutions (above pH 4.4) while red in acidic solutions (below pH 3.1) [24, 25, 26]. The colour change takes place because of the change in the structure of ions in acidic and basic medium. In acidic medium, the ion contains p-quinonoid chromophore while in basic medium ion contains azo chromophore (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Red (acidic medium) yellow (basic medium).
4.1.2 Congo red
Congo red (Figure 13) is the example of diazo dye as it contains two azo groups. It is obtained by the coupling of tetrazotised benzidine with two molecules of napthionic acid (4-aminonapthalene-1-sulphonic acid).
Figure 13.
Congo red.
Properties: it is a direct dye and sodium salt of this dye gives red colour on the applied cotton. As on addition of acid, its colour changes so it is also not used as a dye generally. Mostly it is used as an indicator. It is blue in acidic solution (below pH 3) and red in solutions (above pH 3). The change in colour from red to blue in the acidic solution is due to the resonance among charged canonical structures.
4.2 Triphenylmethane dyes
These are the derivatives of -NH2, -NR2, and -OH groups in the rings. The compound obtained by this method are generally colourless and called leuco bases. On oxidation, these are converted to the corresponding colourless tertiary alcohols called carbinol bases. These carbinol bases readily change from the colourless benzenoid form to the coloured quinonoid forms in the presence of acids due to salt formation, which is known to be dye [26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. The structure and properties of two important triphenylmethane dyes can be discussed as follows;
4.2.1 Malachite green
It is used for dying wool and silk directly and cotton mordanted with tannin. The colour of it fades slowly on the addition of acid and base (Figure 14).
Figure 14.
Malachite green.
4.2.2 Crystal violet
A weakly acidic solution of it is purple, a strongly acidic solution is green and still more acidic solution is yellow (Figure 15).
Figure 15.
Crystal violet.
4.3 Phthalein dyes
4.3.1 Phenolphthalein
It is insoluble in water but dissolves in alkalies to form a deep red solution. When an excess of strong alkali is added, the solution of phenolphthalein becomes colourless again. Because of the colour change, it is used as an indicator in acid–base titrations. It is also a powerful laxative (Figure 16).
Figure 16.
Phenolphthalein.
4.3.2 Fluorescein
It is a xanthan derivative. In properties, it more closely resembles phthalein dyes. It is a red powder insoluble in water. It dissolves in alkalies to give a reddish-brown solution which, on dilution, gives a strong yellowish-green fluorescence (Figure 17).
Figure 17.
Fluorescein.
4.3.3 Alizarin
It is one of the most important anthraquinone dye. It occurs in madder root in form of its glucoside called, ruberthyric acid.
On reduction with zinc dust, it gives anthracene. This implies that alizarin is a derivative of anthracene. It forms ruby red crystals, insoluble in water and alcohol but dissolves in alkalies to form purple solution, sublimes on heating.
It is a mordant dye, and the colour of the lake depends on the metal used. Aluminium gives a red lake, ferric salts give violet-black while chromium salts form a brown-violet lake. It is also used as a purgative (Figure 18).
Figure 18.
Alizarin.
4.3.4 Indigo
It is the oldest vat dye known. India is the birthplace of Indigo (Figure 19). A fusion of indigo at a low temperature produces anthranilic acid.
Figure 19.
Indigo.
It is a dark blue powder, with coppered lustre, m.p. 663 K. It is insoluble in water and most organic solvents. It is widely used for dyeing cotton. The quality of colour is excellent and is stable to light, washing etc. It is also used in printing inks [26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
5. Pigments
Those organic and inorganic substances which are widely used as surface coatings, employed in ink, plastic, rubber etc. to impart colour. A large number of pigments are used for commercial manufacture of paints.
5.1 History of pigments
Pigments are believed to be 3.5 lakh to 4 lakh years old. They have been reported in a cave at Twin Rivers, near Lusaka, Zambia. Blue pigment was derived from lapis lazuli. Pigments based on minerals and clays often bear the name of the city or region where they were originally mined. Synthetic pigments are believed to be introduced in early second millennium BCE. White lead 2PbCO3. Pb(OH)2 and blue frit (Egyptian Blue) also known as calcium copper sulphate CaCuSi4O10 are the two examples of early synthetic pigments [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
5.2 Classification of pigments
Pigments are mainly classified into two types:
White pigments
Coloured pigments
However, they may differentiate broadly into two category organic & inorganic pigments (Table 1) [23, 24, 25, 26].
S.No.
Organic pigments
Inorganic pigments
1.
Pthalocyanines, Quinacidrones, Dioxazenes, Napthols, and other pigments made in the lab are examples
Examples include phthalocyanines, quinacridones, dioxazenes, napthols, and other lab-made pigments
2.
Plants and plant products are the primary source of organic pigments
Topical cosmetics, as well as dirt, are used to make inorganic pigments
3.
Carbon chains or carbon rings are still found in Organic Pigment molecules.
Metal cations are present in an array shape with nonmetallic anions in the molecules of Inorganic Pigments. This arrangement prevents the pigments from dissolving in the solvent or the plastic.
4.
Organic pigments have a high index of refraction
Inorganic pigments have significantly lower values
5.
Organic pigments are transparent
Most inorganic pigments are opaque
Table 1.
Difference between Organic & Inorganic Pigments.
5.2.1 White pigments
They are of various types. The composition, properties and applications of some white pigments can be summarised as follows;
5.2.1.1 White lead {2PbCO3.Pb (OH)2}
The composition of the Lead Carbonate is 68.9% and Lead Hydroxide is 31.1%. It is used in the manufacture of paints.
Properties:
Easily applied
High covering power
Toxic in nature
Yellows badly on exposure to the atmosphere
Soluble in alkali and paints
5.2.1.2 Sublimed white lead (basic sulphate)
The composition of Lead Sulphate is 75%, Lead Oxide 20% and zinc oxide 5%. It is used in the manufacture of paints.
Properties:
High specific gravity and refractive index
Slow chalking out of the film producing a rough surface
5.2.1.3 Zinc oxide (ZnO)
The composition of Zinc Oxide is 100%. It is opaque to UV light and thus protects us from UV, prevents chalking.
Properties:
Brilliantly white having excellent texture
Causes no discolouration even in contact with CO2 gas
More durable in combination with white lead
5.2.1.4 Lithopone
The composition of lithopone is 28.30% zinc oxide and 72.70% barium sulphate. It is widely used for the cold water paints, traffic plants, floor covering and oilcloth industry.
Properties:
Extremely fine and cheap pigment
Good hiding power
Not as durable as white lead and zinc oxide
5.2.1.5 Titanium dioxide
It consist of TiFeO3, TiO2 (iliminite+rutile). It is widely used in paints, in paper and textiles.
Properties:
High capacity and hiding power
High oil-absorbing capacity
Spreading power is almost double as that of white lead
No tendency of chalking
5.2.2 Blue pigments
Ultramarine Blue and Cobalt Blues are the most widely used blue pigments. The composition, properties and applications of these can be summarised as follows:
5.2.2.1 Ultramarine blue
There are three varieties of ultramarine namely blue, white and green. It is used as bluing in laundering to neutralise the yellowish tone in cotton and linen fabrics. White Ultramarine Blue: Na5Al3Si3SO12, Green Ultramarine Blue: Na5Al3Si2S2O12, Blue Ultramarine Blue: Na5Al3Si2S3O12.
Properties:
Silicate skeleton have a potential influence on the colour
Colour is because S present is in the form of polysulphide.
5.2.2.2 Cobalt blues
The composition of cobalt blues is 30–35% Co3O4 and 65–70% Al2O3. It is used in the manufacture of blue paints, inks, carbon paper and carbon ribbons.
Properties:
Very expensive and are not used in paints for ordinary purposes.
5.2.3 Red pigments
These are one of the oldest-pigments. They are mainly used for inhibiting rusting of iron and steel structures. The composition, properties and applications of these can be summarised as follows:
5.2.3.1 Red lead
It consists of Pb3O4 and PbO, used for a primary coat on structural steel and in imparting red colour to the glass for making bangles.
Properties:
Bright-red powder with a high specific gravity
Excellent covering power
Inhibits corrosion
5.2.3.2 Synthetic iron (Fe3O4)
It is widely used in domestic paints, enamels, floors and paints.
Properties:
Has a dark brilliant colour
High covering power and tinting strength
5.2.4 Green pigments
There are two types of commonly used green pigments. The composition, properties and applications of these can be summarised as follows:
5.2.4.1 Chrome green (Cr2O3)
It is generally used as green pigments.
Properties:
High power of oil absorption.
It has disadvantages such as lack of brilliancy and opacity
5.2.5 Chromium oxide or guignet’s green [Cr2O(OH)4]
It is used as paint for metal surface and as non-fading green for washable distempers.
Properties:
Have high covering power
High corrosion inhibition capacity
5.2.6 Black pigments
They have good tinting strength and as well as high hiding power. The composition, properties and applications of these can be summarised as follows:
5.2.6.1 Natural black oxide
The composition of Fe2O3 is 94–95%. It is used in making paints for priming metal.
Properties:
Oil absorption power is 10–15 kg of linseed oil per 100 kg of Pigment
5.2.6.2 Precipitated black iron oxide
It is used in cement emulsions and water paints. It has a high hiding power.
5.2.6.3 Carbon black/furnace black
It is used in making waterproof paints.
Properties:
Increases the life of paints
Good tinting strength
Not affected by light, acids and alkalies
5.2.6.4 Lamp black
It is used in making black pigments.
Properties:
Good tinting strength
Resistant to high temperature
5.2.7 Yellow pigments
The composition, properties and applications of these can be summarised as follows:
5.2.7.1 Ochre
It consists of naturally occurring yellow Fe2O3. It is used in the paint industry.
Properties:
Fast to light
Inert to chemical action
5.2.8 Chrome yellow
It is used in making yellow paints.
Properties:
Great opacity
High brilliance
High hiding power
High tinting strength
5.2.9 Toners
Insoluble organic dyes are known as tonners. These can be used as pigments, quite durable and have high colouring power. Various dyes such as para red, Hansa Yellow G (lemon yellow), Hansa Yellow 10G (primrose yellow) etc. have been used as toners in the pigment industry.
5.2.10 Metallic powders as pigments
The powdered form of some metals, as well as some alloys, are used as pigments. Finely powdered aluminium and bronze have been used as pigments in lacquers. Pigments containing finely powdered zinc have been used for protective coatings on iron and steel to protect them from atmospheric corrosion [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
6. Conclusions
This comprehensive chapter on structure and properties of dyes and pigments including some specific applications has been discussed. Moreover, recently the consumers have become very much conscious about the environment, renaissance of eco-friendly products and process like dyeing textiles with natural dyes, which has thus become also important now. Thus, revival of natural dye application on textiles and summary of earlier researches on standardisation of its method of extraction, mordanting, dyeing process variables and even natural finishing, etc. have been elaborated in this chapter. Thus this part has become a unique comprehensive chapter for information on structure and properties of dyes and pigments.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Structure, Colourants, Chromophore, Auxochrome",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76561.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76561.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76561",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76561",totalDownloads:795,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:37,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 30th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 8th 2021",datePrePublished:"June 11th 2021",datePublished:"July 21st 2021",dateFinished:"May 3rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Colour is one of the elements of nature that makes human life more aesthetic and fascinating in the world. Plants, animals, and minerals have been used as primary sources for colourants, dyes or pigments since ancient times. In our daily life, we know about many substances which have specific colours. These are the substances which are used as colourants i.e.; colour imparting species. Both dyes and pigments are coloured as they absorb only some wavelength of visible light. Their structures have Aryl rings that have delocalized electron systems. These structures are said to be responsible for the absorption of electromagnetic radiation that has varying wavelengths, based upon the energy of the electron clouds. Dyes are coloured organic compounds that are used to impart colour to various substrates, including paper, leather, fur, hair, drugs, cosmetics, waxes, greases, plastics and textile materials. A Dye is a coloured compound due to the presence of chromophore and its fixed property to the acid or basic groups such as OH, SO3H, NH2, NR2, etc. The polar auxochrome makes the dye water-soluble and binds the dye to the fabric by interaction with the oppositely charged groups of the fabric structure. Pigments are organic and inorganic compounds which are practically insoluble in medium in which they are incorporated. Dyes and pigments are the most important colourants used to add colour or to change the colour of something. They are widely used in the textile, pharmaceutical, food, cosmetics, plastics, paint, ink, photographic and paper industries. This chapter is devoted to the structure and properties of dyes and pigments.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76561",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76561",book:{id:"10203",slug:"dyes-and-pigments-novel-applications-and-waste-treatment"},signatures:"Ashok Kumar, Utkarsh Dixit, Kaman Singh, Satya Prakash Gupta and Mirza S. Jamal Beg",authors:[{id:"289139",title:"Mr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",email:"ashokkumar41016@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"347915",title:"Mr.",name:"Utkarsh",middleName:null,surname:"Dixit",fullName:"Utkarsh Dixit",slug:"utkarsh-dixit",email:"dixit20198@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"347916",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaman",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Kaman Singh",slug:"kaman-singh",email:"drkamansingh@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"352123",title:"Dr.",name:"Satya Prakash",middleName:null,surname:"Gupta",fullName:"Satya Prakash Gupta",slug:"satya-prakash-gupta",email:"stayparkashgupta@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Historical background of dyes and pigments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Reason for the colour of a dye",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Nomenclature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Classification of dyes based on their constitution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Azo dyes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.1.1 Methyl orange",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.1.2 Congo red",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Triphenylmethane dyes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.2.1 Malachite green",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.2.2 Crystal violet",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Phthalein dyes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.3.1 Phenolphthalein",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.3.2 Fluorescein",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.3.3 Alizarin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.3.4 Indigo",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Pigments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.1 History of pigments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.2 Classification of pigments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"5.2.1 White pigments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_4",title:"5.2.1.1 White lead {2PbCO3.Pb (OH)2}",level:"4"},{id:"sec_19_4",title:"5.2.1.2 Sublimed white lead (basic sulphate)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_20_4",title:"5.2.1.3 Zinc oxide (ZnO)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_21_4",title:"5.2.1.4 Lithopone",level:"4"},{id:"sec_22_4",title:"5.2.1.5 Titanium dioxide",level:"4"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"5.2.2 Blue pigments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_4",title:"5.2.2.1 Ultramarine blue",level:"4"},{id:"sec_25_4",title:"5.2.2.2 Cobalt blues",level:"4"},{id:"sec_27_3",title:"5.2.3 Red pigments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_4",title:"5.2.3.1 Red lead",level:"4"},{id:"sec_28_4",title:"5.2.3.2 Synthetic iron (Fe3O4)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"5.2.4 Green pigments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_4",title:"5.2.4.1 Chrome green (Cr2O3)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"5.2.5 Chromium oxide or guignet’s green [Cr2O(OH)4]",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_3",title:"5.2.6 Black pigments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_4",title:"5.2.6.1 Natural black oxide",level:"4"},{id:"sec_34_4",title:"5.2.6.2 Precipitated black iron oxide",level:"4"},{id:"sec_35_4",title:"5.2.6.3 Carbon black/furnace black",level:"4"},{id:"sec_36_4",title:"5.2.6.4 Lamp black",level:"4"},{id:"sec_38_3",title:"5.2.7 Yellow pigments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_38_4",title:"5.2.7.1 Ochre",level:"4"},{id:"sec_40_3",title:"5.2.8 Chrome yellow",level:"3"},{id:"sec_41_3",title:"5.2.9 Toners",level:"3"},{id:"sec_42_3",title:"5.2.10 Metallic powders as pigments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_45",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_49",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zanzoni A, Montecchi-Palazzi L, Quondam MX. Mint: A molecular interaction database. FEBS Letters. 2002;513:135–140. DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(01)03293-8'},{id:"B2",body:'Zanzoni A, Montecchi-Palazzi L, Quondam MX. Mint: A molecular interaction database. FEBS Letters. DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(01)03293-8'},{id:"B3",body:'Luque A, Hegedus S. Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley; 2011. 1132 p. DOI: 10.1002/9780470974704'},{id:"B4",body:'Tiwari SC, Bharat A. Natural dye-yielding plants and indigenous knowledge of dye preparation in Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India. Natural Product Radiance. 2008;7(1):82–87'},{id:"B5",body:'Rahman Bhuiyan MA, Islam A, Ali A, Islam MN. Color and chemical constitution of natural dye henna (Lawsonia inermis L) and its application in the coloration of textiles. 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The Journal of the Textile Institute. 2013;104(8):808–818. DOI: 10.1080/00405000.2012.758352'},{id:"B15",body:'Daberao AM, Kolte PP,Turukmane RN. Cotton dying with natural dye. International Journal ofResearch and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI). 2016;III(VIII):157–161.ISSN: 2321–705'},{id:"B16",body:'Luque A, Hegedus S, editors. Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley; 2011. 1132 p. DOI: 10.1002/978047974704'},{id:"B17",body:'Ceccaroli B, Lohne O. Solar grade silicon feedstock. In: Luque A, Hegedus S, editors. Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley; 2011. p. 169–217. DOI: 10.1002/978047974704.ch5'},{id:"B18",body:'Kajihara A, Harakawa T. Model of photovoltaic cell circuits under partial shading. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT \'05); 14–17 December 2005; Hong Kong. New York: IEEE; 2006. p. 866–870'},{id:"B19",body:'Solarex. 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In Freeman HS, Peter AT, eds, Colorants for Non-textile Applications, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 456–477'},{id:"B26",body:'Longstaff E. An assessment and categorisation of the animal carcinogenicity data on selected dyestuffs and an extrapolation of those data to an evaluation of the relative carcinogenic risk to man. Dyes and Pigments. 1983;4:243–304'},{id:"B27",body:'Maron DM, Ames BN. Revised methods for the Salmonella mutagenicity test. Mutat Res. 1983;113:173–215'},{id:"B28",body:'Prival MJ, Bell SJ, Mitchell VD. et al. Mutagenicity of benzidine and benzidine-congener dyes and selected monoazo dyes in a modified Salmonella assay. Mutat Res. 1984;136:33–47'},{id:"B29",body:'Weisburger E (1978). Cancer-Causing Chemicals. In LaFond RE, ed, Cancer — The Outlaw Cell, American Chemical Society, pp. 73–86'},{id:"B30",body:'Yusuf, M., Shabbir, M. & Mohammad, F. Natural colorants: historical, processing and sustainable prospects. Nat. Prod. Bioprospect. 7, 123–145 (2017). DOI:10.1007/s13659-017-0119-9'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ashok Kumar",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), India
Prasad Polytechnic Lucknow, Kanpur Road, Banthara, Sarai Sahjadi, India
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mirza S. Jamal Beg",address:null,affiliation:'
University Institute of Engineering Technology, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), India
Integrated Basic Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10203",type:"book",title:"Dyes and Pigments",subtitle:"Novel Applications and Waste Treatment",fullTitle:"Dyes and Pigments - Novel Applications and Waste Treatment",slug:"dyes-and-pigments-novel-applications-and-waste-treatment",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",bookSignature:"Raffaello Papadakis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10203.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-615-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-614-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-616-0",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"251885",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaello",middleName:null,surname:"Papadakis",slug:"raffaello-papadakis",fullName:"Raffaello Papadakis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"296"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"77175",type:"chapter",title:"Introductory Chapter: Dyes and Pigments - Past, Present, and Future",slug:"introductory-chapter-dyes-and-pigments-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:154,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Raffaello Papadakis",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"251885",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaello",middleName:null,surname:"Papadakis",fullName:"Raffaello Papadakis",slug:"raffaello-papadakis"}]},{id:"76890",type:"chapter",title:"Probing Solvation Effects in Binary Solvent Mixtures with the Use of Solvatochromic Dyes",slug:"probing-solvation-effects-in-binary-solvent-mixtures-with-the-use-of-solvatochromic-dyes",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ioanna Deligkiozi and Raffaello Papadakis",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"251885",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaello",middleName:null,surname:"Papadakis",fullName:"Raffaello Papadakis",slug:"raffaello-papadakis"},{id:"252046",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioanna",middleName:null,surname:"Deligkiozi",fullName:"Ioanna Deligkiozi",slug:"ioanna-deligkiozi"}]},{id:"75483",type:"chapter",title:"Dyes as Labels in Biosensing",slug:"dyes-as-labels-in-biosensing",totalDownloads:348,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hu Li, Yuanyuan Han, Haiyan Zhao, Hassan Jafri and Bo Tian",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"328317",title:"Prof.",name:"Hu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Hu Li",slug:"hu-li"},{id:"332401",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuanyuan",middleName:null,surname:"Han",fullName:"Yuanyuan Han",slug:"yuanyuan-han"},{id:"332404",title:"Dr.",name:"Bo",middleName:null,surname:"Tian",fullName:"Bo Tian",slug:"bo-tian"},{id:"332405",title:"Dr.",name:"Haiyan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",fullName:"Haiyan Zhao",slug:"haiyan-zhao"},{id:"341008",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Hassan Mujtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Jafri",fullName:"Syed Hassan Mujtaba Jafri",slug:"syed-hassan-mujtaba-jafri"}]},{id:"76485",type:"chapter",title:"Natural Dyes: From Cotton Fabrics to Solar Cells",slug:"natural-dyes-from-cotton-fabrics-to-solar-cells",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Indriana Kartini and Adhi Dwi Hatmanto",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"179563",title:"Dr.",name:"Indriana",middleName:null,surname:"Kartini",fullName:"Indriana Kartini",slug:"indriana-kartini"},{id:"351799",title:"Dr.",name:"Adhi Dwi",middleName:null,surname:"Hatmanto",fullName:"Adhi Dwi Hatmanto",slug:"adhi-dwi-hatmanto"}]},{id:"75235",type:"chapter",title:"Photochromic Dyes for Smart Textiles",slug:"photochromic-dyes-for-smart-textiles",totalDownloads:513,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Virendra Kumar Gupta",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"305259",title:"Dr.",name:"Virendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Gupta",fullName:"Virendra Kumar Gupta",slug:"virendra-kumar-gupta"}]},{id:"76188",type:"chapter",title:"Application of Smart and Functional Dyes in Textiles",slug:"application-of-smart-and-functional-dyes-in-textiles",totalDownloads:389,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Deepti Pargai",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"229144",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepti",middleName:null,surname:"Pargai",fullName:"Deepti Pargai",slug:"deepti-pargai"}]},{id:"74585",type:"chapter",title:"Applications of Metal Complexes Dyes in Analytical Chemistry",slug:"applications-of-metal-complexes-dyes-in-analytical-chemistry",totalDownloads:291,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mariame Coulibaly",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"230530",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariame",middleName:null,surname:"Coulibaly",fullName:"Mariame Coulibaly",slug:"mariame-coulibaly"}]},{id:"76561",type:"chapter",title:"Structure and Properties of Dyes and Pigments",slug:"structure-and-properties-of-dyes-and-pigments",totalDownloads:795,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Ashok Kumar, Utkarsh Dixit, Kaman Singh, Satya Prakash Gupta and Mirza S. 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Prof Awwad has edited four books (Uranium, New trends in Nuclear Sciences, Lanthanides, and Nuclear Power Plants) and he has co-edited two books (Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments and Biochemical Analysis Tools). He has also published 205 papers at ISI journals. He has supervised 4 Ph.D. and 18 MSc students in the field of radioactive and wastewater treatment. He has participated in 26 international conferences in South Korea, the USA, Lebanon, KSA, and Egypt. He has reviewed 2 Ph.D. and 15 MSc theses. He participated in 10 big projects with KACST at KSA and Sandia National Labs in the USA. He is a member of the Arab Society of Forensic Sciences and Forensic Medicine. He is a permanent member of the American Chemical Society, and a rapporteur of the Permanent Committee for Nuclear and Radiological Protection at KKU. 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1. Introduction
Over the last decade, the use of games for purposes outside of entertainment has grown in both research and industry, leading to discrepancies in conceptual definitions, use cases, and evidence-based benefits [1, 2, 3, 4]. An increase in recent research literature reviews and meta-analyses on the topic of game-based interventions emphasizes the wealth of research being conducted in this area [5, 6]. However, game-developers have quickly capitalized on the widespread interest and often market game-based interventions in ways that are not always empirically tested with evidence for their publicized use [7]. In this chapter we aim to provide clarity on this topic by first reviewing important terminology, second discussing applications of games for instruction, and third exploring applications of games for assessment. Then we focus on the rise of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games for both instructional and assessment purposes. We close by highlighting the authors’ research from four studies focused on comparing COTS games to traditional assessments.
1.1 Important terminology
In this chapter, we use the term game-based intervention to speak broadly of game-like experiences and the ways they are applied for non-entertainment purposes such as education or evaluation. Within this broad conceptualization, there are several important terms: game-based learning (GBL), game-based assessment (GBA), gameful design, gamification, and COTS games. GBL, also referred to as serious games [8] occurs when a game is used for the primary purpose of learning [2]. Similarly, GBAs are evaluations that take place within the context of a game expressly designed to identify specific skills, traits, or behaviors [9]. In contrast, gameful design and gamification are design strategies which incorporate game elements into new or existing assessments respectively; typically for the purpose of engaging and motivating individuals [2, 9]. Thus, a thorough understanding of game design is requisite to the development of effective GBLs and GBAs as these interventions use the full suite of game attributes. For example, see [1] for a taxonomy of game attributes. As a result, developing GBL and GBAs entails considerably more expertise and resources compared to incorporating game elements through gamification or gameful design. A potential solution to the resource-heavy nature of game development is the utilization of COTS games. Designed by game developers, COTS are most commonly designed for entertainment purposes and are available for purchase by a vendor and can be used almost immediately after purchase [10, 11]. COTS games offer a reasonable alternative to the time and resource intensive commitment to develop one’s own games [12, 13]. GBL, GBA, and COTS games are explored in more detail in the following sections.
1.2 Game-based learning (GBL)
Games have been used to stimulate student learning by attracting students’ attention through increased motivation [14]. Additionally, researchers and practitioners have shown increasing interest in alternative instructional methods, which emphasize a more active learner role [8]. Combined with the increasing growth of interactive technologies, this provides a unique opportunity to explore learning environments which involve students in their own learning process, such as the gamification of learning content and using a GBL solution [15]. In contrast with traditional learning methods, educational games have shown a positive relationship with the thinking skills of learners and can improve learner motivation [16, 17]. Considering the ways that GBL solutions can present learning experiences in a motivating way to students, using games for learning could feasibly increase student engagement and in turn have the potential to improve the academic performance of students [18, 19, 20].
1.3 Game-based assessment (GBA)
GBAs are designed to measure knowledge, skills, or abilities (KSAs) within the context of the game [21, 22, 23]. They are defined as evaluations that use game elements to immerse the individual in a specific game environment, allowing them to interact with it, and demonstrate the desired KSA [2]. Importantly, GBAs typically use game activities as tasks to generate evidence of complex skills [24]. Using a GBA with strong psychometric evidence (e.g., reliability and validity evidence for the intended use) has the potential to provide a number of benefits. Some researchers have proposed that GBAs might be designed to generate positive outcomes in test-takers such as reduced test anxiety, challenges faking, and measuring more behavior-based measures [3, 7, 8, 9, 16, 25, 26]. In the context of work, some researchers have referred to GBA as “an assessment method in which job candidates are players participating in a core gameplay loop while trait information is inferred” [9].
While traditional assessments use participants’ responses to textual or graphic prompts to collect data about their knowledge, skills, and abilities, GBAs gather this data based on the test-taker’s in-game behaviors [27]. These behaviors can be a range of information such as overt information like a choice a player makes when faced with a discrete decision in a game. A theory-driven assessment often focuses on a theoretical research model to build the design and intention of the evaluative components into the assessment. These components may lead to a narrative or series of decisions around targeted behaviors related to the variable being assessed. An alternative to a theory-driven approach are games built using a data-driven approach where minor behaviors during the gameplay are used to predict the outcomes of interest. A data-driven GBA is not built with a targeted construct and measurement in mind [28, 29, 30] but can empirically measure a construct using trace data such as mouse clicks, movements, interactions with objects in games, or time spent on a task [28]. This trace data can be collected automatically by a game and has been shown to demonstrate meaningful information with regards to assessing player information [28]. Either type of GBA changes how assessments are traditionally measured, but holds onto the psychometric properties within the game to evaluate a variety of KSAs [9, 31].
There are several benefits regarding GBAs that make them particularly appealing to organizations who might use them for personnel selection. One of these is the suggestion that GBAs might be able to predict job performance beyond traditional selection methods [16, 32]. Given the longstanding concern of applicant faking, the potential to reduce socially desirable responses are another benefit that GBAs may provide to organizational assessments [16, 32]. Since GBAs can be designed to measure traits and behaviors indirectly, this has the potential to obscure the purpose of the assessment which could in turn make it more challenging for candidates to identify the variable being assessed and what a good answer would look like [32]. A last benefit that may be of particular interest to organizations is that GBAs have been shown to reduce adverse impact compared with traditional paper-and-pencil tests [27, 33, 34]. Because of these benefits, organizations may want to consider investing in GBAs to evaluate different characteristics in the workplace, such as cognitive ability, individual characteristics, or job skills [27, 35].
1.4 Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games
Given the time, money, and expertise needed to develop game-based interventions, there are contexts in which it is more reasonable for researchers or practitioners to use an existing COTS game for their purpose rather than investing the time or resources into developing their own game [3, 27, 36]. However, a critical consideration when choosing to use a COTS game is that these games are rarely designed for the purpose they will be used for. Although a growing number of vendors are developing COTS games for learning or assessment purposes and having a growing body of evidence to support those games for those uses, in most contexts a researcher and practitioner will not have the option of a COTS game designed for the purpose they intend. This makes the consideration and selection of the COTS game to be used a critical step.
If a COTS game is being used for assessment or evaluation, the behaviors being displayed by the player must be measurable, either by a metric captured in the game or by an observable behavior that can be recorded by an observer. Additionally, the content needs to present a scenario in which the player has the opportunity to demonstrate relevant behavior to the variable being measured. For example, see the series of studies by [27] where VR COTS games were used for measuring spatial recognition variables.
If a COTS game were being used for a learning application, the game would need to present the relevant content that the player needs to learn. This includes presenting the information and ideally presenting a context in which the relevant information could be used or the intended skill could be practiced. It would be further valuable for the selection of the COTS game to avoid games with excessive information or components that aren’t relevant to the learning experience, also called seductive details [37].
Research on traditional assessments focuses heavily on the psychometric reliability and validity of the instrument [9], but empirical support for the psychometric properties of COTS games is still in its infancy. This lack of research of the efficacy and utility of COTS games for instructional and assessment purposes has led to the current series of studies which are intended to provide preliminary evidence on the use of COTS game scores. In these studies, we ask the following research question.
Research question:Will scores on COTS games significantly converge with traditional multiple-choice assessment scores?
Below we detail four correlational studies focused on the application of COTS games. We seek to better understand potential applications of COTS games as learning or assessments interventions by better understanding the similarity between scores produced in a COTS game to traditional multiple-choice assessment. Each of the COTS games in the studies below was carefully considered and chosen as it represents content that could be relevant to learners in a GBL context. Since the scores produced by COTS games are not intended for learning or assessment purposes, our question is general to understanding if these scores are meaningfully related to a relevant measure in these particular cases; scores on a traditional multiple-choice assessment in the same content area. We caveat that this evidence does not generalize to all COTS games and individual data would need to be collected and analyzed if a COTS game is being considered for a similar application. However, this series of studies does provide a general proof-of-concept that may aid future applications of COTS games.
2. Research series
Data from the first three studies were collected as part of other projects and analyzed for this research question. All four studies collected samples from undergraduate and graduate students from Universities in the Western United States, with approval from the associated Institutional Review Board. Each study reports demographic information, scores from the COTS game used, and scores from the multiple-choice assessment. An image of the COTS game used in each study is shown in Figure 1. Each multiple-choice assessment included four response options, one correct answer, and good metrics based on a pilot sample (i.e., reasonable difficulty between 0.30 and 0.90 and knowledge discrimination of r > 0.25). Each assessment was developed using research-based principles [37, 38]. Lastly, each study collected the participant’s tendency to play videogames using the Video Game Pursuit scale (VGPu) [39]. The scores on this 19-item measure are reported on a 5-point scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. This measure is used since researchers have proposed that a propensity towards playing video games may impact the results of videogame interventions [40].
Figure 1.
Images from the commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) games used in Study 1 (Quintet, top left), Study 2 (Arm Surgery 2, top right), Study 3 (PC Building Simulator, bottom left), and Study 4 (Car Mechanic Simulator, bottom right).
2.1 Study 1
Participants were 385 students; primarily female (51%) and Caucasian 73% with an average age of almost 19 years (SD = 1.72). In the study, participants completed a consent form, then an initial survey measuring demographic information and video game pursuit. Participants then played the assigned game for 20 minutes followed by a second questionnaire which included a multiple-choice assessment. The study concluded with a four-minute debriefing video.
2.1.1 COTS game
In the videogame Quintet, participants play as crew members of a spaceship (i.e., captain, helm, tactical, engineer, or scientist) who must work with a team to complete various science missions. Participants must learn their role and how to manage their responsibilities on the ship to earn points and meet the mission objectives.
2.1.2 Multiple-choice assessment
A 26-item multiple choice assessment was written for this study with questions linked to the specific missions, roles, and responsibilities in the game.
2.2 Study 2
Participants were 140 students; primarily female (69%), and mostly Caucasian (39%) or Hispanic (29%) with an average age of almost 24 years (SD = 4.85). In the study, participants completed a consent form, then played the assigned game for 15 minutes followed by a questionnaire with the multiple-choice assessment, demographic questions, and the measure of videogame pursuit. The study concluded with a short debriefing statement.
2.2.1 COTS game
The videogame Arm Surgery 2, takes place in a virtual operating room where players take on the role of a surgical doctor. The game begins with a tutorial, where a nurse guides the player through surgical techniques and medical instruments. Players then have to complete a surgery to repair a broken arm as quickly as possible with as few mistakes as possible.
2.2.2 Multiple-choice assessment
A 17-item multiple choice assessment was written for this study. All questions pertained to the surgical terms, tools, and procedures presented during the game.
2.3 Study 3
Participants were 100 students; mostly females (67%) of Caucasian (40%) or Hispanic (32%) descent with an average age of about 23 years (SD = 6.28). In the study, participants signed a consent form then reviewed an 8-page tutorial on how to play the game. Participants then played the assigned game for 30 minutes before completing a survey of demographic questions, videogame pursuit, and a multiple-choice assessment. Participants were then given a debriefing handout and dismissed.
2.3.1 COTS game
In the game PC Building Simulator, players take on the role of a PC repair shop owner. They must manage their shop by diagnosing and repairing computers to make money for their store.
2.3.2 Multiple-choice assessment
An 18-item multiple choice assessment was written for this study. All questions were related to the tasks and terminology used in the game for repairing PCs.
2.4 Study 4
Participants were 78 students; mostly females (70%) of Hispanic (27%) or Asian (28%) descent with an average age of about 23 years (SD = 6.28). In the study, participants completed a consent form then played the assigned game for 15 minutes. The study ended with a survey of demographic measures, videogame pursuit, and a multiple-choice assessment.
2.4.1 COTS game
In the game Car Mechanic Simulator 2, players take on the role of a mechanic to repair, paint, and tune cars in a garage. Their goal is to make money by repairing as many cars as possible.
2.4.2 Multiple-choice assessment
A 10-item multiple choice assessment was written for this study. All questions asked about the tools and types of repairs done in the game.
3. Research results
Results of the correlation coefficient analyses are shown in Table 1. These demonstrate that there are positive, significant correlation between the COTS game and multiple-choice assessments in three of the four studies; Study 1 r = 0.23, p < 0.01; Study 2 r = 0.27, p < 0.01; and Study 3 r = 0.36, p < 0.01; but not Study 4 r = 0.02, p < 0.05. This shows that in three of the four studies presented here, the score generated by playing the COTS game was significantly related to the score earned by the participant on the traditional multiple-choice assessment. These results are valuable for the area of COTS games because they show that when selected carefully, the scores produced in a COTS game might provide meaningful information for individuals wanting to use COTS games for learning or assessment purposes.
M
SD
1
2
3
4
5
Study 1
Sex at birth
0.48
0.50
—
Age
18.97
1.72
0.18**
—
Video game pursuit
2.64
0.99
0.62**
0.10*
0.94
COTS game
0.55
0.15
0.16**
0.04
0.14**
—
Multiple-choice assessment
0.56
0.15
0.29**
0.07
0.45**
0.23**
—
Study 2
Sex at birth
0.28
0.44
—
Age
23.75
4.85
0.14
—
Video game pursuit
2.16
1.01
0.60**
−0.12
0.91
COTS game
0.60
0.24
0.05
−0.26**
0.21*
—
Multiple-choice assessment
0.11
0.03
0.05
0.16
−0.01
0.27**
—
Study 3
Sex at birth
0.29
0.46
—
Age
22.49
5.61
0.15
—
Video game pursuit
2.90
0.55
0.59**
−0.13
0.91
COTS game
0.55
0.27
0.11
−0.16
0.22*
—
Multiple-choice assessment
0.71
0.16
0.09
−0.04
0.23*
0.36**
—
Study 4
Sex at birth
0.20
0.40
—
Age
24.04
6.85
0.29*
—
Video game pursuit
2.51
1.10
0.50**
0.10
0.93
COTS game
0.42
0.10
−0.02
0.03
−0.14
—
Multiple-choice assessment
0.55
0.25
0.06
−0.25*
0.30*
0.02
—
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics and correlations for Studies 1–4.
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. M = mean, SD = standard deviation, COTS = commercial-off-the-shelf. Sex at birth coded as 0 = female, 1 = male. The COTS game scores and multiple-choice assessment scores are percentages. Estimates of reliability are bolded along the diagonal.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this chapter was to provide information about the application of COTS games as game-based interventions. In the research series presented as part of this chapter, we sought to build upon a growing body of research literature on COTS games by showing the convergence between COTS game scores with traditional multiple-choice assessment scores on the same content. Overall, the research results answered our research question and showed that COTS game scores significantly and positively correlated with the traditional knowledge assessment scores in Studies 1–3 but not Study 4. Although a non-significant relationship was found in Study 4, we note that these results may be attributed to a limited sample size. Data collection was halted during Study 4 due to the onset of the COVD-19 pandemic and local laws prohibited in-person gatherings including the collection of in-person data which was part of this research protocol. Overall, these results suggest that when a COTS game is considered and chosen intentionally, that the COTS game scores may be reasonably similar to a traditional knowledge assessment score. We caveat these results by stating that these findings cannot generalize outside of these particular games and provide primarily a proof-of-concept to the consideration and use of COTS games. We encourage researchers and practitioners to collect and evaluate their own evidence for the COTS games they select and the intended application of those games.
4.1 Intentional game selection
The meaningful relationships between the COTS game scores and traditional assessments highlights the potential benefits of using game-based interventions. COTS games may provide viable solutions to learning and assessment contexts but must be considered carefully with the particular purpose of the game in mind. While some COTS games may demonstrate meaningful uses without being intentionally designed to do so [7, 9], it is important to note that not all COTS games will demonstrate similar results. Here we highlight the importance of selecting the right COTS game for the intended purpose. To avoid potential pitfalls of using a COTS game, individuals can prioritize the selection process by incorporating time for planning and review into the early stages of their project. Having a thorough understanding of the differences in game design and content is critical to selecting an appropriate COTS game for the intended purpose. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, learning and assessment are examples of two desired outcomes. To further illustrate how a COTS game could be reasonably connected to the end goal, we provide more detail about the content of the COTS games used in the series of research studies presented in this chapter.
4.1.1 Study 1
In the game Quintet, the primary content focuses on players learning their distinct responsibilities (i.e. the Scientist role can survey the surroundings while the Engineer role can repair and boost various functions) while learning to communicate and coordinate their actions with their teammates. Because the game missions require teammates to coordinate the timing of their actions, gameplay inevitably promotes active communication and collaboration between teammates. Teams will automatically perform better in meeting the mission objectives when they are actively communicating and coordinating their different actions.
4.1.2 Study 2
In the game Arm Surgery 2, the player is presented with factual information about specific surgical equipment and procedures. During gameplay, players are guided through several procedures where they have to select the correct tool and perform the correct action before the game can progress. Progressing through the game naturally promotes active attention towards these tools and procedures as players must monitor and maintain the patient’s health while performing their tasks to earn a higher score.
4.1.3 Study 3
In the game PC Building Simulator, players are responsible for their own PC repair shop. In order to improve their score, they must accurately diagnose the computer’s problem, order the correct parts, and repair or replace those parts before returning the PC to the customer. When players aren’t sure about particular parts, they can go to a guide to click on parts for the name and information on that part. For the gameplay to progress, players must continue to accurately identify and repair the defective components.
4.1.4 Study 4
In the game Car Mechanic Simulator 2, the player owns a car mechanic shop. Similar to the game in Study 3, the player must accurately diagnose the problem, order the needed parts, and replace those parts in the car. The individual can also go to schematics which will give the name and primary functioning of the different parts that will help them when trying to understand and diagnose a problem. Thus, gameplay naturally leads to improved understanding of the different parts of a car and their functioning.
Each of these topics are relevant to workplace learning and may present a relevant context for training or assessment. For example, in Study 1, participants must learn their role in the game but also communicate with members of their team, coordinate their actions, and effectively work together to meet the game objectives. In this instance, the participants cannot be successful together unless they work as a team. Although the environment of being in space does not present a typical work environment, players were actively engaging in workplace applicable teamwork skills. In contrast to this, the physical environment of the games in Studies 2–4 were relevant to the fields of their subject matter (healthcare, computer science, and automotive industry, respectively). As an increasing number of industries continue to consider and apply game-based interventions, the variety of different COTS game contexts becomes more relevant [41, 42, 43].
4.2 Low and high stakes contexts
While COTS games offer a reasonable alternative to the resource intensive commitment of developing a game, they do not provide the same precision and control compared to traditional methods, which can be an important component in some training and assessment contexts [9]. Because of this, it is important to only use COTS in particular contexts when this precision and control is not critical. Beyond assessing how the content of a COTS game is associated with the intended purpose, it’s imperative to consider whether the data will be used in a low stakes or a high stakes scenario.
High stakes scenarios occur when results could have a large, consequential influence on a person’s access to or receiving of resources. This means it might impact their pay, promotion, or selection into a program, course, or position. A low stakes scenario occurs when the results are used for general information given to the individual or for developmental purposes when shared with a larger institution. For example, using a game to assess applicants for a job would be high stakes. Whereas, using a game to assess high school students’ language skills to provide feedback on how to better prepare for college would be a low stakes scenario.
An additional consideration to distinguish high and low stakes scenarios is when a cost is associated with the service and when a claim is made with regard to the actual result of the intervention. For example, someone paying for a training course intended to improve their skills with a software is high stakes and should have evidence that this program improves the skills in individuals that it claims to improve. Similarly, if the program is free but it claims to improve the skill, it should still provide this evidence based on its claim. In contrast, if the program is a free game intended for entertainment purposes and does not make claims about improving cognitive functioning or other skill development then it is low stakes.
High stakes scenarios should be approached with extra care and use instruments or interventions with strong psychometric evidence on the reliability and validity of intended use. To this end, we recommend COTS games to be used primarily in low stakes scenarios. Given the degree of importance and variation that can occur in high stakes scenarios, control over a game or gamified experience is paramount so that any bias or unintended negative consequences can be reconciled. COTS games are typically used without the option to customize aspects of the game, hindering the ability to identify and rectify any pitfalls. Using established and rigorous science-based processes for the development of game-based interventions is especially important for high stakes training or assessment purposes. GBL solutions are best developed following empirical instructional system design (ISD) methodology while GBAs should follow standard assessment development and validation processes to demonstrate the psychometric properties of the assessment [9].
4.3 Recommendations for software developers
Given the results of this paper, it appears that COTS games have potential uses beyond entertainment purposes when selected with intention and applied thoughtfully. Below are recommendations for software developers regarding actions which might benefit a COTS game for being used for alternative purposes.
Firstly, software developers can make a variety of game metrics available to collect from gameplay as providing frequent and detailed feedback on performance is a key component of both training and assessment [44]. When games are used for training or assessment purposes, having detailed metrics (e.g., how long a player spent on a level, how many incorrect selections were made etc.) can be a helpful device. COTS games which provide a metrics sheet or summary of data would greatly aid in the game’s accessibility for alternate purposes. For example, many Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) and Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBAs) make detailed game metrics publicly available for players to view statistics of their own and other players’ performance to better understand and improve their future gameplay [45].
Secondly, when possible, it would help to have software developers create easily customizable options in their games that could increase the usability of the game for alternative purposes. For example, some games could add additional modes (e.g., single player, cooperative, or competitive modes) which allow for alignment with a greater variety of intervention purposes. Games could also provide more content related tutorials so players have the opportunity to learn about the context of the game in a tutorial rather than just learning through game mechanics. For example, a medical based game could provide specific information about tools, procedures, and different considerations when caring for a patient. Additionally, learning and assessment components can be an added benefit when thoughtfully integrated into other contexts such as educational settings [46].
Thirdly, when a game is naturally aligned to an area that might have potential for alternative uses outside of entertainment (e.g., game has content relevant to child or adult learning or the content might potentially assess a relevant topic area) it would help to have software developers seek input or feedback from potential users. This may include contacting educators to ask about particular features they would want in the game if they were to use it for learning or posting summaries of the game on online forums and asking for general ideas on how to improve the game if it were used for assessment purposes. Understanding, and marketing, the particular qualities and game characteristics that would be most beneficial for alternative uses would help in promoting the selection of the COTS game.
4.4 Understanding COTS games and modern technologies
Considering the rapid emergence of new technologies, it is relevant to consider how some of the most recent innovations in the gaming world might impact the results discussed here. New technologies such as XR and VR offer high fidelity experiences in contexts that can be created and customized for individuals to experience. The potentially high impact of these new experiences involves the degree of realism they create for the player. Several researchers have begun to explore these technologies and their potential uses for training and assessment purposes, highlighting the hyper realistic environment as a key feature that future researchers and practitioners can capitalize on [3, 27].
This realism can be a valuable training or assessment component of the game or experience for individuals. For example, if trying to teach medical students how to perform a particular procedure, it may be beneficial to have them perform this skill under a variety of conditions such as in a quiet, focused space but also in a loud, and busy space that might better replicate the environment of an Emergency Room. Using XR or VR, the procedure could be adapted to different scenarios, and embedded within a seemingly realistic ER environment that allows common sights and sounds from this experience to be included within the training session.
Similarly for assessment, it may be critical for an electrical engineer to be able to perform specific repairs on power lines and equipment. In XR or VR, these repairs could be assessed in an environment that emulates a heights scenario, where the participant truly feels they are at the top of a powerline. The sights, sounds, and sensations they experience can bring a sense of presence and embodiment that is difficult, if not impossible, to emulate in non-XR or VR environments. In short, it is clear that there are new technologies emerging that could further enhance the usability and application of future COTS games.
5. Conclusion
Research has demonstrated that some game-based interventions may provide benefits in learning and assessment contexts. As the research on game-based interventions continues to mature, more empirical evidence is being produced on how to design and implement games in a more impactful way [47, 48]. Game-based interventions have much potential [9], but game design can be resource-intensive, making COTS games an attractive alternative when the requisite time, resources, or expertise are not available for game development. In the focal research series, we sought to explore how COTS game scores converge with traditional knowledge assessment scores and found preliminary proof-of-concept evidence that in this context, three of the four COTS games demonstrated significant convergence with the respective traditional, multiple-choice assessment. Although these findings do not generalize outside the context of these particular games, they do provide a promising future to the further investigation of COTS games as viable solutions in low stakes instructional and evaluative contexts. Overall, we recommend COTS games within particular contexts where a well-suited game is chosen and encourage individuals to exercise intention in how the COTS games are used.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) game, game-based assessments (GBAs), serious games, game-based learning (GBL), instructional games, multiple-choice assessments",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81217.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81217.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81217",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81217",totalDownloads:40,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 15th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 27th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 11th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Despite the growing interest in utilizing commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games for instructional and assessment purposes there is a lack of research evidence regarding COTS games for these applications. This chapter considers the application of COTS games for instruction and assessment and provides preliminary evidence comparing COTS game scores to traditional multiple-choice assessments. In a series of four studies, we collected data and compared results from the performance in a COTS game to scores on a traditional multiple-choice assessment written for the purposes of each study. Each assessment was written to evaluate the same content presented in the game for each respective study. Three of the four studies demonstrated a significant correlation between the COTS game and the traditional multiple choice assessment scores. The non-significant value in Study 4 was likely due to a small sample size (n < 100). The results of these studies support our hypothesis and demonstrate that COTS games may be a useful educational tool for training or assessment purposes. We recommend that future research focuses on specific applications of COTS games to explore further opportunities for utilizing COTS in education and assessment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81217",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81217",signatures:"Diana R. Sanchez, Amanda Rueda, Leila Jimeno Jimènez and Mahsa Norouzi Nargesi",book:{id:"11192",type:"book",title:"Computer Game Development",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Computer Game Development",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Branislav Sobota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-565-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-564-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-566-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Important terminology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Game-based learning (GBL)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Game-based assessment (GBA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4 Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"2. Research series",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.1 Study 1",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.1 COTS game",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.2 Multiple-choice assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.2 Study 2",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.1 COTS game",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.2 Multiple-choice assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.3 Study 3",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.3.1 COTS game",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.3.2 Multiple-choice assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"2.4 Study 4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.4.1 COTS game",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.4.2 Multiple-choice assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"3. Research results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.1 Intentional game selection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"4.1.1 Study 1",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"4.1.2 Study 2",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.1.3 Study 3",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.1.4 Study 4",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.2 Low and high stakes contexts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.3 Recommendations for software developers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"4.4 Understanding COTS games and modern technologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_33",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bedwell WL, Pavlas D, Heyne K, Lazzara EH, Salas E. Toward a taxonomy linking game attributes to learning: An empirical study. Simulation & Gaming. 2012;43:729-760. DOI: 10.1177/1046878112439444'},{id:"B2",body:'Landers RN. 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San Francisco State University, San Francisco, USA
San Francisco State University, San Francisco, USA
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IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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ALPSP
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The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
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OASPA
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The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
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DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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Straive
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
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United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact
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The Compact is designed to inspire action among publishers. Launched in collaboration with the International Publishers Association, the Compact aims to accelerate progress to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. Signatories aspire to develop sustainable practices and act as champions of the SDGs during the Decade of Action (2020-2030), publishing books and journals that will help inform, develop, and inspire action in that direction. Learn more here
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River Valley Technology
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River Valley Technology is the world’s first XML-based publishing solution from submission to peer review to production and to final hosting, giving full control to publishers, with full transparency of data.
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Figshare
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Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data.
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OASPA
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The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
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COPE
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The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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Creative Commons
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Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
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Crossref
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Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
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\n\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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\n\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
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\n\n
Straive
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\n\t
Straive is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
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United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact
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The Compact is designed to inspire action among publishers. Launched in collaboration with the International Publishers Association, the Compact aims to accelerate progress to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. Signatories aspire to develop sustainable practices and act as champions of the SDGs during the Decade of Action (2020-2030), publishing books and journals that will help inform, develop, and inspire action in that direction. Learn more here
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River Valley Technology
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River Valley Technology is the world’s first XML-based publishing solution from submission to peer review to production and to final hosting, giving full control to publishers, with full transparency of data.
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Figshare
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Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Conventional heat-transfer fluids (HTFs) such as water, ethylene glycol, oils and other fluids are typically low-efficiency heat dissipation fluids. Thermal management is a key factor in diverse applications where these fluids can be used, such as in automotive, microelectronics, energy storage, medical, and nuclear cooling among others. Furthermore, the miniaturization and high efficiency of devices in these fields demand successful heat management and energy-efficient materials. The advent of nanofluids could successfully address the low thermal efficiency of HTFs since nanofluids have shown many interesting properties, and the distinctive features offering extraordinary potential for many applications. Nanofluids are engineered by homogeneously suspending nanostructures with average sizes below 100 nm within conventional fluids. 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Then, technologies for channel fabrication (ranging from photolithography and chemical etching, to imprinting, and to 3D-printing) are reviewed. The reference list is extensive and (within each topic) it is arranged chronologically. Examples (with emphasis on those from the authors’ laboratory) are highlighted. Among them, they involve plasma miniaturization via microplasma formation inside micro-fluidic (and in some cases millifluidic) channels fabricated on 2D and 3D-chips. Questions addressed include: How small plasmas can be made? What defines their fundamental size-limit? How small analytical plasmas should be made? And what is their ignition voltage? The discussion then continues with the science, technology and applications of nanofluidics. The conclusions include predictions on potential future development of portable instruments employing either micro or nanofluidic channels. Such portable (or mobile) instruments are expected to be controlled by a smartphone; to have (some) energy autonomy; to employ Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning, and to have wireless connectivity for their inclusion in the Internet-of-Things (IoT). In essence, those that can be used for chemical analysis in the field for “bringing part of the lab to the sample” types of applications.",book:{id:"6514",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics",fullTitle:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics"},signatures:"Vassili Karanassios",authors:[{id:"60925",title:"Prof.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Karanassios",slug:"vassili-karanassios",fullName:"Vassili Karanassios"}]},{id:"57228",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71002",title:"Thresholding Algorithm Optimization for Change Detection to Satellite Imagery",slug:"thresholding-algorithm-optimization-for-change-detection-to-satellite-imagery",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"To detect changes in satellite imagery, a supervised change detection technique was applied to Landsat images from an area in the south of México. At first, the linear regression (LR) method using the first principal component (1-PC) data, the Chi-square transformation (CST) method using first three principal component (PC-3), and tasseled cap (TC) images were applied to obtain the continuous images of change. Then, the threshold was defined by statistical parameters, and histogram secant techniques to categorize as change or unchanged the pixels. A threshold optimization iterative algorithm is proposed, based on the ground truth data and assessing the accuracy of a range of threshold values through the corresponding Kappa coefficient of concordance. Finally, to evaluate the change detection accuracy of conventional methods and the threshold optimization algorithm, 90 polygons (15,543 pixels) were sampled, categorized as real change/unchanged zones, and defined as ground truth, from the interpretation of color aerial photo slides aided by the land cover maps to obtain the omission/commission errors and the Kappa coefficient of agreement. The results show that the threshold optimization is a suitable approach that can be applied for change detection analysis.",book:{id:"6126",slug:"colorimetry-and-image-processing",title:"Colorimetry and Image Processing",fullTitle:"Colorimetry and Image Processing"},signatures:"René Vázquez-Jiménez, Rocío N. Ramos-Bernal, Raúl Romero-\nCalcerrada, Patricia Arrogante-Funes, Sulpicio Sanchez Tizapa and\nCarlos J. Novillo",authors:[{id:"213505",title:"Dr.",name:"René",middleName:null,surname:"Vázquez-Jiménez",slug:"rene-vazquez-jimenez",fullName:"René Vázquez-Jiménez"},{id:"213527",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Romero-Calcerrada",slug:"raul-romero-calcerrada",fullName:"Raúl Romero-Calcerrada"},{id:"213529",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocío N.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Bernal",slug:"rocio-n.-ramos-bernal",fullName:"Rocío N. Ramos-Bernal"},{id:"213530",title:"MSc.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Arrogante-Funes",slug:"patricia-arrogante-funes",fullName:"Patricia Arrogante-Funes"},{id:"213531",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos J.",middleName:null,surname:"Novillo",slug:"carlos-j.-novillo",fullName:"Carlos J. Novillo"},{id:"221412",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulpicio",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Tizapa",slug:"sulpicio-sanchez-tizapa",fullName:"Sulpicio Sánchez-Tizapa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53106",title:"Dynamical Particle Motions in Vortex Flows",slug:"dynamical-particle-motions-in-vortex-flows",totalDownloads:2278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Circular vortex flows generate interesting self-organizing phenomena of particle motions, that is, particle clustering and classification phenomena. These phenomena result from interaction between vortex dynamics and relaxation of particle velocity due to drag. This chapter introduces particle clustering in stirred vessels and particle classification in Taylor vortex flow based on our previous research works. The first part of this chapter demonstrates and explains a third category of solid-liquid separation physics whereby particles spontaneously localize or cluster into small regions of fluids by taking the clustering phenomena in stirred vessels as an example. The second part of this chapter discusses particle classification phenomena due to shear-induced migration. Finally, this chapter discusses about process intensification utilizing these self-organizing phenomena of particle motions in vortex flows.",book:{id:"5370",slug:"vortex-dynamics-and-optical-vortices",title:"Vortex Dynamics and Optical Vortices",fullTitle:"Vortex Dynamics and Optical Vortices"},signatures:"Steven Wang and Naoto Ohmura",authors:[{id:"186403",title:"Prof.",name:"Naoto",middleName:null,surname:"Ohmura",slug:"naoto-ohmura",fullName:"Naoto Ohmura"},{id:"187311",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"steven-wang",fullName:"Steven Wang"}]},{id:"67203",title:"Introductory Chapter: Swirling Flows and Flames",slug:"introductory-chapter-swirling-flows-and-flames",totalDownloads:1671,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"7409",slug:"swirling-flows-and-flames",title:"Swirling Flows and Flames",fullTitle:"Swirling Flows and Flames"},signatures:"Toufik Boushaki",authors:[{id:"101545",title:"Dr.",name:"Toufik",middleName:null,surname:"Boushaki",slug:"toufik-boushaki",fullName:"Toufik Boushaki"}]},{id:"53651",title:"Vortex Spinning System and Vortex Yarn Structure",slug:"vortex-spinning-system-and-vortex-yarn-structure",totalDownloads:5054,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Studying the yarn formation with the swirling air concept arouse of interest of the researchers for a long time because it appears to be easy to understand as a spinning principle. These kinds of systems are known as the vortex yarn spinning systems. The air-jet spinning methods have been developed since it is possible to eliminate the movable elements as the spindle and the traveler in ring spinning or the centrifuge in rotor spinning. The success of Murata vortex spinning (MVS) system which is the newest system after all studies of air-jet systems has been much acceptable especially for the spinning ability of 100% cotton in high speeds (500 m/min) and the yarn structure resembling ring yarn structure rather than rotor yarns. This study summarizes the historical background of vortex spinning, the spinning principle and the structure of the yarn spun on this system, as well as the factors influencing the yarn quality and finally the developments in vortex spinning technology.",book:{id:"6028",slug:"vortex-structures-in-fluid-dynamic-problems",title:"Vortex Structures in Fluid Dynamic Problems",fullTitle:"Vortex Structures in Fluid Dynamic Problems"},signatures:"Gizem Karakan Günaydin and Ali Serkan Soydan",authors:[{id:"186277",title:"Dr.",name:"Gizem",middleName:null,surname:"Karakan Günaydin",slug:"gizem-karakan-gunaydin",fullName:"Gizem Karakan Günaydin"},{id:"186607",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Serkan Soydan",slug:"ali-serkan-soydan",fullName:"Ali Serkan Soydan"}]},{id:"59009",title:"Thermal Transport and Challenges on Nanofluids Performance",slug:"thermal-transport-and-challenges-on-nanofluids-performance",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Progress in technology and industrial developments demands the efficient and successful energy utilization and its management in a greater extent. Conventional heat-transfer fluids (HTFs) such as water, ethylene glycol, oils and other fluids are typically low-efficiency heat dissipation fluids. Thermal management is a key factor in diverse applications where these fluids can be used, such as in automotive, microelectronics, energy storage, medical, and nuclear cooling among others. Furthermore, the miniaturization and high efficiency of devices in these fields demand successful heat management and energy-efficient materials. The advent of nanofluids could successfully address the low thermal efficiency of HTFs since nanofluids have shown many interesting properties, and the distinctive features offering extraordinary potential for many applications. Nanofluids are engineered by homogeneously suspending nanostructures with average sizes below 100 nm within conventional fluids. This chapter aims to focus on a detail description of the thermal transport behavior, challenges and implications that involve the development and use of HTFs under the influence of atomistic-scale structures and industrial applications. Multifunctional characteristics of these nanofluids, nanostructures variables and features are discussed in this chapter; the mechanisms that promote these effects on the improvement of nanofluids thermal transport performance and the broad range of current and future applications will be included.",book:{id:"6514",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics",fullTitle:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics"},signatures:"José Jaime Taha-Tijerina",authors:[{id:"182402",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:"Jaime",surname:"Taha-Tijerina",slug:"jose-taha-tijerina",fullName:"Jose Taha-Tijerina"}]},{id:"61556",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics: Science, Fabrication Technology (From Cleanrooms to 3D Printing) and Their Application to Chemical Analysis by Battery-Operated Microplasmas-On-Chips",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics-science-fabrication-technology-from-cleanrooms-to-3d-printing-and-the",totalDownloads:1874,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The science and phenomena that become important when fluid-flow is confined in microfluidic channels are initially discussed. Then, technologies for channel fabrication (ranging from photolithography and chemical etching, to imprinting, and to 3D-printing) are reviewed. The reference list is extensive and (within each topic) it is arranged chronologically. Examples (with emphasis on those from the authors’ laboratory) are highlighted. Among them, they involve plasma miniaturization via microplasma formation inside micro-fluidic (and in some cases millifluidic) channels fabricated on 2D and 3D-chips. Questions addressed include: How small plasmas can be made? What defines their fundamental size-limit? How small analytical plasmas should be made? And what is their ignition voltage? The discussion then continues with the science, technology and applications of nanofluidics. The conclusions include predictions on potential future development of portable instruments employing either micro or nanofluidic channels. Such portable (or mobile) instruments are expected to be controlled by a smartphone; to have (some) energy autonomy; to employ Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning, and to have wireless connectivity for their inclusion in the Internet-of-Things (IoT). In essence, those that can be used for chemical analysis in the field for “bringing part of the lab to the sample” types of applications.",book:{id:"6514",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics",fullTitle:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics"},signatures:"Vassili Karanassios",authors:[{id:"60925",title:"Prof.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Karanassios",slug:"vassili-karanassios",fullName:"Vassili Karanassios"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"224",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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